Last Update: Jan 03, 2023
This is a question our experts keep getting from time to time. Now, we have got the complete detailed explanation and answer for everyone, who is interested!
Asked by: Lloyd O’Reilly
Score: 4.3/5
(50 votes)
Change the spacing between characters
- Select the text that you want to change.
- On the Home tab, click the Font Dialog Box Launcher, and then click the Advanced tab. …
- In the Spacing box, click Expanded or Condensed, and then specify how much space you want in the By box.
How do I change the spacing between letters in Word for Mac?
Change Default Font and Spacing in Mac Word
- Click on File and Style….
- Select Normal and click Modify….
- Change your font, pt, line spacing, etc. (i.e. I changed the Font to Times New Roman, 12 pt, and line spacing to single.) Click OK when done.
- Click Yes when prompted.
How do you do spacing on Word?
Change the line spacing in a portion of the document
- Select one or more paragraphs to update. …
- Go to Home > Line and Paragraph Spacing.
- Select Line Spacing Options and choose an option in the Line spacing box.
- Adjust the Before and After settings to change spacing between paragraphs.
- Select OK.
How do I double space between words in Word?
Double Spacing
- Select the text you want to be double spaced.
- Click on the Home tab.
- Look for the Paragraph options.
- Find an icon that has four horizontal lines, and two arrows pointing in opposite directions. Click the icon to expand.
- Select 2.0 to double space your text.
What is character spacing in Word?
Character Spacing | Spacing lets you stretch or compress text. It’s a handy trick for headings, it makes them look bigger without increasing the font size. Default ‘Heading 1’ with Expanded text. Or compress text so more fits into limited space.
24 related questions found
How do I fix weird spacing between words in Word?
Change the spacing between characters
- Select the text that you want to change.
- On the Home tab, click the Font Dialog Box Launcher, and then click the Advanced tab. …
- In the Spacing box, click Expanded or Condensed, and then specify how much space you want in the By box.
How do I change the spacing between letters in Word 2010?
Changing CHARACTER SPACING, steps:
- Select the desired text;
- Select HOME TAB from RIBBON;
- Click on the button in FONT group to open FONT dialogue window;
- FONT dialogue window is opened;
- Select CHARACTER SPACING TAB;
- SPACING drop-down list;
- Select the desired spacing : — NORMAL standard distance between characters. …
- End.
Why is there a huge space in my Word document?
This happens when the text alignment is «justified» in word. Just go to the end of the line and press enter once. This normally happens when after the sentence is over, we do not hit enter, but just keep typing «space» and the sentence starts on the next line. This gap is due to section break.
What does double space look like in Word?
1. In text formatting, a double space means sentences contain a full blank line (the equivalent of the full height of a line of text) between the rows of words. By default, most programs have single spacing enabled, which is a slight space between each line of text, similar to how this paragraph looks.
What is the normal spacing in Word?
The default line spacing in Word is 1.15. By default, paragraphs are followed by a blank line and headings have a space above them. Go to Home > Line and Paragraph Spacing. Select Line Spacing Options, and then choose the options you want under Spacing.
What is 1.5 spacing Word?
The lines in all Word documents are single-spaced by default, which is appropriate for letters and most documents. But you can easily change your document line spacing to double or 1.5 lines to allow extra space between every line. This is useful when you want to make notes on a printed document.
How do I make 1.5 spacing in Word?
To format line spacing:
- Click Format on the menu bar.
- Select Paragraph. The Paragraph dialog box appears.
- Click the Indents and Spacing tab.
- In the line spacing drop-down menu, you can select single, 1.5, or double spacing. The default is single spacing.
- Click OK.
What do you call the spacing between letters?
In typography, kerning is defined as the adjustment of space between two individual letters. It’s also not an uncommon thing to neglect when you’re reaching the end of a grueling deadline. Your clients may not know what kerning is, but they’ll know something’s amiss when their design has poorly kerned type.
How do I change kerning in Word 2020?
Enable and Adjust Kerning in Word on Windows
Open the Font Dialog Box by clicking the arrow on the bottom right corner of the Font section of the ribbon. Select the Advanced tab in the window. Check the box for Kerning for fonts under Character Spacing. To the right, enter the minimum point value you want to use.
How do you double space in Word Online 2020?
To double-space the whole document, go to Design > Paragraph Spacing, and choose Double. Tip: To double-space only part of the document, select the paragraphs you want to change, go to Home > Line and Paragraph Spacing, and choose 2.0.
Is 1.5 or 2.0 double spaced?
A 2.0 value will mean double spacing. Remember that the double spacing will take place from whatever part in the text your cursor is positioned. Place your cursor on the very top of the page if you want the entire document to be double spaced.
Why is Word double spacing between lines?
Each version of word uses the ‘normal’ style to set defaults on font sizes, page margins, paragraph spacing and more. After you install Word 2007 the default paragraph spacing is set to 10pt after a paragraph, meaning that when you type in any Word document you will appear to have double spacing.
Why can’t I delete space in Word?
When you select the paragraph then go to Format > Paragraph and check the settings for Spaces Before and Spaces After. If extra points have been added to the paragraph style you can reduce them to eliminate the extra space.
How do I get rid of large space between paragraphs in Word?
Remove the Default Space Between Paragraphs:
Set your cursor to the location of the paragraph spacing. Click on the Line and Paragraph Spacing icon in the Home Ribbon. Select «Remove Extra Space» to remove the extra space. This has to be done in each document unless you adjust your default settings.
How do I stop large spaces in Word?
Method 1: Change Layout Options
- First, click “File” then click “Options” to open “Word Options” dialog box.
- Next click “Advanced” and scroll down to the bottom of the box.
- Click “Layout Options” to bring out more choices.
- Check the “Don’t expand character spaces on a line that ends with SHIFT-RETURN” box and click “OK”.
How do I change the spacing between letters in Word 2011?
Change Character Spacing
- Select the text you want to format.
- Click the Home tab.
- Click the Font Dialog Box Launcher.
- Click the Advanced tab. …
- Click the Spacing list arrow, click an option, and then specify a point size to expand or condense spacing by the amount specified.
What does Ctrl F6 do in Word?
F6: Go to the next pane or frame in your Word window. You can use this to navigate the window without using your mouse. Shift+F6: Go to the previous pane or frame. Ctrl+F6: Go to the next open document window.
What is standard character spacing?
Defines the spacing between the characters of a block of text. default letter-spacing: normal; … letter-spacing: 0.1em; You can use em values: this allows the spacing to remain relative to the font-size.
What are the two techniques of spacing letters?
Changing kerning perception
While tracking adjusts the space between characters evenly, regardless of the characters, kerning adjusts the space based on character pairs.
Is 1.15 single spacing?
The value of «single» line spacing is 1.15 or 115%.
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Want to cross out words, letters, or entire sentences in Microsoft Word? We’ll show you how to use strikethrough to cross out any text in your Microsoft Word document using a computer, Android, iPhone, iPad, or Windows tablet.
Things You Should Know
- The strikethrough option is located in the Home tab at the top of Word.
- You can apply a double-line strikethrough using the Font panel’s additional options.
- To remove a strikethrough, highlight the text and click the strikethrough icon. Alternatively, select ‘Clear Formatting’ to remove it.
-
1
Highlight the text you want to strike out. You can do this by clicking and dragging the mouse cursor over the word or phrase.
- Although there is no keyboard shortcut for striking through text, it’ll only take a few seconds to apply the formatting.
-
2
Click the Home tab. If you’re not already on the Home tab, you’ll need to click Home at the top of Word to go there now.
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-
3
Click the strikethrough icon. This icon looks like «
ab
» (or «
abc
» in some versions) with a horizontal line through both letters. You’ll see it up near the rest of your font options, such as the options to make words bold and italic. Clicking this icon will cross out all selected text.
- To remove the strikethrough effect, highlight the word or phrase again, and then click the ab icon.
-
4
Apply double-line strikethrough (optional). If you want to cross out the selected word or phrase with two lines instead of one, you can use the double-line strikethrough effect.[1]
Here’s how:- With the word or phrase highlighted, click the small down-arrow on the «Font» panel at the top of the screen.
- Check the box next to «Double strikethrough.»
- Click OK.
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-
1
Select the text you want to strike out. To do this, just tap and hold one of the words you want to cross out, and then drag either side of the selection bars until all of the desired text is highlighted.
-
2
Tap the strikethrough icon (Android and Windows tablets only). If you see an icon that has lowercase «
ab
» with a horizontal line crossing through it, you can tap that icon to immediately strike through the selected text. If not, skip to the next step.
-
3
Tap the text formatting icon. It’s the icon of a capital «A» that has three horizontal dots beneath it.[2]
You’ll see this option at the top of the screen if you didn’t see a crossed-out «ab
» icon.
-
4
Tap Strikethrough. This crosses out the selected text.
- If you want to remove the strikethrough effect, select the text again, and then tap the ab icon (if you see it) or tap the text formatting icon and select Clear Formatting.
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About This Article
Article SummaryX
1. Highlight the word or phrase with your mouse cursor.
2. Click the Home tab.
3. Click the icon of a crossed-out «ab.»
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When working in Microsoft Word, you’ve probably seen two different kinds of text with lines through it (commonly called a “strikethrough”). Red text with a red line through it happens when you delete text while the collaborative Track Changes feature is on. Black text with a black line just has special character formatting applied. Here’s how it works.
