Write one computer word

Министерство
образования и науки Самарской области

государственное
бюджетное образовательное учреждение среднего профессионального образования

ТОЛЬЯТТИНСКИЙ
МАШИНОСТРОИТЕЛЬНЫЙ  КОЛЛЕДЖ

Методическая
разработка открытого урока

по
дисциплине «Английский язык»

на
тему: «Computers»

Тольятти
2013-2014 уч. год

«СОГЛАСОВАНО» Зам. директора по НМР __________С.А.Свитов _______________2013г.

«УТВЕРЖДАЮ» Зам. директора по учебной работе _________________  А.Н. Мазаев  _______________________ 2013 г.

Составитель:
___________Шашкина А.А., преподаватель
английского языка          ГБОУ СПО ТМК

Методическая
разработка по теме «Computers»
разработана
на основе Федерального государственного образовательного стандарта (далее –
ФГОС) по специальности среднего профессионального образования (далее — СПО).

Методическая разработка  предназначена для проведения открытого
урока по английскому языку среди студентов I-ого курса.

ГБОУСПО
ТМК,
2013

Пояснительная
записка

В
настоящее время компьютеризация прочно вошла в нашу жизнь. Компьютеры проникли
во все сферы экономики и народного хозяйства: промышленность, управление,
банковское дело, торговлю. Повышение уровня образования так же тесно связано с
использованием компьютеров, что и обусловило выбор темы данной методической
разработки. 

Методическая
разработка по теме «Computers
— Компьютеры» разработана на основе Федерального государственного
образовательного стандарта (далее – ФГОС) по специальности среднего профессионального
образования (далее — СПО).

Методическая разработка  предназначена для проведения открытого
урока по английскому языку среди студентов I-ого курса. Разработка содержит информацию направлению на
улучшение качества знаний в компьютерной сфере.

Цель
разработки состоит в формирование основ информационной культуры на уроке
английского языка. Основными задачами является:

1.   развить
интерес к английскому языку и информатике;

2.   углубить
и расширить знания по данной теме;

3.   научить 
работать с текстом;

4.   ознакомить
со специальной лексикой;

5.   развивать
навыки говорения, чтения, письма.

Методическая
разработка включает в себя тематический текст с выделенными новыми словами для
тренировки компьютерной терминологии. Точное и полное
понимание текста осуществляется путем изучающего чтения. Выполнение упражнений
после прочтения поможет закрепить новую лексику и знания содержания текста. В
конце разработки представлен тест из 10-ти вопросов для самостоятельной работы
студентов, также имеется список
используемой литературы.

Материал разработки позволит студентам овладеть компьютерной
терминологий  на английском языке и поможет, в будущем, использовать полученные
знания на практике (в работе), также методическая
разработка окажет действенную помощь преподавателям английского языка в
осуществлении межпредметных связей.

Technological progress

Computers

Pre-reading
task:

·        
Do
you have a computer at home?

·        
Do you use a computer at college? What
do you use it for?

·        
What programs did you use and why?

·        
What is the Internet?

·        
Do you use the Internet at home?

1.    Read and translate the text:

As
well as the hardware (= the machines), you also need software (=
the programs needed to work the machines). These programs are on disks, for
example: the hard disk inside the computer, or floppy disks
or on CD-ROMs (= Compact Disc Read Only Memory, a CD on which you can put a
large amount of information).

В       Operating a computer

Using the mouse, you can do a number of things by clicking on different
icons (= moving the mouse to point at different pictures at the top of the
screen).

С      What
do people use computers for?

1.   Many
people use their computers for word processing, for example:
writing letters and reports.

2.   A
lot of business people use spreadsheets (= a program used to enter and
arrange numbers and financial information) and databases (= programs which
allow you to store, look at or change a large amount of information quickly and
easily).

3.  
Some people also use graphics (= the
pictures and symbols a computer program can produce).

D      Important vocabulary

More and more people are becoming computer-literate
(= have experience of working with computers and know how to use them) as many
programs and machines are so user-friendly (= easy to use). You can now connect
your computer to computers all over the world using the Internet. People
send each other e-mail (electronic mail) messages using this system or network.

If your computer is slow it may need
more memory. It may crash (= stop working) if there is not enough
memory or if it has a bug (= a software problem; also a virus). Make
sure you make a back-up copy of your work (= an extra copy on a floppy
disk).

Exercises

1.   Add
another word, abbreviation, or part of a word, to complete common ‘computer’
words and phrases.

2.    Can
you remember what these symbols mean?

3.    Complete
this text about using a computer for word processing.

graphics (х2)     
printed     
computer     
down    
save
(х2)     back-up
(х2)      cut

I wrote a report on the 1) … this morning. When I finished,
I 2) …. out two copies — one for me and one for my boss. Then, without any
warning, the computer went 3) … and I’m afraid I lost the whole document. This is very
unusual because normally I 4) … the data while I’m writing and then make a 5) … copy when I have
finished; this morning I forgot.

Anyway, I gave the report to my boss, hoping that she would
not ask me to change it in any way.

She
did. She thought it was a bit long and said it would be better if I used more 6)
… to illustrate
some of the written information. She also thought it would make the report look
more attractive.

I went back and rewrote most of the report when the
computer was OK, only I 7) … part of

the
middle section which was rather repetitive, and I added extra … as my boss
advised.

It did look better by the time I’d finished, and this time
I remembered to 9) …   it and make a 10) … copy.

Check your knowledge!

