Конспекты лекций
A
Course in Modern English Lexicology. The English Word.
1.
The object of lexicology.
2.
The notion of the lexical system.
3.
Some problems of the theory of words. Types of motivation.
Lexicology
is a branch of linguistics which studies words and their usage.
Lexicology studies the meaning of a word, its structure,
combinability, its formation. It investigates different types of word
groups. General
lexicology
studies linguistic laws, rules, processes in general, characteristic
of various languages. Special
lexicology either deals with a certain language. Or it studies the
language from other aspects (historical, applied, descriptive, etc.).
Lexicology
is connected with Grammar, Phonetics, Stylistics, History of this or
that language and other linguistic disciplines.
Any
language is also a system. For example, the significance of the word
hand
depends
on its relationship with the word arm.
Secondly,
it’s a lexical system because it’s a system of words.
Within
the system of the English language lexical units form some principal
types of relationships: syntagmatic and paradigmatic (e.g. within
such groups as synonyms, antonyms).
The
basic unit of the lexicology is the word. To give definition to the
word is a very difficult task as the word has many different aspects:
it has its own sound form and some grammar forms. Also words are
units of speech, they serve the purposes of human communication.
The
modern approach to word studies distinguishes the external
and the internal
structures of the word. By the external
structure of the word we mean its morphological structure: prefixes,
suffixes, roots, etc. The internal
structure of the word is its meaning or its semantic structure. The
area of lexicology specializing in the semantic studies of the word
is called semantics.
Another
structural aspect of the word is its unity
(единство).
There are about 500 thousand words in the English language.
The
question of motivation is connected with the meaning of a word. The
majority of words do not show any motivation. However if it exists,
it is of three types: 1) phonetic; 2) morphological (structural); 3)
semantic.
Very
often we meet words with mixed
motivation.
The
Origin of English Words
1)The
etymological diversity of the English vocabulary.
2)Words
of native origin.
3)General
features of borrowings.
4)The
assimilation of borrowings.
5)Interrelation
between native words and borrowings.
6)International
words.
The
English vocabulary contains a huge number of words of foreign origin.
Modern scholars suppose that borrowed words in the English language
make about 65-70%. Mostly they come from Latin, French. About 650
words were borrowed from Scandinavian languages.
The
character of borrowings depends on the period of British history
when they were borrowed.
There
can be an original (primary) language and a transmitting one.
E.g.
table
→ Latin (original – tabula)
→ French (trans.) → English.
There
can be two ways of borrowing words: 1)while talking/ communicating;
2)in an indirect way (through literature).
Native
words make the backbone of the English language, though they are few
in number. Sometimes native words are called Old-English or
Anglo-Saxon. They form 2
groups:
of common Indo-European origin; of common Germanic origin.
Sometimes
scientists distinguish words of the English proper element – words
that don’t have similar representatives in other Indo-European or
Germanic languages (their roots or other elements are different).
Native words in general are the
most active part of the vocabulary.
Among the 500 most frequently used English words more than 80% are of
native origin. They are often used in word-building (word-formation).
Borrowings
can be identified by their structural, phonetical, grammatical
features. Foe example, you can recognize words of Latin and French
origin by certain suffixes, prefixes or endings.
Borrowings
undergo a process of adaptation being adjusted to the rules of the
receiving language.
Grammatical
adaptation
consists in a complete change of the former paradigm (the system of
the grammatical forms) of the borrowed word.
Lexical
(semantic)
assimilation deals with changes in the semantic structure of a word,
in its meaning.
Phonetical
assimilation
is reflected in changes of the sound-form and stress.
Some
words were adopted by the language through folk etymology (ironical
misunderstanding of the meaning of a word).
There
can be distinguished: -completely-assimilated borrowings (denizens);
-late borrowings (aliens); -barbarisms (not quite assimilated, with a
distinct stylistic colour).
Borrowed
words caused some important changes in the make-up of the English
vocabulary. Some borrowings became so popular that completely
replaced native words. Borrowed words also influenced specialization
of synonyms.
Borrowed words are higher in style, they sound bookish. They are
learned words or terms.
The
difference can be seen if we compare French and Scandinavian loans
(borrowed words). Words of Scandinavian origin are democratic in
character, that is, homely expressions of everyday importance.
If
we look at other relations between native and borrowed words, we will
come across etymological
doublets.
These are words originating from the same etymological source, but
differing in phonemic shape and in meaning.
There
can be even etymological triplets (groups of three words of common
root).
Very
often a word is borrowed by several languages. Such words are called
international. Many of them are of Latin and Greek origin.
Among
international words we should distinguish translator’s
false friends and
translation-loans.
The
Structure and Formation of English Words
1)Types
of morphemes.