Why Would You Want to Strike Through Text, Anyway?
It’s a good question. Why cross out words when you can just delete them? When you’re tracking changes in Word so that you can collaborate with other people, keeping that deleted text visible, but struck through, lets them know what has changed. They can even review those changes and accept or deny them.
We have a full guide on keeping track of changes made to a Word document, so we’re not going to cover all that in this article. It’s a good read, though, if you’re collaborating on a document.
Instead, we’re going to focus on how to apply strikethrough character formatting and why you might want to.
So, why bother? Well, you might be collaborating with someone and not want to use the Track Changes feature. Maybe they don’t use Word or Microsoft Office, and you’re sending it to them to view in Google Docs, or as a PDF they can print out.
Either way, you can strike through text as a suggestion that it be deleted, but leave it in place for them to see. This is particularly useful in a situation where, for example, you’re tutoring a student in a subject like a foreign language. It’s much easier for the student to learn if they can go back and see the mistakes along with the corrections.
Some writers also use strikethrough text (and occasionally often overuse it) to show a change of thinking in a document. Or maybe you just want to be annoying funny.
Whatever the reason, we’re here to show you how to do it.
RELATED: How to Apply Strikethrough to Text in Google Docs
How to Apply Strikethrough Formatting to Text
Applying strikethrough formatting is pretty easy. Start by selecting the text you want to strike through. You can do this by clicking and dragging over the text (or just double-clicking a word), but when you do this, Word likes to select the space after the text, as well. If you don’t want that to happen, click to place your insertion point at the beginning of the text, and then Shift-click at the end of the text for a more precise selection.
If you want to get fancy and select multiple words spread out through the document at the same time, you can do that, too. Select the first bit of text the regular way, and then hold down the Ctrl key while selecting additional text in different places. We suggest only doing this a paragraph at a time because it’s frustrating when you accidentally let go of the Ctrl key and have to start over.
When you have your text selected, look on the “Home” tab of Word’s Ribbon. In the “Font” group, click the Strikethrough button (it’s the three letters with a line drawn through them).
Now, any text you had selected should be struck through.
You can also apply strikethrough formatting using the Font window. Select your text, and then press Ctrl+D on Windows or Cmd+d on Mac to open that window up. Here, you can select not only the regular “Strikethrough” option but a “Double Strikethrough” option if you want to go that way, instead. Make your selection, and then click the “OK” button.
Make Things Easier By Creating a Keyboard Shortcut
Microsoft Word has loads of keyboard shortcuts, including a bunch for applying formatting. Unfortunately, there’s no built-in shortcut for applying strikethrough formatting. If it’s something you do a lot, though, you can create your own key combo.
Start by opening that Font window back up. Now, press Ctrl+Alt+Plus on Windows (you might have to use the Plus key on your number pad). Your cursor should very briefly turn into a clover shape. After that happens, click the “Strikethrough” option and a Customize Keyboard window should open.
Here, you can assign your preferred keyboard combo by clicking once in the “Press New Shortcut Key” box and then pressing the keys you want to use. If the combination you choose already has a shortcut function, Word will let you know that it’s currently assigned to something else. You can, of course, still use it even if it’s assigned to something else, but it’s better to try to find a combination that doesn’t have any current functions. We find Ctrl+Alt+- (minus) is pretty easy to remember and doesn’t have any other use in Word.
Press the “Assign” button, and then go back to your Word doc and try it out.
Now you have your customized strikethrough shortcut!
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- › How to Apply Strikethrough to Text in Google Docs
- › How to Use the Ink Features in Microsoft Office
- › How to Strikethrough in Microsoft Outlook
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[rʌn]
1.
;
прош. вр.
ran;
прич.
прош. вр. run
1)
а) бежать, бегать
I’ve got to run for my bus. — Мне пришлось побежать, чтобы успеть на автобус.
He ran the mile in under four minutes. — Он пробежал милю меньше чем за четыре минуты.
The dog ran at the visitor and bit him. — Собака бросилась на посетителя и укусила его.
I opened the door and the cat ran in. — Я открыл дверь, и в дом забежала кошка.
He ran at me and kicked me. — Он подбежал ко мне и ударил.
Lots of people ran out to see what had caused the noise. — Масса народу выбежала на улицу поглядеть, из-за чего этот шум.
Don’t run away, I want to talk to you. — Погоди, я хочу с тобой поговорить.
б) бегать, передвигаться свободно, без ограничений
Let chickens run loose. — Пусть цыплята побегают на свободе.
в) быстро уходить, убегать; спасаться бегством, дезертировать
The robbers took the money and ran. — Грабители забрали деньги и сбежали.
I should have to run the country. — Мне придётся покинуть страну.
If they run their board I shall have to pay it. — Если они сбегут, не заплатив за еду, платить придётся мне.
Syn:
2)
а) преследовать; гнать
The horses were run rapidly forward to the skirmish-line. — Лошадей галопом направили к линии огня.
to run smb. ragged / off his legs — загонять кого-л. до изнеможения
He had almost run himself to a standstill. — Он набегался так, что не мог сдвинуться с места.
You’d never believe that woman was nearly eighty, she could run us all off our feet. — Ни за что не скажешь, что этой женщине было почти восемьдесят, она нас всех могла загонять.
There’s enough of us here to run you out. — Нас здесь вполне достаточно для того, чтобы тебя прогнать.
3)
а) двигать, передвигать, заставлять скользить быстро и без труда
I cook a meal for him occasionally and I run a vacuum over the place. — Время от времени я готовлю ему еду и провожу уборку с помощью пылесоса.
б)
иск.
двигать, перемещать по сцене
4)
а) быстро перемещаться; двигаться, ехать
б) ходить, курсировать, плавать
to run late — опоздать, прийти не по расписанию
The shuttle runs daily from New York to Boston. — Самолёты каждый день совершают регулярные рейсы Нью-Йорк — Бостон.
The trains aren’t running now. — Поезда сейчас не ходят.
Syn:
5)
Far ran the naked moon. — Высоко плыла беззащитная луна.
On that day she deviated from the course of the voyage and ran for Mauritius. — В тот день корабль отклонился от намеченного пути и взял курс на остров Маврикий.
We were winning the boat race until our boat ran aground on a sandbank. — Мы шли впереди всех в лодочной гонке, пока наша лодка не налетела на мель.
б) быстро плыть, идти на нерест
6)
а) управлять
They no longer run steamers there. — Они больше не водят здесь пароходы.
She got back after lunch and ran the car into the garage. — Она вернулась после завтрака и поставила машину в гараж.
в) держать работающим, действующим
I can’t collect you. I don’t run a car. — Я не могу за тобой заехать. У меня не заводится машина.
7)
а) перевозить, транспортировать; доставлять к месту назначения
The engine runs trucks to and from the piers on the island. — На острове машина привозила и отвозила товары с пирса и на пирс.
б) подвозить
I ran Johnson back to my house. — Я отвёз Джонсона обратно к себе домой.
Don’t wait for the bus in this cold weather, I’ll run you across to your mother’s. — Зачем тебе ждать автобуса на холоде, давай я подброшу тебя до дома твоей матери.
There’s no hurry to get there; I can run you along in the car. — Незачем спешить, я подвезу тебя на своей машине.
совершать краткое путешествие
During the last five years Fry had formed the habit of running over to Paris. — В течение последних пяти лет у Фрая выработалась привычка ненадолго ездить в Париж.
9)
а) налетать, наталкиваться на ; сталкиваться с
The boat ran (up)on the rocks. — Лодка наскочила на камни.
б) ударять, стукать обо , сталкивать с
10)
а) двигаться, катиться
The ball ran into the street. — Мяч выкатился на улицу.
б) ударять , катить
He ran the ball strongly 30ft. past the hole. — Он ударил по мячу так, что тот на 30 футов перелетел через лунку.
11) проводить, пробегать
She ran her fingers over the smooth material. — Она провела пальцами по гладкой ткани.
I caught myself running my glance round. — Я поймал себя на том, что мельком оглядываю всё вокруг.
She ran down the first page of her letter. — Она пробежала первую страницу письма.
His eye swiftly ran from line to line. — Его глаза быстро перебегали с одной строчки на другую.
Let’s run through the whole play from the beginning. — Давайте посмотрим всю пьесу сначала.
Syn:
12)
а) вращаться, крутиться
In which case the wheel will have liberty to run. — В этом случае колесо сможет свободно вращаться.
Syn:
б) идти, крутиться ; демонстрироваться
I’d been to see a film in the afternoon, and it ran longer than I expected. — Днём я пошёл посмотреть фильм, и он продолжался дольше, чем я думал.
The film began to run. — Начался фильм.
13)
а) литься, струиться, течь
The stream runs down the valley. — Поток стекает в долину.
Tears ran from her eyes. — Из глаз у неё текли слёзы.
б) сделаться мокрым от
The mud walls ran down with damp. — Грязные стены отсырели от влажности.