Answer
the questions:

1.   
The programs needed to work the
machines are …

a)   
software                 b) hardware

2.   
The machines needed to work the
programs are …

a)
software                  b) hardware

3.    Using
the …, you can do a number of things by clicking on different icons.

a)    keyboard      
          b) mouse

4.    A
program used to enter and arrange numbers and financial information.

a)    spreadsheets    
        b) graphics

5.    A
computer program can produce the pictures and symbols.

a)    spreadsheets    
         b) graphics

6.    People
who have experience of working with computers and know how to use them are …

a)    computer-literate    
  b) literate-computer

7.    You
can now connect your computer to computers all over the world using the …

a)    another
computer        b) Internet

8.    What
is e-mail?

a)   
electrical mail              b) electronic
mail

9.    An
extra copy on a floppy disk is …

a)   
memory                         b)
back-up copy

10.    Bug
is…

a)    a
 hardware problem      b) a software problem

Answers to the exercises

1 Exercise

1    Software

2    a
word processor

3    floppy
disk

4    user-friendly

5    computer-literate

6    keyboard

7   
a computer program/programmer/game

8   
CD-ROM

9   
laser printer

10 laptop

11 spreadsheet

12 e-mail

2 Exercise

1   
cut

2   
print

3   
save the data in this document

4   
open a new document

5   
open an existing document

6   
copy

7    paste

3
Exercise

1   
computer

2   
printed

3   
down

4   
save

5   
back-up

6   
graphics

7   
cut

8   
graphics

9    save

10 back-up

Список
используемой литературы

1.       English Vocabulary in use – Stuart Redman. Pre-intermediate and
Intermediate. Cambridge University Press, p. 266, 1997

2.      
Мюллер В.К. Англо-русский и русско-английский словарь. – М.: Эксмо, p.698, 2008.

3.      
www.macmillanenglish.com

4.      
www.onestopenglish.com 

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In computing, a word is the natural unit of data used by a particular processor design. A word is a fixed-sized datum handled as a unit by the instruction set or the hardware of the processor. The number of bits or digits^[a] in a word (the word size, word width, or word length) is an important characteristic of any specific processor design or computer architecture.

The size of a word is reflected in many aspects of a computer’s structure and operation; the majority of the registers in a processor are usually word-sized and the largest datum that can be transferred to and from the working memory in a single operation is a word in many (not all) architectures. The largest possible address size, used to designate a location in memory, is typically a hardware word (here, «hardware word» means the full-sized natural word of the processor, as opposed to any other definition used).

Documentation for older computers with fixed word size commonly states memory sizes in words rather than bytes or characters. The documentation sometimes uses metric prefixes correctly, sometimes with rounding, e.g., 65 kilowords (KW) meaning for 65536 words, and sometimes uses them incorrectly, with kilowords (KW) meaning 1024 words (2¹⁰) and megawords (MW) meaning 1,048,576 words (2²⁰). With standardization on 8-bit bytes and byte addressability, stating memory sizes in bytes, kilobytes, and megabytes with powers of 1024 rather than 1000 has become the norm, although there is some use of the IEC binary prefixes.

Several of the earliest computers (and a few modern as well) use binary-coded decimal rather than plain binary, typically having a word size of 10 or 12 decimal digits, and some early decimal computers have no fixed word length at all. Early binary systems tended to use word lengths that were some multiple of 6-bits, with the 36-bit word being especially common on mainframe computers. The introduction of ASCII led to the move to systems with word lengths that were a multiple of 8-bits, with 16-bit machines being popular in the 1970s before the move to modern processors with 32 or 64 bits.^[1] Special-purpose designs like digital signal processors, may have any word length from 4 to 80 bits.^[1]

The size of a word can sometimes differ from the expected due to backward compatibility with earlier computers. If multiple compatible variations or a family of processors share a common architecture and instruction set but differ in their word sizes, their documentation and software may become notationally complex to accommodate the difference (see Size families below).

Uses of words[edit]

Depending on how a computer is organized, word-size units may be used for:

Fixed-point numbers

Holders for fixed point, usually integer, numerical values may be available in one or in several different sizes, but one of the sizes available will almost always be the word. The other sizes, if any, are likely to be multiples or fractions of the word size. The smaller sizes are normally used only for efficient use of memory; when loaded into the processor, their values usually go into a larger, word sized holder.

Floating-point numbers

Holders for floating-point numerical values are typically either a word or a multiple of a word.

Addresses

Holders for memory addresses must be of a size capable of expressing the needed range of values but not be excessively large, so often the size used is the word though it can also be a multiple or fraction of the word size.

Registers

Processor registers are designed with a size appropriate for the type of data they hold, e.g. integers, floating-point numbers, or addresses. Many computer architectures use general-purpose registers that are capable of storing data in multiple representations.

Memory–processor transfer

When the processor reads from the memory subsystem into a register or writes a register’s value to memory, the amount of data transferred is often a word. Historically, this amount of bits which could be transferred in one cycle was also called a catena in some environments (such as the Bull GAMMA 60 [fr]).^[2][3] In simple memory subsystems, the word is transferred over the memory data bus, which typically has a width of a word or half-word. In memory subsystems that use caches, the word-sized transfer is the one between the processor and the first level of cache; at lower levels of the memory hierarchy larger transfers (which are a multiple of the word size) are normally used.

Unit of address resolution

In a given architecture, successive address values designate successive units of memory; this unit is the unit of address resolution. In most computers, the unit is either a character (e.g. a byte) or a word. (A few computers have used bit resolution.) If the unit is a word, then a larger amount of memory can be accessed using an address of a given size at the cost of added complexity to access individual characters. On the other hand, if the unit is a byte, then individual characters can be addressed (i.e. selected during the memory operation).

Instructions

Machine instructions are normally the size of the architecture’s word, such as in RISC architectures, or a multiple of the «char» size that is a fraction of it. This is a natural choice since instructions and data usually share the same memory subsystem. In Harvard architectures the word sizes of instructions and data need not be related, as instructions and data are stored in different memories; for example, the processor in the 1ESS electronic telephone switch has 37-bit instructions and 23-bit data words.

Word size choice[edit]

When a computer architecture is designed, the choice of a word size is of substantial importance. There are design considerations which encourage particular bit-group sizes for particular uses (e.g. for addresses), and these considerations point to different sizes for different uses. However, considerations of economy in design strongly push for one size, or a very few sizes related by multiples or fractions (submultiples) to a primary size. That preferred size becomes the word size of the architecture.

Character size was in the past (pre-variable-sized character encoding) one of the influences on unit of address resolution and the choice of word size. Before the mid-1960s, characters were most often stored in six bits; this allowed no more than 64 characters, so the alphabet was limited to upper case. Since it is efficient in time and space to have the word size be a multiple of the character size, word sizes in this period were usually multiples of 6 bits (in binary machines). A common choice then was the 36-bit word, which is also a good size for the numeric properties of a floating point format.

After the introduction of the IBM System/360 design, which uses eight-bit characters and supports lower-case letters, the standard size of a character (or more accurately, a byte) becomes eight bits. Word sizes thereafter are naturally multiples of eight bits, with 16, 32, and 64 bits being commonly used.