Syn:
в) протекать, течь; переполняться ; наполняться
Syn:
14) расплываться; линять
Her red blouse ran on the lighter colored clothes in the wash. — При стирке красная блузка линяла, окрашивая более светлые вещи.
15)
а) плавиться, таять, течь
The ice cream ran in the warm sun. — Мороженое на солнце растаяло.
Syn:
б) соединяться , затвердевать
16)
а) скользить, легко двигаться, идти гладко
The neck-halter seems to have been tarry, and did not run. — Верёвка с петлей, похоже, не была пропитана и поэтому не скользила.
б) проводить по , пропускать через
to run a pen through smth. — зачеркнуть, перечеркнуть что-л. ручкой
17)
а) простираться, расстилаться, тянуться прям. и перен.
A balustrade runs round the building. — Вокруг здания тянется балюстрада.
He was brilliantly attired in crimson pyjamas. Who would have thought his taste would run to the exotic? (S. Woods) — Он был облачён в малиновую пижаму. Кто бы мог предположить, что он дойдёт до такой экзотики?
Syn:
б) тянуться, расти, обвиваться
а) соревноваться, участвовать
Syn:
The Derby has been run in a snowstorm. — Дерби проводилось во время бурана.
No person can run more than one horse for any plate. — На любые скачки на приз каждый может заявить только одну лошадь.
19) брать назад , расторгать, нарушать
The contracting party may be inclined to run from his word. — Договаривающаяся сторона, возможно, захочет взять назад своё слово.
20) не оказывать влияния на
The scoldings run off him like water off a duck’s back. — Его ругают, а с него всё как с гуся вода.
21)
а)
амер. баллотироваться, выставлять (свою) кандидатуру на выборах
Richard Roe will run for mayor. — Ричард Роу выставит свою кандидатуру на пост мэра.
22)
амер.
навязывать, расхваливать, рекламировать
I went with him to the house he was running for. — Я пошёл с ним к дому, который он так расхваливал.
A whisper ran through the crowd. — По толпе пробежал шёпот.
The news ran all over town. — Известие быстро распространилось по всему городу.
Syn:
24)
; = run down исполнять, выводить рулады; быстро пропевать
25)
а) быстро вырастать, давая семена
26)
Her stocking ran. — У неё на чулке спустилась петля.
27) работать, функционировать
One of these little engines recently ran forty-seven days and nights without stoppage. — Один из этих маленьких моторчиков недавно проработал сорок семь суток без остановки.
The American university: how it runs, where it is going. — Американский университет: как он живёт, куда он движется.
28) крутиться, вертеться, постоянно возвращаться
It runs in my head that I’ve heard something about it. — У меня вертелось в голове, что я где-то уже об этом слышал.
My thoughts have been running upon the future. — Я всё думаю о будущем.
29)
а) проходить, бежать, лететь
Life ran smoothly in its ordinary grooves. — Жизнь текла гладко в своём привычном русле.
Their talks ran on for hours. — Они говорили часами.
Syn:
The night was almost run. — Ночь почти прошла.
Syn:
30) идти, продолжаться, длиться; быть действительным
The lease runs for five years. — Аренда действительна на пять лет.
Syn:
31)
а) идти
This film is now running at all cinemas. — Этот фильм идёт сейчас во всех кинотеатрах.
32)
а) иметь хождение, быть в обращении
б) действовать на определённой территории, распространяться на определённой территории
Musical ability runs in my family. — В нашей семье ярко выражены музыкальные способности.
34)
а) быть напечатанным, быть опубликованным, появиться
The story ran in all the papers. — История появилась во всех газетах.
Syn:
б) печатать, публиковать
The ad was run in the paper for two days. — Объявление публиковалось в газете два дня.
I know not how his proper official title ran. — Я не знаю, каков был его официальный титул.
36) достигать количества, стоимости, доходить, равняться
Last autumn arrests of illegal immigrants were running 80 a week. — Прошлой осенью число арестов нелегальных иммигрантов доходило до 80 в неделю.
The bill runs to $100. — Счёт составляет 100 долларов.
The prices run from $5 to $200. — Цены варьируются от 5 до 200 долларов.
The book ran into five editions. — Книга выдержала пять изданий.
The total area runs out at 25,000 square miles. — Вся область составляет 25000 квадратных миль.
The bill for the repairs might run up to $300. — Счёт за ремонт может составить около 300 долларов.
Syn:
The members encouraged one another in running the Christian course. — Все члены поддерживали друг друга в следовании христианской религии.
We run a danger of wasting time. — Мы рискуем потерять время.
She’s not afraid to run a risk. — Она не боится риска.
Syn:
39)
а) прорывать, преодолевать ; пробиваться сквозь
The escaped prisoners ran the roadblock. — Сбежавшие заключённые проскочили сквозь дорожно-пропускной пункт.
Wilson told officers the brakes of his truck failed, causing him to run a red light at the intersection. — Уилсон сказал полицейским, что у его грузовика отказали тормоза, поэтому ему пришлось на перекрёстке проскочить на красный свет.
40)
а) сшивать на скорую руку, смётывать
в) прикреплять , пропуская через прорези в одежде
41) быть стеснённым
I shall be hard run unless I can get a certain sum of money. — У меня будут большие денежные затруднения, если я не достану определённую сумму денег.
Both author and artist were notoriously always run for time. — И писатель, и художник были известны тем, что у них всегда не хватало времени.
42) наседать, поджимать
Gloriana would run her very close on the score of beauty. — Глориана не отставала от неё по красоте.
43)
амер. руководить, управлять; вести ; следить , контролировать
Teach me how to run the business. — Научи меня вести дела.
Our staff are highly efficient; the place runs itself almost without our interference. — У нас высококвалифицированные служащие; предприятие работает практически без нашего вмешательства.
You’re my father and all that, but I’ll be damned if you run me any more. — Ты мой отец и всё такое, но будь я проклят, если я ещё хоть раз позволю тебе собой командовать.
Syn:
44) ввести в общество
45)
амер.
помогать, обеспечивать средствами к существованию
I was running a small fever. — У меня была небольшая температура.
I don’t like her running this temperature. — Мне не нравится, что у неё такая высокая температура.
47) приводить в действие, включать
48) проводить , проводить измерения
49)
;
австрал.
;
разг.
дразнить, досаждать, изводить,
Syn:
50)
разг.
заявлять в полицию, передавать в руки полиции
51)
воен.
выдвигать обвинение против
52) подтасовывать, фальсифицировать
Syn:
53)
а) вырезать , рисовать, чертить на поверхности
б) вести, тянуть, проводить
Syn:
54) прослеживать, устанавливать ; проводить
55) объединять, соединять
The events of two days have been run into one. — События двух дней были объединены в одно.
Syn:
56) тяготеть к , иметь склонность к
The writer runs to descriptive details. — Этот писатель очень любит подробно описывать детали.
57) обращаться к
58) хватать, быть достаточным для
The money won’t run to a car. — Этих денег не хватит на машину.
Syn:
59) общаться с ; водить компанию с
In his younger days he ran with some very undesirable types. — В юности он общался с некоторыми очень подозрительными типами.
60) (случайно) встретиться с ; натолкнуться на
I ran across my former teacher this afternoon. — Сегодня я встретил своего старого учителя.
I ran across an excellent book on history. — Я тут обнаружил замечательную книгу по истории.
61) «бегать», ухаживать за
All the girls are running after the attractive new student. — Девушки прохода не дают этому симпатичному студенту-новичку.
62) наезжать на , врезаться во
I ran into the gatepost and hurt my knee. — Я налетел на столб и повредил колено.
This lamppost looks as if it’s been run into by a bus. — Этот столб выглядит так, как будто в него врезался автобус.
63) случайно встретить , столкнуться с
Syn:
64) столкнуться с
65) касаться , вращаться вокруг
His thoughts ran upon the happy times that he had spent there. — Он вспомнил о том счастливом времени, которое провёл здесь когда-то.
66) просматривать; повторять
Just run over your notes before the examination. — Просто прогляди свои конспекты перед экзаменом.
68) становиться, делаться
The little pond ran dry. — Маленький пруд высох.
The roads ran wild. — Дороги заросли.
Some say whiskey will run a man crazy. — Некоторые говорят, что от виски человек становится психом.
— run low
— run cold
— run mad
— run hot
Syn:
накапливаться, образовываться
It is found a great safeguard against debt not to run long accounts. — Хорошая гарантия не делать долгов — не накапливать счёта.
71)
а) втыкать, вонзать во
б) прокалывать, пронзать, протыкать
Ormonde ran two of the cowards through the body. — Ормонд пронзил тела двух трусов.
72) иметь склад, характер, свойство, форму
His hair was brown, with a tendency to run in ringlets. — У него были каштановые волосы, имеющие тенденцию завиваться колечками.
73)
а)
австрал. выпускать на подножный корм
Syn:
б) запустить в нору
74)
диал.
скисать, сквашиваться
Syn:
75)
His lips, his fangs, ran blood. — С его губ, с его клыков стекала кровь.
The drains will run the water out of the land. — Дренажные канавы осушат земли.
Syn:
•
— run ashore
— run aground
— run foul of
— run short
— run counter
— run about
— run along
— run around
— run away
— run back
— run down
— run in
— run off
— run on
— run out
— run over
— run round
— run through
— run up
••
to run one’s mouth / off at the mouth — ; разг. неумеренно болтать, пустозвонить
— run to form
— run off the rails
— run for luck
— run messages
— run it close
— run it fine
— run smth. close
— run smb. close
— run too far
— run the gantlope
— run oneself into the ground
— run away with the idea
2.
сущ.
1)
а) бег, пробег, пробежка
to keep smb. on the run — не давать кому-л. остановиться
We took a run around the track. — Мы побежали по беговой дорожке.
Syn:
б) перебежка, за которую засчитывается очко
2) короткая поездка, небольшое путешествие
Let’s take a run upstate for the day. — Давай съездим на денёк за город.
Syn:
3)
в)
ж.-д.
отрезок пути; прогон
4) прогулка быстрым шагом; пробежка
Syn:
5)
а)
воен.
наступательная операция, атака с моря или воздуха
The aircraft is seen making its second run over the target. — Видно, как самолёт делает второй заход на цель.
а) полёт, перелёт; рейс
I was on the Sydney-Melbourne run. — Я совершал перелёт из Сиднея в Мельбурн.
б) расстояние, пролетаемое самолётом
Keep careful watch tonight; run expected. — Будьте на страже сегодня ночью; ожидается прибытие контрабандного товара.
регулярный обход, объезд
At night when they had done the evening run on their traps they would return home. — Вечером после того, как они объезжали все свои ловушки, они возвращались домой.
а) ручей, речушка
Syn:
б) сток, водослив
Syn:
в) поток, сильный прилив
10) струя песка, обвал, оползень
Syn:
13) период времени, полоса
Gamblers always hope for a run of good luck. — Игроки всегда надеются, что наступит полоса удач.
We have had a long-continued run of the loveliest weather. — На длительный период установилась чудеснейшая погода.
Syn:
14)
геол.
простирание пласта; направление рудной жилы
16)
амер.
спустившаяся петля
I’m darning up a run in my old ski sweater. — Я зашиваю спустившуюся петлю на старом свитере.
Syn:
17) непрерывная серия, последовательность
18) рыба, идущая на нерест
20)
горн.
поезд или ряд вагонеток
21) разг. приступ поноса
22)
а)
фин.
наплыв требований к банкам о немедленных выплатах
In July the failure of some commercial firms resulted in a run on several German banks. — В июле банкротство нескольких коммерческих фирм привело к массовому изъятию вкладов из нескольких немецких банков.
б) спрос
The book has a considerable run. — Книга хорошо распродаётся.
в) наплыв, скопление
23) период, в который спектакль, фильм остаётся на сцене, идёт в прокате; период, в который выставка открыта для посетителей
This comedy has a lengthened run. — Эта комедия уже долго идёт на сцене.
The International Textile Exhibition closed yesterday after a run of something like six weeks. — Вчера закрылась международная текстильная выставка, которая работала около шести недель.
24)
а) ток ; количество жидкости, протекающее в единицу времени
It was no hard run — but my 104 buckets would probably yield 40 or 50 gallons of maple sap today. — Ток был не очень обильным — однако сегодня 104 моих ведра, возможно, дали 40 или 50 галлонов кленового сока.
25)
а) ход, работа, действие
б) испытание, эксперимент
Only one experimental run to test the machinery has been made. — Для проверки оборудования было проведено только одно экспериментальное испытание.
в)
информ.
(однократный) проход, прогон
26) нечто среднее, стандарт; большинство
common / general / normal / ordinary run — обычный, средний тип, класс
We’ve had nothing exciting — just the usual run of applicants. — У нас не происходило ничего особенного — обычные просители.
a man of mind, above the run of men — умный человек, превосходящий большинство людей
27) выводок
Syn:
28) партия товара, класс товара
The best runs of English and foreign wheat sell at full prices. — Лучшие сорта английской и иностранной пшеницы продаются по полной цене.
run of 3,000 copies — тираж в 3000 экземпляров
30) тропа, проложенная животными
31) нора, убежище
The kids are building a rabbit run. — Дети строят норку для кролика.
Syn:
32)
Fowls are restricted to a narrow yard or run. — Домашние птицы содержатся в узком загоне или вольере.
б)
австрал.
(овечье) пастбище
в)
австрал.
скотоводческая ферма
33) уклон; трасса
34) амер. место разгрузки, погрузки или сортировки вагонов, горка
35)
а) жёлоб, лоток, труба
б)
горн.
бремсберг, уклон
36)
мор.
кормовое заострение
37) направление; тенденция развития
We shall find, I think, the general run of things to be such as I have represented it. — Я думаю, что мы обнаружим общую тенденцию развития такой, как я здесь представил.
Syn:
38)
разг.
свобода, возможность пользования
You have the run of my office. — Вы можете свободно пользоваться моим офисом.
Then I have the run of the place entirely to myself. — Итак, это место в полном моём распоряжении.
Syn:
39)
амер.
переселение колонистов на новые земли
40)
;
новозел.
стрижка овцы
••
the run of one’s teeth / knife — бесплатное питание
to get the run — преим. австрал.; разг. быть уволенным с работы
— be on the run
— do smth. on the run
— have smb. on the run
— get smb. on the run
— keep smb. on the run
3.
прил.
2)
мор.
сбежавший, дезертировавший
3) идущий на нерест, нерестящийся
6)
диал.
скисший, свернувшийся
Syn:
Syn:
9) гонимый, преследуемый; измученный погоней, выдохшийся
Syn:
10) продолжающийся, непрерывный
Syn:
Nothing differs more from a true-run race than the ordinary careful gallop used in training. — Настоящие скачки кардинально отличаются от обычного аккуратного галопа при тренировке.
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На основании Вашего запроса эти примеры могут содержать разговорную лексику.
Then word spread out that there was a man who had a heart so powerful that he was capable of surviving even our most deadliest of poisons.
Но затем прошел другой слух, что есть человек с таким сильным сердцем, что оно выдерживает наш смертельный яд.
Frollo was a very smart man and the word about him spread out.
In other words, light spreads out evenly and in all directions from its source.
Word about us spread through out Wallstreet.
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Note: . Anagrams are meaningful words made after rearranging all the letters of the word.
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Stop Words from Breaking Across Lines or Pages in Microsoft Word
by Avantix Learning Team | Updated March 14, 2021
Applies to: Microsoft® Word® 2010, 2013, 2016, 2019 and 365 (Windows)
There are many ways to stop words from splitting across lines in Microsoft Word. If Word is inserting hyphens in a word you don’t want to break across lines, you can turn off automatic hyphenation for the paragraph. You can also keep words or characters (numbers or letters) together in Microsoft Word using nonbreaking spaces or nonbreaking hyphens.
To view nonbreaking spaces, nonbreaking hyphens and paragraph marks:
- Click the Home tab in the Ribbon.
- Click the Show/Hide ¶ in the Paragraph group.
You can turn off the symbols by clicking on the same button.
Recommended article: 14 Timesaving Microsoft Word Selection Shortcuts to Quickly Select Text
Do you want to learn more about Microsoft Word? Check out our virtual classroom or live classroom Word courses >
Turning off automatic hyphenation
In Microsoft Word, automatic hyphenation is turned on by default for normal paragraphs (using the Normal style) so Word may insert hyphens and break words across lines.
To stop words from splitting across lines in a paragraph or paragraphs by turning off automatic hyphenation:
- Select the paragraph or paragraphs.
- Click the Home tab in the Ribbon.
- Click the dialog box launcher on the bottom right corner of the Paragraph group. The Paragraph dialog box appears.
- Click Line and Page Breaks.
- Select or check Don’t Hyphenate.
- Click OK.
Below is the Paragraph dialog box with the option to turn off hyphenation:
You can also turn off automatic hyphenation for multiple paragraphs by editing the style for those paragraphs (for example, the Normal style).
Turning off automatic hyphenation for all new documents
If you prefer to turn off automatic hyphenation for new documents, you can change the default settings.
To turn off automatic hyphenation for new documents based on the default Normal template:
- Create a new blank document (this should be based on the Normal template)..
- Click the Home tab in the Ribbon.
- Click the dialog box launcher on the bottom right corner of the Paragraph group. The Paragraph dialog box appears.
- Click Line and Page Breaks.
- Select or check Don’t Hyphenate.
- Click Set As Default. A dialog box appears.
- Select All documents based on the Normal.dotm template. Note that you can select the current document only.
- Click OK twice.
Stop words from breaking across lines using nonbreaking spaces
If you want words or characters to stay together on the same line, you can use nonbreaking spaces instead of standard spaces.
For example, it is unlikely that you would want the following to break across lines or pages:
416 736 2288
3 M
To insert a nonbreaking space between two words or characters using a keyboard shortcut:
- Position the cursor between the two words or characters you want to keep together (there should be no space between these characters).
- Press Ctrl + Shift + Spacebar. Word inserts a nonbreaking space.
To insert a nonbreaking space between two words or letters using the Insert Symbol dialog box:
- Position the cursor between the two words or characters you want to keep together (there should be no space between these characters).
- Click the Insert tab in the Ribbon.
- Click Insert Symbol and then More Symbols in the drop-down menu. A dialog box appears.