Variable-word architectures[edit]

Early machine designs included some that used what is often termed a variable word length. In this type of organization, an operand has no fixed length. Depending on the machine and the instruction, the length might be denoted by a count field, by a delimiting character, or by an additional bit called, e.g., flag, or word mark. Such machines often use binary-coded decimal in 4-bit digits, or in 6-bit characters, for numbers. This class of machines includes the IBM 702, IBM 705, IBM 7080, IBM 7010, UNIVAC 1050, IBM 1401, IBM 1620, and RCA 301.

Most of these machines work on one unit of memory at a time and since each instruction or datum is several units long, each instruction takes several cycles just to access memory. These machines are often quite slow because of this. For example, instruction fetches on an IBM 1620 Model I take 8 cycles (160 μs) just to read the 12 digits of the instruction (the Model II reduced this to 6 cycles, or 4 cycles if the instruction did not need both address fields). Instruction execution takes a variable number of cycles, depending on the size of the operands.

Word, bit and byte addressing[edit]

The memory model of an architecture is strongly influenced by the word size. In particular, the resolution of a memory address, that is, the smallest unit that can be designated by an address, has often been chosen to be the word. In this approach, the word-addressable machine approach, address values which differ by one designate adjacent memory words. This is natural in machines which deal almost always in word (or multiple-word) units, and has the advantage of allowing instructions to use minimally sized fields to contain addresses, which can permit a smaller instruction size or a larger variety of instructions.

When byte processing is to be a significant part of the workload, it is usually more advantageous to use the byte, rather than the word, as the unit of address resolution. Address values which differ by one designate adjacent bytes in memory. This allows an arbitrary character within a character string to be addressed straightforwardly. A word can still be addressed, but the address to be used requires a few more bits than the word-resolution alternative. The word size needs to be an integer multiple of the character size in this organization. This addressing approach was used in the IBM 360, and has been the most common approach in machines designed since then.

When the workload involves processing fields of different sizes, it can be advantageous to address to the bit. Machines with bit addressing may have some instructions that use a programmer-defined byte size and other instructions that operate on fixed data sizes. As an example, on the IBM 7030^[4] («Stretch»), a floating point instruction can only address words while an integer arithmetic instruction can specify a field length of 1-64 bits, a byte size of 1-8 bits and an accumulator offset of 0-127 bits.

In a byte-addressable machine with storage-to-storage (SS) instructions, there are typically move instructions to copy one or multiple bytes from one arbitrary location to another. In a byte-oriented (byte-addressable) machine without SS instructions, moving a single byte from one arbitrary location to another is typically:

1. LOAD the source byte
2. STORE the result back in the target byte

Individual bytes can be accessed on a word-oriented machine in one of two ways. Bytes can be manipulated by a combination of shift and mask operations in registers. Moving a single byte from one arbitrary location to another may require the equivalent of the following:

1. LOAD the word containing the source byte
2. SHIFT the source word to align the desired byte to the correct position in the target word
3. AND the source word with a mask to zero out all but the desired bits
4. LOAD the word containing the target byte
5. AND the target word with a mask to zero out the target byte
6. OR the registers containing the source and target words to insert the source byte
7. STORE the result back in the target location

Alternatively many word-oriented machines implement byte operations with instructions using special byte pointers in registers or memory. For example, the PDP-10 byte pointer contained the size of the byte in bits (allowing different-sized bytes to be accessed), the bit position of the byte within the word, and the word address of the data. Instructions could automatically adjust the pointer to the next byte on, for example, load and deposit (store) operations.

Powers of two[edit]

Different amounts of memory are used to store data values with different degrees of precision. The commonly used sizes are usually a power of two multiple of the unit of address resolution (byte or word). Converting the index of an item in an array into the memory address offset of the item then requires only a shift operation rather than a multiplication. In some cases this relationship can also avoid the use of division operations. As a result, most modern computer designs have word sizes (and other operand sizes) that are a power of two times the size of a byte.

Size families[edit]

As computer designs have grown more complex, the central importance of a single word size to an architecture has decreased. Although more capable hardware can use a wider variety of sizes of data, market forces exert pressure to maintain backward compatibility while extending processor capability. As a result, what might have been the central word size in a fresh design has to coexist as an alternative size to the original word size in a backward compatible design. The original word size remains available in future designs, forming the basis of a size family.

In the mid-1970s, DEC designed the VAX to be a 32-bit successor of the 16-bit PDP-11. They used word for a 16-bit quantity, while longword referred to a 32-bit quantity; this terminology is the same as the terminology used for the PDP-11. This was in contrast to earlier machines, where the natural unit of addressing memory would be called a word, while a quantity that is one half a word would be called a halfword. In fitting with this scheme, a VAX quadword is 64 bits. They continued this 16-bit word/32-bit longword/64-bit quadword terminology with the 64-bit Alpha.

Another example is the x86 family, of which processors of three different word lengths (16-bit, later 32- and 64-bit) have been released, while word continues to designate a 16-bit quantity. As software is routinely ported from one word-length to the next, some APIs and documentation define or refer to an older (and thus shorter) word-length than the full word length on the CPU that software may be compiled for. Also, similar to how bytes are used for small numbers in many programs, a shorter word (16 or 32 bits) may be used in contexts where the range of a wider word is not needed (especially where this can save considerable stack space or cache memory space). For example, Microsoft’s Windows API maintains the programming language definition of WORD as 16 bits, despite the fact that the API may be used on a 32- or 64-bit x86 processor, where the standard word size would be 32 or 64 bits, respectively. Data structures containing such different sized words refer to them as:

• WORD (16 bits/2 bytes)
• DWORD (32 bits/4 bytes)
• QWORD (64 bits/8 bytes)

A similar phenomenon has developed in Intel’s x86 assembly language – because of the support for various sizes (and backward compatibility) in the instruction set, some instruction mnemonics carry «d» or «q» identifiers denoting «double-«, «quad-» or «double-quad-«, which are in terms of the architecture’s original 16-bit word size.

An example with a different word size is the IBM System/360 family. In the System/360 architecture, System/370 architecture and System/390 architecture, there are 8-bit bytes, 16-bit halfwords, 32-bit words and 64-bit doublewords. The z/Architecture, which is the 64-bit member of that architecture family, continues to refer to 16-bit halfwords, 32-bit words, and 64-bit doublewords, and additionally features 128-bit quadwords.