- Select the Special Characters tab.
- Select Nonbreaking space and click Insert.
- Click Close. Word inserts a nonbreaking space.
The Insert Symbol dialog box has two tabs (a tab for Symbols and a tab for Special Characters):
Stop words from breaking across lines using nonbreaking hyphens or dashes
You can also use nonbreaking hyphens or dashes to keep words or characters together.
For example, it is unlikely that you would want the following to break across lines or pages:
co-ordinator
416-736-9943
To insert a nonbreaking hyphen between two words or characters using a keyboard shortcut:
- Position the cursor between the two words or characters you want to keep together (there should be no space between these characters).
- Press Ctrl + Shift + Underscore (_). Word inserts a nonbreaking hyphen.
To insert a nonbreaking hyphen between two words or characters using the Insert Symbol dialog box:
- Position the cursor between the two words or characters you want to keep together (there should be no space between these characters).
- Click the Insert tab in the Ribbon.
- Click Insert Symbol and then More Symbols in the drop-down menu. A dialog box appears.
- Select the Special Characters tab.
- Select Nonbreaking hyphen and click Insert.
- Click Close. Word inserts a nonbreaking hyphen.
It’s common to use nonbreaking spaces and hyphens to keep words or characters together in Microsoft Word and in documents in other programs.
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More resources
How to Insert an Em or En Dash in Microsoft Word
How to View Word Count in Microsoft Word (4 Ways)
How to Find and Replace in Word (and Use Wildcards)
How to Insert a Check Mark or Tick Mark in Word (5 Ways)
Microsoft Word Tricks to Keep Text Together (Paragraphs, Lines or Words)
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The
outline of the problem discussed
1.
The main types of words in English and their morphological structure.
2.
Affixation (or derivation).
3.
Compounding.
4.
Conversion.
5.
Abbreviation (shortening).
Word-formation
is the process of creating new words from the material
available
in the language.
Before
turning to various processes of word-building in English, it would be
useful
to analyze the main types of English words and their morphological
structure.
If
viewed structurally, words appear to be divisible into smaller units
which are
called
morphemes.
Morphemes
do not occur as free forms but only as constituents of
words.
Yet they possess meanings of their own.
All
morphemes are subdivided into two large classes: roots
(or
radicals)
and
affixes.
The
latter, in their turn, fall into prefixes
which
precede the root in the
structure
of the word (as in re-real,
mis-pronounce, un-well) and
suffixes
which
follow
the root (as in teach-er,
cur-able, dict-ate).
Words
which consist of a root and an affix (or several affixes) are called
derived
words or
derivatives
and
are produced by the process of word-building
known
as affixation
(or
derivation).
Derived
words are extremely numerous in the English vocabulary.
Successfully
competing with this structural type is the so-called root
word which
has
only
a root morpheme in its structure. This type is widely represented by
a great
number
of words belonging to the original English stock or to earlier
borrowings
(house,
room, book, work, port, street, table, etc.), and,
in Modern English, has been
greatly
enlarged by the type of word-building called conversion
(e.g.
to
hand, v.
formed
from the noun hand;
to can, v.
from can,
n.;
to
pale,
v. from pale,
adj.;
a
find,
n.
from to
find, v.;
etc.).
Another
wide-spread word-structure is a compound
word consisting
of two or
more
stems (e.g. dining-room,
bluebell, mother-in-law, good-for-nothing).
Words of
this
structural type are produced by the word-building process called
composition.
The
somewhat odd-looking words like flu,
lab, M.P., V-day, H-bomb are
called
curtailed
words and
are produced by the way of word-building called shortening
(abbreviation).
The
four types (root words, derived words, compounds, shortenings)
represent
the
main structural types of Modern English words, and affixation
(derivation),
conversion,
composition and shortening (abbreviation) — the most productive ways
of
word-building.
83
The
process of affixation
consists
in coining a new word by adding an affix or
several
affixes to some root morpheme. The role of the affix in this
procedure is very
important
and therefore it is necessary to consider certain facts about the
main types
of
affixes.
From
the etymological point of view affixes are classified into the same
two
large
groups as words: native and borrowed.
Some
Native Suffixes
-er
worker,
miner,
teacher,
painter,
etc.
-ness
coldness,
loneliness,
loveliness,
etc.
-ing
feeling,
meaning,
singing,
reading,
etc.
-dom
freedom,
wisdom,
kingdom,
etc.
-hood
childhood,
manhood,
motherhood,
etc.
-ship
friendship,
companionship,
mastership,
etc.
Noun-forming
-th
length,
breadth,
health,
truth,
etc.
-ful
careful,
joyful,
wonderful,
sinful,
skilful,
etc.
-less
careless,
sleepless,
cloudless,
senseless,
etc.
-y
cozy,
tidy,
merry,
snowy,
showy,
etc.
-ish
English,
Spanish,
reddish,
childish,
etc.
-ly
lonely,
lovely,
ugly,
likely,
lordly,
etc.
-en
wooden,
woollen,
silken,
golden,
etc.
Adjective-forming
-some
handsome, quarrelsome, tiresome, etc.
Verb-
forming
-en
widen,
redden,
darken,
sadden,
etc.
Adverb-
forming
-ly
warmly,
hardly,
simply,
carefully,
coldly,
etc.
Borrowed
affixes, especially of Romance origin are numerous in the English
vocabulary.
We can recognize words of Latin and French origin by certain suffixes
or
prefixes;
e. g. Latin
affixes:
-ion,
-tion, -ate,
-ute
,
-ct,
-d(e), dis-, -able, -ate,
-ant,
—
ent,
-or, -al, -ar in
such words as opinion,
union, relation, revolution, appreciate,
congratulate,
attribute, contribute, , act, collect, applaud, divide, disable,
disagree,
detestable,
curable, accurate, desperate, arrogant, constant, absent, convenient,
major,
minor, cordial, familiar;
French
affixes –ance,
—ewe,
-ment, -age, -ess, -ous,
en-
in
such words as arrogance,
intelligence, appointment, development, courage,
marriage,
tigress, actress, curious, dangerous, enable, enslaver.
Affixation
includes a) prefixation
–
derivation of words by adding a prefix to
full
words and b) suffixation
–
derivation of words by adding suffixes to bound
stems.
Prefixes
and suffixes have their own valency, that is they may be added not to
any
stem at random, but only to a particular type of stems:
84
Prefix
un-
is
prefixed to adjectives (as: unequal,
unhealthy), or
to adjectives
derived
from verb stems and the suffix -able
(as:
unachievable,
unadvisable), or
to
participial
adjectives (as: unbecoming,
unending, unstressed, unbound); the
suffix —
er
is
added to verbal stems (as: worker,
singer, or
cutter,
lighter), and
to substantive
stems
(as: glover,
needler); the
suffix -able
is
usually tacked on to verb stems (as:
eatable,
acceptable); the
suffix -ity
in
its turn is usually added to adjective stems
with
a passive meaning (as: saleability,
workability), but
the suffix —ness
is
tacked on
to
other adjectives, having the suffix -able
(as:
agreeableness.
profitableness).
Prefixes
and suffixes are semantically distinctive, they have their own
meaning,
while the root morpheme forms the semantic centre of a word. Affixes
play
a
dependent role in the meaning of the word. Suffixes have a
grammatical meaning,
they
indicate or derive a certain part of speech, hence we distinguish:
noun-forming
suffixes,
adjective-forming suffixes, verb-forming suffixes and adverb-forming
suffixes.
Prefixes change or concretize the meaning of the word, as: to
overdo (to
do
too
much),
to underdo (to
do less than one can or is proper),
to outdo (to
do more or
better
than),
to undo (to
unfasten, loosen, destroy the result, ruin),
to misdo (to
do
wrongly
or unproperly).
A
suffix indicates to what semantic group the word belongs. The suffix
-er
shows
that the word is a noun bearing the meaning of a doer of an action,
and the
action
is denoted by the root morpheme or morphemes, as: writer,
sleeper, dancer,
wood-pecker,
bomb-thrower, the
suffix -ion/-tion,
indicates
that it is a noun
signifying
an action or the result of an action, as: translation
‘a
rendering from one
language
into another’ (an
act, process) and
translation
‘the
product of such
rendering’;
nouns with the suffix -ism
signify
a system, doctrine, theory, adherence to
a
system, as: communism,
realism; coinages
from the stem of proper names are
common,.
as Darwinism.
Affixes
can also be classified into productive
and
non-productive
types.
By
productive
affixes we
mean the ones, which take part in deriving new words in a
particular
period of language development. The best way to identify productive
affixes
is to look for them among neologisms
and
so-called nonce-words,
i.e.
words
coined
and used only for this particular occasion. The latter are usually
formed on the
level
of living speech and reflect the most productive and progressive
patterns in
word-building.
When a literary critic writes about a certain book that it is an
unputdownable
thriller, we
will seek in vain this strange and impressive adjective in
dictionaries,
for it is a nonce-word coined on the current pattern of Modern
English
and
is evidence of the high productivity of the adjective-forming
borrowed suffix –
able
and
the native prefix un-,
e.g.: Professor Pringle was a thinnish, baldish,
dyspeptic-lookingish
cove with an eye like a haddock.(From
Right-Ho, Jeeves by P.G.