In general, new processors must use the same data word lengths and virtual address widths as an older processor to have binary compatibility with that older processor.

Often carefully written source code – written with source-code compatibility and software portability in mind – can be recompiled to run on a variety of processors, even ones with different data word lengths or different address widths or both.

Table of word sizes[edit]

key: bit: bits, c: characters, d: decimal digits, w: word size of architecture, n: variable size, wm: Word mark
Year	Computer architecture	Word size w	Integer sizes	Floating­point sizes	Instruction sizes	Unit of address resolution	Char size
1837	Babbage Analytical engine	50 d	w	—	Five different cards were used for different functions, exact size of cards not known.	w	—
1941	Zuse Z3	22 bit	—	w	8 bit	w	—
1942	ABC	50 bit	w	—	—	—	—
1944	Harvard Mark I	23 d	w	—	24 bit	—	—
1946 (1948) {1953}	ENIAC (w/Panel #16[5]) {w/Panel #26[6]}	10 d	w, 2w (w) {w}	—	— (2 d, 4 d, 6 d, 8 d) {2 d, 4 d, 6 d, 8 d}	— — {w}	—
1948	Manchester Baby	32 bit	w	—	w	w	—
1951	UNIVAC I	12 d	w	—	1⁄2w	w	1 d
1952	IAS machine	40 bit	w	—	1⁄2w	w	5 bit
1952	Fast Universal Digital Computer M-2	34 bit	w?	w	34 bit = 4-bit opcode plus 3×10 bit address	10 bit	—
1952	IBM 701	36 bit	1⁄2w, w	—	1⁄2w	1⁄2w, w	6 bit
1952	UNIVAC 60	n d	1 d, … 10 d	—	—	—	2 d, 3 d
1952	ARRA I	30 bit	w	—	w	w	5 bit
1953	IBM 702	n c	0 c, … 511 c	—	5 c	c	6 bit
1953	UNIVAC 120	n d	1 d, … 10 d	—	—	—	2 d, 3 d
1953	ARRA II	30 bit	w	2w	1⁄2w	w	5 bit
1954 (1955)	IBM 650 (w/IBM 653)	10 d	w	— (w)	w	w	2 d
1954	IBM 704	36 bit	w	w	w	w	6 bit
1954	IBM 705	n c	0 c, … 255 c	—	5 c	c	6 bit
1954	IBM NORC	16 d	w	w, 2w	w	w	—
1956	IBM 305	n d	1 d, … 100 d	—	10 d	d	1 d
1956	ARMAC	34 bit	w	w	1⁄2w	w	5 bit, 6 bit
1956	LGP-30	31 bit	w	—	16 bit	w	6 bit
1957	Autonetics Recomp I	40 bit	w, 79 bit, 8 d, 15 d	—	1⁄2w	1⁄2w, w	5 bit
1958	UNIVAC II	12 d	w	—	1⁄2w	w	1 d
1958	SAGE	32 bit	1⁄2w	—	w	w	6 bit
1958	Autonetics Recomp II	40 bit	w, 79 bit, 8 d, 15 d	2w	1⁄2w	1⁄2w, w	5 bit
1958	Setun	6 trit (~9.5 bits)[b]	up to 6 tryte		up to 3 trytes		4 trit?
1958	Electrologica X1	27 bit	w	2w	w	w	5 bit, 6 bit
1959	IBM 1401	n c	1 c, …	—	1 c, 2 c, 4 c, 5 c, 7 c, 8 c	c	6 bit + wm
1959 (TBD)	IBM 1620	n d	2 d, …	— (4 d, … 102 d)	12 d	d	2 d
1960	LARC	12 d	w, 2w	w, 2w	w	w	2 d
1960	CDC 1604	48 bit	w	w	1⁄2w	w	6 bit
1960	IBM 1410	n c	1 c, …	—	1 c, 2 c, 6 c, 7 c, 11 c, 12 c	c	6 bit + wm
1960	IBM 7070	10 d[c]	w, 1-9 d	w	w	w, d	2 d
1960	PDP-1	18 bit	w	—	w	w	6 bit
1960	Elliott 803	39 bit
1961	IBM 7030 (Stretch)	64 bit	1 bit, … 64 bit, 1 d, … 16 d	w	1⁄2w, w	bit (integer), 1⁄2w (branch), w (float)	1 bit, … 8 bit
1961	IBM 7080	n c	0 c, … 255 c	—	5 c	c	6 bit
1962	GE-6xx	36 bit	w, 2 w	w, 2 w, 80 bit	w	w	6 bit, 9 bit
1962	UNIVAC III	25 bit	w, 2w, 3w, 4w, 6 d, 12 d	—	w	w	6 bit
1962	Autonetics D-17B Minuteman I Guidance Computer	27 bit	11 bit, 24 bit	—	24 bit	w	—
1962	UNIVAC 1107	36 bit	1⁄6w, 1⁄3w, 1⁄2w, w	w	w	w	6 bit
1962	IBM 7010	n c	1 c, …	—	1 c, 2 c, 6 c, 7 c, 11 c, 12 c	c	6 b + wm
1962	IBM 7094	36 bit	w	w, 2w	w	w	6 bit
1962	SDS 9 Series	24 bit	w	2w	w	w
1963 (1966)	Apollo Guidance Computer	15 bit	w	—	w, 2w	w	—
1963	Saturn Launch Vehicle Digital Computer	26 bit	w	—	13 bit	w	—
1964/1966	PDP-6/PDP-10	36 bit	w	w, 2 w	w	w	6 bit 7 bit (typical) 9 bit
1964	Titan	48 bit	w	w	w	w	w
1964	CDC 6600	60 bit	w	w	1⁄4w, 1⁄2w	w	6 bit
1964	Autonetics D-37C Minuteman II Guidance Computer	27 bit	11 bit, 24 bit	—	24 bit	w	4 bit, 5 bit
1965	Gemini Guidance Computer	39 bit	26 bit	—	13 bit	13 bit, 26	—bit
1965	IBM 1130	16 bit	w, 2w	2w, 3w	w, 2w	w	8 bit
1965	IBM System/360	32 bit	1⁄2w, w, 1 d, … 16 d	w, 2w	1⁄2w, w, 11⁄2w	8 bit	8 bit
1965	UNIVAC 1108	36 bit	1⁄6w, 1⁄4w, 1⁄3w, 1⁄2w, w, 2w	w, 2w	w	w	6 bit, 9 bit
1965	PDP-8	12 bit	w	—	w	w	8 bit
1965	Electrologica X8	27 bit	w	2w	w	w	6 bit, 7 bit
1966	SDS Sigma 7	32 bit	1⁄2w, w	w, 2w	w	8 bit	8 bit
1969	Four-Phase Systems AL1	8 bit	w	—	?	?	?
1970	MP944	20 bit	w	—	?	?	?
1970	PDP-11	16 bit	w	2w, 4w	w, 2w, 3w	8 bit	8 bit
1971	CDC STAR-100	64 bit	1⁄2w, w	1⁄2w, w	1⁄2w, w	bit	8 bit
1971	TMS1802NC	4 bit	w	—	?	?	—
1971	Intel 4004	4 bit	w, d	—	2w, 4w	w	—
1972	Intel 8008	8 bit	w, 2 d	—	w, 2w, 3w	w	8 bit
1972	Calcomp 900	9 bit	w	—	w, 2w	w	8 bit
1974	Intel 8080	8 bit	w, 2w, 2 d	—	w, 2w, 3w	w	8 bit
1975	ILLIAC IV	64 bit	w	w, 1⁄2w	w	w	—
1975	Motorola 6800	8 bit	w, 2 d	—	w, 2w, 3w	w	8 bit
1975	MOS Tech. 6501 MOS Tech. 6502	8 bit	w, 2 d	—	w, 2w, 3w	w	8 bit
1976	Cray-1	64 bit	24 bit, w	w	1⁄4w, 1⁄2w	w	8 bit
1976	Zilog Z80	8 bit	w, 2w, 2 d	—	w, 2w, 3w, 4w, 5w	w	8 bit
1978 (1980)	16-bit x86 (Intel 8086) (w/floating point: Intel 8087)	16 bit	1⁄2w, w, 2 d	— (2w, 4w, 5w, 17 d)	1⁄2w, w, … 7w	8 bit	8 bit
1978	VAX	32 bit	1⁄4w, 1⁄2w, w, 1 d, … 31 d, 1 bit, … 32 bit	w, 2w	1⁄4w, … 141⁄4w	8 bit	8 bit
1979 (1984)	Motorola 68000 series (w/floating point)	32 bit	1⁄4w, 1⁄2w, w, 2 d	— (w, 2w, 21⁄2w)	1⁄2w, w, … 71⁄2w	8 bit	8 bit
1985	IA-32 (Intel 80386) (w/floating point)	32 bit	1⁄4w, 1⁄2w, w	— (w, 2w, 80 bit)	8 bit, … 120 bit 1⁄4w … 33⁄4w	8 bit	8 bit
1985	ARMv1	32 bit	1⁄4w, w	—	w	8 bit	8 bit
1985	MIPS I	32 bit	1⁄4w, 1⁄2w, w	w, 2w	w	8 bit	8 bit
1991	Cray C90	64 bit	32 bit, w	w	1⁄4w, 1⁄2w, 48 bit	w	8 bit
1992	Alpha	64 bit	8 bit, 1⁄4w, 1⁄2w, w	1⁄2w, w	1⁄2w	8 bit	8 bit
1992	PowerPC	32 bit	1⁄4w, 1⁄2w, w	w, 2w	w	8 bit	8 bit
1996	ARMv4 (w/Thumb)	32 bit	1⁄4w, 1⁄2w, w	—	w (1⁄2w, w)	8 bit	8 bit
2000	IBM z/Architecture (w/vector facility)	64 bit	1⁄4w, 1⁄2w, w 1 d, … 31 d	1⁄2w, w, 2w	1⁄4w, 1⁄2w, 3⁄4w	8 bit	8 bit, UTF-16, UTF-32
2001	IA-64	64 bit	8 bit, 1⁄4w, 1⁄2w, w	1⁄2w, w	41 bit (in 128-bit bundles)[7]	8 bit	8 bit
2001	ARMv6 (w/VFP)	32 bit	8 bit, 1⁄2w, w	— (w, 2w)	1⁄2w, w	8 bit	8 bit
2003	x86-64	64 bit	8 bit, 1⁄4w, 1⁄2w, w	1⁄2w, w, 80 bit	8 bit, … 120 bit	8 bit	8 bit
2013	ARMv8-A and ARMv9-A	64 bit	8 bit, 1⁄4w, 1⁄2w, w	1⁄2w, w	1⁄2w	8 bit	8 bit
Year	Computer architecture	Word size w	Integer sizes	Floating­point sizes	Instruction sizes	Unit of address resolution	Char size
key: bit: bits, d: decimal digits, w: word size of architecture, n: variable size

^[8][9]

See also[edit]

• Integer (computer science)

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

Minitest 1

Fill in the blanks with the correct words from Unit 1.

1.A superior c________ m___________ is special for Mac.

2.If you want to change a computer for your needs you should c________ it.

3.PCs have more powerful v____________ s_______________.

4.The most common PC operating system is created by a company named M_____________.

5.PCs work with a faster p___________ s___________.

6.Macs use operating system called ___ _____ _____.

7.W__________ is an operating system for PCs.

8.There are so many fonts used by the t__________ on this computer.

9.As they prefer the Windows OS they decided to buy a P__.

10.To improve the p_______ process install publishing software.

Minitest 2

Unscramble the words (1-10) and match them with their definitions (A-J)

1. einl ancdmom; 2. erfe weratfos necilse; 3. sutnodirtisbi xinul; 4. leramtin; 5. utbuntu; 6. loprotco pi/ptc; 7. sorvend; 8. acefierten;

9. pnoe fceifo; 10. epno cursoe.

A. a software that can be distributed with the same basic source code

B. a license that allows users to change and distribute programs

C. a collection of software for Linux

D. distribute products and software.

E. used to input command lines

F. has word processing and spreadsheet programs

G. Linux-based operating system

H. provides a way for a user to interact with a computer

I. a set of rules that determine how a computer connects to a network or the internet.

J. a word or a phrase that makes a computer perform an operation

Minitest 3.

Write a word that is similar in meaning to the underlined part .