Wodehouse)
The
adjectives thinnish
and
baldish
bring
to mind dozens of other adjectives
made
with the same suffix: oldish,
youngish, mannish, girlish, fattish, longish,
yellowish,
etc. But
dyspeptic-lookingish
is
the author’s creation aimed at a humorous
effect,
and, at the same time, providing beyond doubt that the suffix –ish
is
a live and
active
one.
85
The
same is well illustrated by the following popular statement: “I
don’t like
Sunday
evenings: I feel so Mondayish”. (Mondayish is
certainly a nonce-word.)
One
should not confuse the productivity of affixes with their frequency
of
occurrence
(use). There are quite a number of high-frequency affixes which,
nevertheless,
are no longer used in word-derivation (e.g. the adjective-forming
native
suffixes
–ful,
-ly; the
adjective-forming suffixes of Latin origin –ant,
-ent, -al which
are
quite frequent).
Some
Productive Affixes
Some
Non-Productive Affixes
Noun-forming
suffixes
-th,
-hood
Adjective-forming
suffixes
—ly,
-some, -en, -ous
Verb-forming
suffix -en
Compound
words are
words derived from two or more stems. It is a very old
word-formation
type and goes back to Old English. In Modern English compounds
are
coined by joining one stem to another by mere juxtaposition, as
raincoat,
keyhole,
pickpocket,
red-hot, writing-table. Each
component of a compound coincides
with
the word. Compounds are the commonest among nouns and adjectives.
Compound
verbs are few in number, as they are mostly the result of conversion
(as,
to
weekend) and
of back-formation (as, to
stagemanage).
From
the point of view of word-structure compounds consist of free stems
and
may
be of different structure: noun stems + noun stem (raincoat);
adjective
stem +
noun
stem (bluebell);
adjective
stem + adjective stem (dark-blue);
gerundial
stem +
noun
stem (writing-table);
verb
stem + post-positive stem (make-up);
adverb
stem +
adjective
stem (out-right);
two
noun stems connected by a preposition (man-of-war)
and
others. There are compounds that have a connecting vowel (as,
speedometer,
handicraft),
but
it is not characteristic of English compounds.
Compounds
may be idiomatic
and
non-idiomatic.
In idiomatic compounds the
meaning
of each component is either lost or weakened, as buttercup
(лютик),
chatter-box
(болтун).
These
are entirely
demotivated compounds. There
are also motivated
compounds,
as lifeboat
(спасательная
лодка). In non-idiomatic compounds the
Noun-forming
suffixes
—er,
-ing,
—ness,
-ism (materialism),
-ist
(impressionist),
-ance
Adjective-forming
suffixes
—y,
-ish, -ed (learned),
—able,
—less
Adverb-forming
suffix
—ly
Verb-forming
suffixes
—ize/-ise
(realize),
—ate
Prefixes
un-
(unhappy),re-
(reconstruct),
dis-
(disappoint)
86
meaning
of each component is retained, as apple-tree,
bedroom, sunlight. There
are
also
many border-line cases.
The
components of compounds may have different semantic relations; from
this
point of view we can roughly classify compounds into endocentric
and
exocentric
compounds.
In endocentric compounds the semantic centre is found
within
the compound and the first element determines the other, as
film-star,
bedroom,
writing-table.
In
exocentric compounds there is no semantic centre, as
scarecrow.
In
Modern English, however, linguists find it difficult to give criteria
for
compound
nouns; it is still a question of hot dispute. The following criteria
may be
offered.
A compound noun is characterized by a) one word or hyphenated
spelling, b)
one
stress, and by c) semantic integrity. These are the so-called
“classical
compounds”.
It
is possible that a compound has only two of these criteria, for
instance, the
compound
words headache,
railway have
one stress and hyphenated or one-word
spelling,
but do not present a semantic unity, whereas the compounds
motor-bike,
clasp-knife
have
hyphenated spelling and idiomatic meaning, but two even stresses
(‘motor-‘bike,
‘clasp-‘knife).
The word apple-tree
is
also a compound; it is spelt either
as
one word or is hyphenated, has one stress (‘apple-tree),
but it is not idiomatic. The
difficulty
of defining a compound lies in spelling which might be misleading, as
there
are
no hard and fast rules of spelling the compounds: three ways of
spelling are
possible:
(‘dockyard,
‘dock yard and
dock-yard).
The
same holds true for the stress
that
may differ from one reference-book to another.
Since
compounds may have two stresses and the stems may be written
separately,
it is difficult to draw the line between compounds proper and nominal
word-combinations
or syntactical combinations. In a combination of words each
element
is stressed and written separately. Compare the attributive
combination
‘black
‘board, a
board which is black (each element has its own meaning; the first
element
modifies the second) and the compound ‘blackboard’,
a
board or a sheet of
slate
used in schools for teaching purposes (the word has one stress and
presents a
semantic
unit). But it is not always easy as that to draw a distinction, as
there are
word-combinations
that may present a semantic unity, take for instance: green
room
(a
room in a theatre for actors and actresses).
Compound
derivatives are
words, usually nouns and adjectives, consisting of
a
compound stem and a suffix, the commonest type being such nouns as:
firstnighter,
type-writer,
bed-sitter, week-ender, house-keeping, well-wisher, threewheeler,
old-timer,
and
the adjectives: blue-eyed,
blond-haired, four-storied, mildhearted,
high-heeled.
The
structure of these nouns is the following: a compound stem
+
the suffix -er,
or
the suffix -ing.
Adjectives
have the structure: a compound stem, containing an adjective (noun,
numeral)
stem and a noun stem + the suffix -ed.
In
Modern English it is an extremely
productive
type of adjectives, e.g.: big-eyed,
long-legged, golden-haired.
In
Modern English it is common practice to distinguish also
semi-suffixes, that
is
word-formative elements that correspond to full words as to their
lexical meaning
and
spelling, as -man,
-proof, -like: seaman, railroadman, waterproof, kiss-proof,
ladylike,
businesslike. The
pronunciation may be the same (cp. proof
[pru:f]
and
87
waterproof
[‘wL:tq
pru:f],
or differ, as is the case with the morpheme -man
(cp.
man
[mxn]
and seaman
[‘si:mqn].
The
commonest is the semi-suffix -man
which
has a more general meaning —
‘a
person of trade or profession or carrying on some work’, as: airman,
radioman,
torpedoman,
postman, cameramen, chairman and
others. Many of them have
synonyms
of a different word structure, as seaman
— sailor, airman — flyer,
workman
— worker; if
not a man but a woman
of
the trade or profession, or a person
carrying
on some work is denoted by the word, the second element is woman,
as
chairwoman,
air-craftwoman, congresswoman, workwoman, airwoman.
Conversion
is
a very productive way of forming new words in English, chiefly
verbs
and not so often — nouns. This type of word formation presents one
of the
characteristic
features of Modern English. By conversion we mean derivation of a
new
word from the stem of a different part of speech without the addition
of any
formatives.
As a result the two words are homonymous, having the same
morphological
structure and belonging to different parts of speech.
Verbs
may be derived from the stem of almost any part of speech, but the
commonest
is the derivation from noun stems as: (a)
tube — (to) tube; (a) doctor —
(to)
doctor, (a) face—(to) face; (a) waltz—(to) waltz; (a) star—(to)
star; from
compound
noun stems as: (a)
buttonhole — (to) buttonhole; week-end — (to) weekend.
Derivations
from the stems of other parts of speech are less common: wrong—
(to)
wrong; up — (to) up; down — (to) down; encore — (to) encore.
Nouns
are
usually
derived from verb stems and may be instanced by such nouns as: (to)
make—
a
make; (to) cut—(a) cut; to bite — (a) bite, (to) drive — (a)
drive; to smoke — (a)
smoke;
(to) walk — (a) walk. Such
formations frequently make part of verb — noun
combinations
as: to
take a walk, to have a smoke, to have a drink, to take a drive, to
take
a bite, to give a smile and
others.
Nouns
may be also derived from verb-postpositive phrases. Such formations
are
very common in Modern English, as for instance: (to)
make up — (a) make-up;
(to)
call up — (a) call-up; (to) pull over — (a) pullover.
New
formations by conversion from simple or root stems are quite usual;
derivatives
from suffixed stems are rare. No verbal derivation from prefixed
stems is
found.
The
derived word and the deriving word are connected semantically. The
semantic
relations between the derived and the deriving word are varied and
sometimes
complicated. To mention only some of them: a) the verb signifies the
act
accomplished
by or by means of the thing denoted by the noun, as: to
finger means
‘to
touch with the finger, turn about in fingers’; to
hand means
‘to give or help with
the
hand, to deliver, transfer by hand’; b) the verb may have the meaning
‘to act as the
person
denoted by the noun does’, as: to
dog means
‘to follow closely’, to
cook — ‘to
prepare
food for the table, to do the work of a cook’; c) the derived verbs
may have
the
meaning ‘to go by’ or ‘to travel by the thing denoted by the noun’,
as, to
train
means
‘to go by train’, to
bus — ‘to
go by bus’, to
tube — ‘to
travel by tube’; d) ‘to
spend,
pass the time denoted by the noun’, as, to
winter ‘to pass
the winter’, to
weekend
— ‘to
spend the week-end’.