1.The owner of the Dartmouth Enterprises didn`t want any small applications embedded in a webpage.

ap_l_ _ s

2.To streamline communication for the employees the head of the company included a shared file that can be used to spread information.

__ _c_ _o_i _ _u_l_t_n b_ _r

3.The product can work properly for a long time if it has high quality.

r _ _ _ a_ _ _ _ t _

4.A section containing any type of media used on a webpage, including images, animation and videos is really helpful for the clients.

m_ _ _ _ m_ _ _ _

5.We will convert all the images to a video format that is used to compress videos into smaller files.

_ _ _ G

6.A device that is used to play media such as videos and animations can be embedded in a webpage.

m_ _i _ _l _ _ _ r

7.The company keeps the employees up-to-date with new training requirements using a computer to train them .

_B_

8.They specialize in the use of a computer to design manufacturing facilities such as machines or buildings.

_ _ D

9.The head of the company required a helpful section with a list of common questions with the answers.

_ A _

10.All guidance will be done through the menus without a word, phrase or image that includes a hyperlink and can be used for navigation.

_n _ _ _ r

Minitest 4.

Fill in the blanks with the correct words and phrases from the word bank.

CPM, ad products , frequency capping, geo targeting, CPC, click-through rate,click tracking,above the fold, animated GIFs, hang

1.The banner doesn`t have a high ______________ .

2.Pricing named _____________ is a model wherein rates are charged according to how many people view the advertisement.

3.The use of _______ ________ prevents overexposure of the advertisements.

4.Any banner would look more attractive if its advertisements are created with the help of ___________ ____________.

5.If the price of an advertisement depends on how many clicks it receives the ______ tends to be expensive.

6.When the advertisement is located _______ ______ _______ it is visible without scrolling down after the page has loaded .

7.According to __________ ____________ studies animated GIF banner receives a larger number of clicks.

8.To avoid losing profits it is recommended to use __________ ___________ when showing ads in geographical areas where they are relevant.

9.A variety of advertising opportunities named ___ ____________ can be located on a website.

10.The majority of ads ___________ preventing a website from loading all the way

Minitest 5.

Match the beginnings and the endings of the sentences.

1. An integrated circuit could be bigger anyway	A. if the latency time on the machine were too long .
2.The company employs new embedded system	B.If it worked at higher speeds linking computers together.
3. The oscilloscope is	C. for complete computer integrated manufacturing.
4.Encoder is a device	D.there are several devices attached to it.
5. Automation system will increase production	E.machines are used to perform tasks without human assistance.
6.The head of the company says that Ethernet network would be more effective	F.that allows the hardware to work together.
7.CAM is used as a program	G.a software problem that can lower production.
8.The factory has low redundancy	H.a device that allows the user to view the electric voltage of a machine.
9.A new processor might be needed	I.so it doesn`t replace machines quickly.
10.Priority inversion is	J.that relays mechanical data to a network.

Minitest 6

Match the words with the definitions:

1. tour 6. dashboard

2. Basecamp 7. gallery

3. telecommute 8. toggle

4. web-based 9. message board

5. centralize 10. color coding

A. a display on a computer that shows commonly or recently used tiles and programs

B. a series of web pages that offer information about a product or site

C. to bring things from multiple places and make them available in one location

D. a program offered by the company 37 signals that organizes projects

and can be accessed by multiple users simultaneously

E. to work at a location away from a main office by using technology

F. it is available on the Internet instead of on a disk

G. an online application that displays and organizes messages from

users

H. the practice of labeling things with different colors in order to tell them

apart

I. a collection of icons or pictures that have been organized in a file or page

J. to move from one file or setting to another

Minitest 7.

Fill in the blanks with the correct words from Unit 7.

1.Viruses can i_______ so that they are impossible to delete.

2.As all viruses r________ themselves quickly, they infected multiple computers.

3.You l_____ _______ when you enter identification that allows you to use a computer first .

4.A program file that installs itself without permission is named v___________.

5.Nowadays a lot of h__________ illegally exploit computer hardware and software.

6.The manager of the company complains that the h______ has a very harmful virus attached to it..

7.Using a method named p__________ the hacker gained access to computers when the owners logged in.

8.The computer has got r_______ e________ in the operating system.

9.The o______ v_________ copies its code over and destroys the files of the original data.

10.Email i________ computers with viruses.

Minitest 8.

Match the words with the definitions:

1. legitimate 6.phishing

2. malware 7. pretexting

3. card scanning 8.pharming

4. Trojan horse 9.fraud

5. identity theft 10.spyware

A. any type of malicious, harmful software

B. a computer program that appears to be beneficial but is actually malicious

C. a process wherein thieves trick people into giving away their personal

information through email

D. the process of stealing another person’s personal information and using

it for personal gain

and can be accessed by multiple users simultaneously

E. a type of computer program that gathers someone’s personal information

without their knowledge

F. the practice of capturing the personal information stored on credit

cards, debit cards, or passports

G. a process wherein thieves reroute people to a fake website that appears to

be legitimate in order to trick them into giving away their personal information

H. a process wherein thieves trick people into giving away their personal

information over the phone.

I. an action that results in the loss of another person’s property

J. anything that is considered to be legal

Minitest 9.

Write a word that is similar in meaning to the underlined part .

1.We will review a record of who has accessed a computer system and what actions they took.

a__ i _ _o_

2. Your browser should block an advertisement that suddenly appears in a new window in an Internet browser.

p_ _ u_

3. Employees who violate a set of rules that must be followed for the sake of security, will receive disciplinary action.

_r_ _ _ c _ _

4. The software supplier is releasing a piece of code that is used to fix a flaw in a computer program fixing all the errors.

p_ _ _ h

5. A flaw in a computer program has been traced by the IT department.

_ u _

6.The bug made an unwanted hidden way to get by security in computers and programs, sometimes intentionally created.

_ _ _ k _ _ _ r

7. The state of being safe from attack in the company has recent breach.

s_ _ _r_ _ _

8. You must keep a program that restricts access on a network to prevent attacks from hackers.

_ _ r_w_ _ _

9. A person or program that attempts to access a network or computer without permission is of a big danger for the computer`s operating system.

I _ _ _ _d_ _

10. They installed a type of trojan virus that tracks what keystrokes are entered into a computer and the iT department had to remove it.

_e _ _ _ g_ _ r

Minitest 10.