88
Derived
nouns denote: a) the act, as a
knock, a hiss, a smoke; or
b) the result of
an
action, as a
cut, a find, a call, a sip, a run.
A
characteristic feature of Modern English is the growing frequency of
new
formations
by conversion, especially among verbs.
Note.
A grammatical homonymy of two words of different parts of speech —
a
verb
and a noun, however, does not necessarily indicate conversion. It may
be the
result
of the loss of endings as well. For instance, if we take the
homonymic pair love
— to
love and
trace it back, we see that the noun love
comes
from Old English lufu,
whereas
the verb to
love—from
Old English lufian,
and
the noun answer
is
traced
back
to the Old English andswaru,
but
the verb to
answer to
Old English
andswarian;
so
that it is the loss of endings that gave rise to homonymy. In the
pair
bus
— (to) bus, weekend — (to) weekend homonymy
is the result of derivation by
conversion.
Shortenings
(abbreviations)
are words produced either by means of clipping
full
word or by shortening word combinations, but having the meaning of
the full
word
or combination. A distinction is to be observed between graphical
and
lexical
shortenings;
graphical abbreviations are signs or symbols that stand for the full
words
or combination of words only in written speech. The commonest form is
an
initial
letter or letters that stand for a word or combination of words. But
to prevent
ambiguity
one or two other letters may be added. For instance: p.
(page),
s.
(see),
b.
b.
(ball-bearing).
Mr
(mister),
Mrs
(missis),
MS
(manuscript),
fig.
(figure). In oral
speech
graphical abbreviations have the pronunciation of full words. To
indicate a
plural
or a superlative letters are often doubled, as: pp.
(pages). It is common practice
in
English to use graphical abbreviations of Latin words, and word
combinations, as:
e.
g. (exampli
gratia), etc.
(et cetera), i.
e. (id
est). In oral speech they are replaced by
their
English equivalents, ‘for
example’,
‘and
so on’,
‘namely‘,
‘that
is’,
‘respectively’.
Graphical
abbreviations are not words but signs or symbols that stand for the
corresponding
words. As for lexical
shortenings,
two main types of lexical
shortenings
may be distinguished: 1) abbreviations
or
clipped
words (clippings)
and
2) initial
words (initialisms).
Abbreviation
or
clipping
is
the result of reduction of a word to one of its
parts:
the meaning of the abbreviated word is that of the full word. There
are different
types
of clipping: 1) back-clipping—the
final part of the word is clipped, as: doc
—
from
doctor,
lab — from
laboratory,
mag — from
magazine,
math — from
mathematics,
prefab —
from prefabricated;
2) fore-clipping
—
the first part of the
word
is clipped as: plane
— from
aeroplane,
phone — from
telephone,
drome —
from
aerodrome.
Fore-clippings
are less numerous in Modern English; 3) the
fore
and
the back parts of the word are clipped and the middle of the word is
retained,
as: tec
— from
detective,
flu — from
influenza.
Words
of this type are few
in
Modern English. Back-clippings are most numerous in Modern English
and are
characterized
by the growing frequency. The original may be a simple word (as,
grad—from
graduate),
a
derivative (as, prep—from
preparation),
a
compound, (as,
foots
— from
footlights,
tails — from
tailcoat),
a
combination of words (as pub —
from
public
house, medico — from
medical
student). As
a result of clipping usually
nouns
are produced, as pram
— from
perambulator,
varsity — for
university.
In
some
89
rare
cases adjectives are abbreviated (as, imposs
—from
impossible,
pi — from
pious),
but
these are infrequent. Abbreviations or clippings are words of one
syllable
or
of two syllables, the final sound being a consonant or a vowel
(represented by the
letter
o), as, trig
(for
trigonometry),
Jap (for
Japanese),
demob (for
demobilized),
lino
(for
linoleum),
mo (for
moment).
Abbreviations
are made regardless of whether the
remaining
syllable bore the stress in the full word or not (cp. doc
from
doctor,
ad
from
advertisement).
The
pronunciation of abbreviations usually coincides with the
corresponding
syllable in the full word, if the syllable is stressed: as, doc
[‘dOk]
from
doctor
[‘dOktq];
if it is an unstressed syllable in the full word the pronunciation
differs,
as the abbreviation has a full pronunciation: as, ad
[xd],
but advertisement
[qd’vq:tismqnt].
There may be some differences in spelling connected with the
pronunciation
or with the rules of English orthoepy, as mike
— from
microphone,
bike
— from
bicycle,
phiz —
from physiognomy,
lube — from
lubrication.
The
plural
form
of the full word or combinations of words is retained in the
abbreviated word,
as,
pants
— from
pantaloons,
digs — from
diggings.
Abbreviations
do not differ from full words in functioning; they take the plural
ending
and that of the possessive case and make any part of a sentence.
New
words may be derived from the stems of abbreviated words by
conversion
(as
to
demob, to taxi, to perm) or
by affixation, chiefly by adding the suffix —y,
-ie,
deriving
diminutives and petnames (as, hanky
— from
handkerchief,
nighty (nightie)
— from
nightgown,
unkie — from
uncle,
baccy — from
tobacco,
aussie — from
Australians,
granny (ie)
— from grandmother).
In
this way adjectives also may be
derived
(as: comfy
— from
comfortable,
mizzy — from
miserable).
Adjectives
may be
derived
also by adding the suffix -ee,
as:
Portugee
— for
Portuguese,
Chinee — for
Chinese.
Abbreviations
do not always coincide in meaning with the original word, for
instance:
doc
and
doctor
have
the meaning ‘one who practises medicine’, but doctor
is
also
‘the highest degree given by a university to a scholar or scientist
and ‘a person
who
has received such a degree’ whereas doc
is
not used in these meanings. Among
abbreviations
there are homonyms, so that one and the same sound and graphical
complex
may represent different words, as vac
(vacation), vac (vacuum cleaner);
prep
(preparation), prep (preparatory school). Abbreviations
usually have synonyms
in
literary English, the latter being the corresponding full words. But
they are not
interchangeable,
as they are words of different styles of speech. Abbreviations are
highly
colloquial; in most cases they belong to slang. The moment the longer
word
disappears
from the language, the abbreviation loses its colloquial or slangy
character
and
becomes a literary word, for instance, the word taxi
is
the abbreviation of the
taxicab
which,
in its turn, goes back to taximeter
cab; both
words went out of use,
and
the word taxi
lost
its stylistic colouring.
Initial
abbreviations (initialisms)
are words — nouns — produced by
shortening
nominal combinations; each component of the nominal combination is
shortened
up to the initial letter and the initial letters of all the words of
the
combination
make a word, as: YCL — Young
Communist League, MP
—
Member
of Parliament. Initial
words are distinguished by their spelling in capital
letters
(often separated by full stops) and by their pronunciation — each
letter gets
90
its
full alphabetic pronunciation and a full stress, thus making a new
word as R.
A.
F. [‘a:r’ei’ef] — Royal
Air Force; TUC.
[‘ti:’ju:’si:] — Trades
Union Congress.
Some
of initial words may be pronounced in accordance with the’ rules of
orthoepy,
as N. A. T. O. [‘neitou], U. N. O. [‘ju:nou], with the stress on the
first
syllable.
The
meaning of the initial word is that of the nominal combination. In
speech
initial words function like nouns; they take the plural suffix, as
MPs, and
the
suffix of the possessive case, as MP’s, POW’s.
In
Modern English the commonest practice is to use a full combination
either
in
the heading or in the text and then quote this combination by giving
the first initial
of
each word. For instance, «Jack Bruce is giving UCS concert»
(the heading). «Jack
Bruce,
one of Britain’s leading rock-jazz musicians, will give a benefit
concert in
London
next week to raise money for the Upper Clyde shop stewards’ campaign»
(Morning
Star).
New
words may be derived from initial words by means of adding affixes,
as
YCL-er,
ex-PM, ex-POW; MP’ess, or adding the semi-suffix —man,
as
GI-man.
As
soon
as the corresponding combination goes out of use the initial word
takes its place
and
becomes fully established in the language and its spelling is in
small letters, as
radar
[‘reidq]
— radio detecting and ranging, laser
[‘leizq]
— light amplification by
stimulated
emission of radiation; maser
[‘meizq]
— microwave amplification by
stimulated
emission of radiation. There are also semi-shortenings, as, A-bomb
(atom
bomb),
H-bomber
(hydrogen
bomber), U-boat
(Untersee
boat) — German submarine.
The
first component of the nominal combination is shortened up to the
initial letter,
the
other component (or components) being full words.
4.7.
ENGLISH PHRASEOLOGY: STRUCTURAL AND SEMANTIC
PECULIARITIES
OF PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS, THEIR CLASSIFICATION
The
outline of the problem discussed
1.
Main approaches to the definition of a phraseological unit in
linguistics.
2.
Different classifications of phraseological units.
3.
Grammatical and lexical modifications of phraseological units in
speech.