Unscramble the words (1-10) and match them with their definitions (A-J)

1.ewb eagp silansay ; 2.atenqaurin; 3.ryceb malicirn; 4. tian-siruv aftersow; 5. cubakp; 6. elfas itospesvi; 7. asfle vtisegena; 8. attced;

9. itktoro; 10. sivur vmalreo artsowef.

A. when anti-virus software incorrectly indicates that a clean file has

been infected with a computer virus.

B. a process wherein the security of a website is determined

in order to help computer users know whether or not the website is safe.

C. a person who uses computers and the Internet to commit crimes

such as identity theft and fraud.

D. something is to place it in complete isolation where it cannot access or infect

anything else.

E. when anti-virus software incorrectly indicates that an infected file

is clean.

F. to create a duplicate copy of data that is stored on a separate hard drive or computer

system to prevent the loss of the data.

G. searches a computer system for computer viruses.

H. to discover something .

I. . destroys computer viruses, removing them from

the files they have infected.

J. a type of computer virus that is created to gain total control over a computer

system by overwriting parts of its operating system.

Minitest 11.

Fill in the blanks with the correct words from Unit 11.

1. A system’s ability to change size as needed in a given situation is named s_________.

2.If you need a service offered to specific users who have purchased it and is not

available publicly use p__________ c____________.

3. A service offered for any users on the Internet is p__________ c___________.

4.. A way of selling computer use as a metered service like water and electricity is called u______

c___________.

5.D_____________ will help to introduce new software into a group of hardware.

6.C_ _ is a system of computers on a network containi ng copies of data that nearby users can access.

7. A model for payment where customers pay according to how much they use a resource is p_______ a_ y_ _ g_ .

8.When users receive a computing operating system and related components over the Internet they use P_ _ _.

9.If it is necessary to receive applications over the Internet instead of buying and installing them you can use S_ _ _.

10.E_________ is a computer system’s ability to gain or lose computer resources as a user sees fit. .

Minitest 12.

Fill in the blanks with the correct words and phrases from the word bank.

Implanted microchip,PACs,EHR,lab-on-a-chip,interoperability,bar coding,micro robotic tweezers,optic scanner,EMM,CDSS

1.______________ is a device that reads and records identification labels on medications. .

2.. A tiny device in a person’s body that releases specific amounts of medicine is an _______ _____________.

3. A system in which doctors scan medicines and match them to patients is named __________ _____________.

4.Doctors use ___________ which is a system that captures and stores medical images from different sources. .

5._____________ is the ability to easily send or combine electronic health data from

one system into another. .

6.______________ is a computerized version of a patient’s health record. .

7.This tiny device called ______________ holds cells and fluid that a doctor can analyze easily. .

8.These _____ ___________ _______________ allow a doctor to operate in extremely small or delicate areas .

9.. A system that helps doctors diagnose problems is called ______________ .

It also suggests treatment options.

10.____________ helps hospitals keep track of medications and medical supplies.

Minitest 13.

Fill in the blanks with the correct words from Unit 13.

1.You can create a personal website named b________ for friends and family to enjoy.

2.. We build and maintain the main directory of a file system named r_________ d_________.

3. We allow customers to use n_________ l________ to navigate and search your site.

4. We create customer whimsical a_______ G______ that add an interactive element to

Interface.

5.W___ p_______ is a webpage that displays information from several sources.

6. Communication between computers or networks is called I______________ .

7.P__ __ c_____________ is needed for upholding certain security standards when

accepting credit cards.

8.. A t_________ l___________ shows that information is safe on a page.

9.. A(n) i_______ f____________ prevents people from sending malicious

software to you.

10.. Our site shows up when people search the k_____ w _____

«hardware «.

Minitest 14.

Choose the correct answers.

1.The candidate for the administrator of the computer system must have a degree in a ………

field.

A) technical B) science C) chemical

2.He will have to delete files or data from a computer which is called to ……….

A) to lose B) install C) purge

3.Candidates must also have experience working with a computer operating system named …….

A) Linux B) Unix C) Windows

4. To modify or arrange something you should ……….. it.

A) delete B) configure C) set up

5. Identifying and fixing technical problems is ………..

A) configuring B) purging C) troubleshooting

6.Interested applicants must send a ……………. that explains why a person wants

and is qualified for, a job.

A) message B) email C) cover letter

7. …………….. is organizing computer files in an orderly way.

A) identifying B) file archiving C)maintaining

8. A person who manages a computer system is …………..

A) system administrator B) system manager C) system director

9. To …………. is named to get the new software and add it to the system.

A) configure B) install C) delete

10. With some ………………………………… our network would be faster.

A)performance tuning B) troubleshooting C) file archiving

Minitest 15.

Mark the following statements as true (T) or false (F). Correct the wrong statements.

1. A GUI (graphical user interface) is how a user interacts with a computer using images and text.

2. If something is back end, it occurs in the middle of a project or job.

3. A component is a part of something bigger.

4. A script is a small part of commands to be carried out automatically.

5. An editor is a program that is used to create and change files.

6. If something is user-friendly, it is easy to access and use.

7. If something is interactive , it will respond to a user’s commands.

8. A web developer is an operating system that builds a website.

9. XML (extensive markup language) is a programming language that is used to encode web pages.

10. HTML (hypertext markup language) is a way to delete a text on web

Keys .

Тест 1 :1.color matching;2.customize;3.video subsystems;4.Microsoft;5.processing speed;6. OS X ;7.Windows;8.typography;9.PC ; 10.prepress.

Тест 2: 1. command line — J; 2. free software license — B; 3. Linux distributions — C; 4. terminal- E; 5. Ubuntu- G; 6. IP/TCP protocol- I; 7. vendors — D; 8. interface- H; 9. Open office — F; 10. open source- A.

Тест 3:1.applets;2.electronic bulletin board;3.reliability;4.multimedia;5.MPEG;6.media player;7.CBT;8.CAD;9.FAQ;10.anchor.

Тест 4:1.click-through rate;2.CPM;3.frequency capping;4.animated GIFs;5.CPC;6. above the fold;7.click tracking;8.geo targeting;9.ad products ; 10.hang.

Тест 5: 1-D, 2-F, 3-H, 4-J, 5-E, 6-B, 7-C, 8-I, 9-A, 10-G.