In
linguistics there are two main theoretical schools treating the
problems of
English
phraseology — that of N.N.Amosova and that of A. V. Kunin. We shall
not
dwell
upon these theories in detail, but we shall try to give the guiding
principles of
each
of the authors. According to the theory of N.N. Amosova. A
phraseological unit
is
a unit of constant context. It is a stable combination of words in
which either one of
the
components has a phraseologically bound meaning — a phraseme: white
lie –
невинная
ложь, husband
tea —
жидкий чай), or the meaning of each component is
weakened,
or entirely lost – (an idiom: red
tape —
бюрократия, mare’s
nest —
абсурд).
A. V. Kunin’s theory is based on the concept of specific stability at
the
phraseological
level; phraseological units are crtaracterized by a certain minimum
of
phraseological
stability. A.V. Kunin distinguishes stability of usage, structural
and
semantic
stability, stability of meaning and lexical constituents,
morphological
stability
and syntactical stability. The degree of stability may vary so that
there are
91
several
‘limits’ of stability. But whatever the degree of stability might
be, it is the
idiomatic
meaning that makes the characteristic feature of a phraseological
unit.
There
is one trend more worth mentioning in the theory of English
phraseology
that
of A. I. Smirnitsky. A.I. Smirnitsky takes as his guiding principle
the equivalence
of
a phraseological unit to a word. There are two characteristic
features that make a
phraseological
unit equivalent to a word, namely, the integrity of meaning and the
fact
that both the word and the phraseological unit are ready-made units
which are
reproduced
in speech and are not organized at the speaker’s will.
Whatever
the theory the term phraseology is applied to stable combinations of
words
characterized by the integrity of meaning which is completely or
partially
transferred,
e. g.: to
lead the dance проявлять
инициативу; to
take the cake
одержать
победу. Phraseological units are not to be mixed up with stable
combinations
of words that have their literal meaning, and are of non
phraseological
character,
e.g. the
back of the head, to come to an end.
Among
the phraseological units N.N.Amosova distinguishes idioms,
i.e.
phraseological
units characterized by the integral meaning of the whole, with the
meaning
of each component weakened or entirely lost. Hence, there are
motivated
and
demotivated
idioms.
In a motivated idiom the meaning of each component is
dependent
upon the transferred meaning of the whole idiom, e. g. to
look through
one’s
fingers (смотреть
сквозь пальцы); to
show one’s cards (раскрыть
свои
карты).
Phraseological units like these are homonymous to free syntactical
combinations.
Demotivated idioms are characterized by the integrity of meaning as a
whole,
with the meaning of each of the components entirely lost, e. g. white
elephant
(обременительное
или разорительное имущество), or to
show the white feather
(cтpycить).
But there are no hard and fast boundaries between them and there may
be
many
borderline cases. The second type of phraseological units in N.N.
Amosova’s
classification
is a phraseme.
It is a combination of words one element of which has a
phraseologically
bound meaning, e. g. small
years (детские
годы); small
beer
(слабое
пиво).
According
to A.I. Smirnitsky phraseological units may be classified in respect
to
their structure into one-summit
and
many-summit
phraseological units.
Onesummit
phraseological
units are composed of a notional and a form word, as, in
the
soup
—
быть в затруднительном положении, at
hand —
рядом, under
a cloud –
в
плохом
настроении, by
heart —
наизусть,
in the pink –
в расцвете. Many-summit
phraseological
units are composed of two or more notional words and form words as,
to
take the bull by the horns —
взять быка зарога,
to wear one’s heart on one’s
sleeve
—
выставлять свои чувства на показ, to
kill the goose that laid the golden
eggs
—
уничтожить источник благосостояния;
to
know on which side one’s bread
is
buttered —
быть себе на уме.
Academician
V.V.Vinogradov’s classification is based on the degree of
idiomaticity
and distinguishes three groups of phraseological units:
phraseological
fusions,
phraseological unities, phraseological collocations.
Phraseological
fusions are
completely non-motivated word-groups, e.g.: red
tape
– ‘bureaucratic
methods’; kick
the bucket – die,
etc. Phraseological
unities are
92
partially
non-motivated as their meaning can usually be understood through the
metaphoric
meaning of the whole phraseological unit, e.g.: to
show one’s teeth –
‘take
a threatening tone’; to
wash one’s dirty linen in public – ‘discuss
or make public
one’s
quarrels’.
Phraseological
collocations are
motivated but they are made up of
words
possessing specific lexical combinability which accounts for a
strictly limited
combinability
of member-words, e.g.: to
take a liking (fancy) but
not to
take hatred
(disgust).
There
are synonyms among phraseological units, as, through
thick and thin, by
hook
or by crook, for love or money —
во что бы то ни стало; to
pull one’s leg, to
make
a fool of somebody —
дурачить;
to hit the right nail on the head, to get the
right
sow by the ear —
попасть в точку.
Some
idioms have a variable component, though this variability is.
strictly
limited
as to the number and as to words themselves. The interchangeable
components
may be either synonymous, as
to fling (or throw) one’s (or the) cap over
the
mill (or windmill), to put (or set) one’s (or the) best foot first
(foremost, foreward)
or
different words, not connected semantically,
as to be (or sound, or read) like a
fairy
tale.
Some
of the idioms are polysemantic, as, at
large —
1) на свободе, 2) в
открытом
море, на большом пространстве, 3) без
определенной цели, 4) не
попавший
в цель, 5) свободный, без определенных
занятий, 6) имеющий
широкие
полномочия, 7) подробно, во всем объеме,
в целом, 9) вообще, не
конкретно.
It
is the context or speech situation that individualizes the meaning of
the
idiom
in each case.
When
functioning in speech, phraseological units form part of a sentence
and
consequently
may undergo grammatical and lexical changes. Grammatical changes
are
connected with the grammatical system of the language as a whole,
e.g.: He
didn’t
work,
and he spent a great deal of money, and he
painted the town red.
(W. S.
Maugham)
(to
paint the town red —
предаваться веселью). Here
the infinitive is
changed
into the Past Indefinite. Components of an idiom can be used in
different
clauses,
e.g.: …I
had to put up with, the
bricks they
dropped,
and their embarassment
when
they realized what they’d done.
(W. S. Maugham) (to
drop a brick —
допустить
бестактность).
Possessive
pronouns or nouns in the possessive case may be also added, as:
…the
apple of his uncle’s eye…(A.
Christie) (the
apple of one’s eye —
зеница ока).
But
there are phraseological units that do not undergo any changes, e.
g.: She
was
the friend in adversity; other people’s business was meat
and drink to her. (W.
S.
Maugham) (be)
meat and drink (to somebody)
— необходимо как воздух.
Thus,
we distinguish changeable and unchangeable phraseological units.
Lexical
changes are much more complicated and much more various. Lexical
modifications
of idioms achieve a stylistic and expressive effect. It is an
expressive
device
at the disposal of the writer or of the speaker. It is the integrity
of meaning that
makes
any modifications in idioms possible. Whatever modifications or
changes an
idiom
might’ undergo, the integrity of meaning is never broken. Idioms may
undergo
93
various
modifications. To take only some of them: a word or more may be
inserted to
intensify
and concretize the meaning, making it applicable to this particular
situation:
I
hate the idea of Larry making such
a mess of
his life.
(W. S. Maugham) Here the
word
such
intensifies
the meaning of the idiom. I
wasn’t keen on washing
this kind of
dirty
linen in
public. (C.
P. Snow) In this case the inserted this
kind makes
the
situation
concrete.
To
make the utterance more expressive one of the components of the idiom
may
be replaced by some other. Compare: You’re
a
dog in the manger,
aren’t you,
dear?
and: It was true enough: indeed she was a
bitch in the manger.
(A.
Christie)
The
word bitch
has
its own lexical meaning, which, however, makes part of the
meaning
of the whole idiom.
One
or more components of the idiom may be left out, but the integrity of
meaning
of the whole idiom is retained, e.g.: «I’ve
never spoken to you or anyone else
about
the last election. I suppose I’ve got to now. It’s better to
let it lie,»
said Brown.
(C.
P. Snow) In the idiom let
sleeping dogs lie two
of the elements are missing and it
refers
to the preceding text.
In
the following text the idiom to
have a card up one’s sleeve is
modified:
Bundle
wondered vaguely what it was that Bill had
or thought he had-up in his
sleeve.
(A, Christie) The component card
is
dropped and the word have
realizes
its
lexical
meaning. As a result an, allusive metaphor is achieved.
The
following text presents an interesting instance of modification: She
does
not
seem to think you are a
snake in the grass,
though she sees a good deal of grass
for
a snake to be in. (E.
Bowen) In the first part of the sentence the idiom a
snake in
the
grass is
used, and in the second part the words snake
and
grass
have
their own
lexical
meanings, which are, however, connected with the integral meaning of
the
idiom.
Lexical
modifications are made for stylistic purposes so as to create an
expressive
allusive metaphor.
LITERATURE
1.
Arnold I.V. The English Word. – М., 1986.
2.
Antrushina G.B. English Lexicology. – М., 1999.
3.
Ginzburg R.Z., Khidekel S.S. A Course in Modern English
Lexicology. – М.,
1975.
4.
Kashcheyeva M.A. Potapova I.A. Practical English lexicology. – L.,
1974.
5.
Raevskaya N.N. English Lexicology. – К., 1971.