Тест 6: 1-B, 2-D, 3-E, 4-F, 5-C, 6-A, 7-I, 8-J, 9-G, 10-H.

Тест 7:1.imbed;2.replicate;3.log in;4.virus;5.hacker;6.host ;7.piggyback;8.resident extension;9.overwriting virus ; 10.infect

Тест 8: 1.-J, 2.-A, 3.-F, 4.-B, 5.-D, 6.-C ,7.-H, 8.-G, 9.-I, 10-E

Тест 9: 1. audit log, 2.pop up. 3.protocol, 4.patch,5.bug,6.backdoor,7.security, 8.firewall,9.intruder, 10.keylogger.

Тест 10: 1. web page analysis — B; 2. quarantine — D; 3. cyber criminal — C; 4. anti-virus software- G; 5. backup- F; 6. false positives- A; 7. false negatives- E; 8. detect- H; 9. rootkit — J; 10. virus removal software- I.

Тест 11: 1.scalability;2.private clouds;3.public clouds;4.utility computing;5.deployment;6.CDN;7.pay as you go;8.PaaS; 9.SaaS; 10. elasticity.

Тест 12 :1.optic scanner;2.implanted microchip;3.bar coding; 4.PACs;5.interoperability;6.EHR; 7.lab-on-a-chip;8.micro robotic tweezers;9.CDSS;10.EMM.

Тест 13: 1.blog;2.root directory;3.natural language; 4.animated GIF; 5.web portal;6.interface; 7.PCI compliance ; 8.trust logo;9.ingress filter;10.key word.

Тест 14: 1.A 2.C 3.B 4.B 5.C 6.C 7. B 8. A 9 B 10. A

Тест 15: 1.T 2.F 3.T 4.F 5.T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.T 10.F

1. soft____

2. a word ______.

3. ______-friendly

4. ______-literate

5. key_____

6. lap_____

7. system _____

8. search ______

9. tool_____

10. ____sheet

1.12 Work in pairs or small groups. Discuss and cross out a word/phrase in each box that is not usually used when talking about computers.

a) b)

	a new password			a hard copy
create	a new document	print out	a soft copy
	a new printer		a document

c) d)

	a file			a chartroom
attach	an e-mail	visit	a website
	a document		a document

e) f)

	a file			your software
download	a software	upgrade	your hardware
	a hardware		the menu

g) h)

	a key word			an icon
type in	the keyboard	click on	a hyperlink
	the password		a bug

i) j)

save			open
cut and paste	text	delete	an e-mail
surf		post

k) l)

start up			go on
shut down	computer	upgrade	the Internet
surf		surf

Do you know any
other useful “computer” words and phrases? Share them with your
group.

1.13 Study the vocabulary you may need to understand the text below. After that

• count
  how many words/word combinations you’ve known before

• elicit
  words/word combinations you would like to learn

phaseout[‘feɪz’aυt]
(v) постепенно прекращать,
свертывать (выпуск, производство и
т.д.)

Themakershavedecidedtophase
outtheproductionofthismodel. —
Производитель решил постепенно прекратить
производство этой модели.

difference[‘dɪfrǝns]
(n) разница; отличие,
различие

greatdifference
— значительное различие

slightdifference— незначительная разница

Itmakesnodifference. — Нет никакой
разницы; это не имеет значения.

Itmakesallthedifferenceintheworld.
— Это существенно меняет дело; это очень
важно.

portable[‘pɔ:təbl]
(adj) портативный, переносный

portability(n) портативность

manufacturer[̗mænjυ’fæktʃǝrə]
(n) изготовитель,
производитель

carmanufacturer—
производитель машин

computermanufacturer— производитель
компьютеров

matter(n) вопрос, дело

Itisamatterofafewmonths. —
“Это дело/вопрос нескольких месяцев.

weigh[weɪ]
(v) весить, иметь вес

the computer weighs
quite a lot — чемодан весит
довольно много

How much do you weigh?
— Cколько вы весите?

weight
(n) вес; масса

heavy weight —
тяжелый вес

light weight
— легкий вес

average weight
— средний вес

pound[paυnd]
(n) единица веса — фунт

(современная мера веса, используемая
в англоговорящих странах; = 453,6 г)

fit(v) умещаться, помещаться,
входить

tofitinabriefcase—
умещаться в портфеле

lap(n) колени
(верхняя часть ног у сидящего человека)Themotherhadhersononherlap. —
Мать держала сына на коленях.

somewhat(adv) отчасти,
до некоторой степени, слегка

originally[ə’rɪdʒɪnǝlɪ]
(adv) первоначально, вначале;
сначала, поначалуComputersoriginallywereverybig. —
Компьютеры вначале были очень громоздкими.

feature[‘fi:tʃə]
(n) особенность, характерная
черта; признак, свойство

компьют.:функция, функциональность,
опция

сленг: фича (у программного продукта,
системы)

tradeoff[‘treɪdɒf]
(n) компромисс

decrease[̗di:’kri:s]
(v) уменьшать(ся),
сокращать(ся) (in- в чем-л.)

to decrease in
size — уменьшаться в
размере

decrease[‘di:kri:s]
(n) уменьшение, убывание,
понижение; спад

to be on the decrease
— идти на убыль

device[dɪ’vaɪs]
(n) устройство, механизм;
аппарат, прибор

term(n) термин

reason[‘ri:zn] (n)
причина, повод, основание, основа

byreasonof— по причине; из-за

tohaveareason(for)
— иметь уважительную причину (для)

comparable[‘kɒmpǝrəbl]
(adj) сравнимый, сопоставимый,
соизмеримый

comparableresults— сравнимый результат

comparable prices— сопоставимая цена

lead(v) вести, приводить

heat(n) жар, тепло, теплота

well-suited[̗wel’
sju:tɪd]
(adj) подходящий, пригодный

interchangeably
[̗ɪntə’tʃeɪndʒəblɪ]
(adv) заменяя друг друга,
попеременно, поочередно

inexpensive[̗ɪnɪk’spensɪv]
(adj) дешевый, недорогой

powerful[‘paυ əfl] (adj) мощный, сильный

generation[̗dʒenə’reɪʃn]
(n) поколение

mainstream[‘meɪnstri:m]
(n) основное направление,
главная линия, тенденция (в искусстве,
технологии, и т. п.)

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