2)Word-structure
and its development. The root, the stem and patterns of
word-structure.
3)Peculiarities
and types of word-formation.
A
lot of (English) words have a composite structure; they consist of
elements called morphemes.
Morphemes
–
the smallest meaningful units in a language (which consist of a word
or part of a word that cannot be divided without losing its meaning)
(Longman);
e.g. gun + fight + er – 3
morphemes.
All
morphemes are subdivided into 2 large classes: root
morphemes
and affixational
morphemes.
Affixational morphemes include suffixes and prefixes.
Some
words consist only of one root morpheme. They are called root
words.
There are a lot of root words in the English language thanks to the
type of word-building called conversion.
Naturally
root morphemes make words, but affixational morphemes can’t make
words as a rule. The root
morpheme
is the lexical nucleus of the word. They contain
the main lexical
meaning
of the word.
Affixational
morphemes include derivational
affixes (such as –er, -or, -ness and so on), inflexional
affixes
(which carry the grammatical meaning of the word – looked,
the girl’s
smile).
Also
morphemes can be free
and bound.
Free morphemes can function independently, as independent words.
Usually they are root morphemes, though there can be exceptions.
There
can be morphemes which have different phonemic shapes. Such elements
are called allomorphs.
Speaking
about the structure of words, it depends on different morphemes which
they include. According to their structure (English) words are
classified into:
1)root
words (cat);
2)derived
words (built with the help of some derivational affixes –
beautiful);
3)compound
words (consist of at least 2 root morphemes – football);
4)compound
derivatives (include not only root morphemes, but also derivational
ones – pig-headed).
The
largest class of the 4 above will be derived words.
Apart
from some certain structure, each word has a paradigm
–
the system of all its forms (mostly grammatical).
There
are also variants
of words.
These variants form 2 groups:
1)lexico-semantic
variants of polysemantic words;
2)
phonetic and morphological variants.
The
structure of a word undergoes changes, it can be developed.
Some
morphemes can be fused (joined) or lost in the course of time.
As
for the notion of the root of the word, it’s clear. We need another
notion to speak about patterns of word-structure. The stem
is
that part of the word that remains unchanged throughout the paradigm.
In the English language the root and the stem of a word often
coincide (can be the same).
The
stem structure may be represented in several ways. It may be
generalized with the help of symbols: n – for nouns, v – for
verbs, adj – for adjectives, adv – for adverbs and so on.
All
living languages are characterized by the creation of new words. This
process is called word-building or word-formation – the process of
creating new words from elements existing in the language with the
help of some patterns. That is, if the pattern V + able
exists
in English we can create words according to it.
New
words can appear because of some semantic changes of the word
(changes in the lexical meaning).
Derivation,
conversion, semantic development are quite productive. As for
non-productive ways of word-formation (not really spread), they are:
sound-interchange (blood – to bleed); back-formation (baby-sitter –
to baby-sit).
Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
- #
WORD STRUCTURE IN MODERN ENGLISH
I. The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes. Types of morphemes. Allomorphs.
II. Structural types of words.
III. Principles of morphemic analysis.
IV. Derivational level of analysis. Stems. Types of stems. Derivational types of words.
I. The morphological structure of a word. Morphemes. Types of Morphemes. Allomorphs.
There are two levels of approach to the study of word- structure: the level of morphemic analysis and the level of derivational or word-formation analysis.
Word is the principal and basic unit of the language system, the largest on the morphologic and the smallest on the syntactic plane of linguistic analysis.
It has been universally acknowledged that a great many words have a composite nature and are made up of morphemes, the basic units on the morphemic level, which are defined as the smallest indivisible two-facet language units.
The term morpheme is derived from Greek morphe “form ”+ -eme. The Greek suffix –eme has been adopted by linguistic to denote the smallest unit or the minimum distinctive feature.
The morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of form. A form in these cases a recurring discrete unit of speech. Morphemes occur in speech only as constituent parts of words, not independently, although a word may consist of single morpheme. Even a cursory examination of the morphemic structure of English words reveals that they are composed of morphemes of different types: root-morphemes and affixational morphemes. Words that consist of a root and an affix are called derived words or derivatives and are produced by the process of word building known as affixation (or derivation).
The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of the word; it has a very general and abstract lexical meaning common to a set of semantically related words constituting one word-cluster, e.g. (to) teach, teacher, teaching. Besides the lexical meaning root-morphemes possess all other types of meaning proper to morphemes except the part-of-speech meaning which is not found in roots.
Affixational morphemes include inflectional affixes or inflections and derivational affixes. Inflections carry only grammatical meaning and are thus relevant only for the formation of word-forms. Derivational affixes are relevant for building various types of words. They are lexically always dependent on the root which they modify. They possess the same types of meaning as found in roots, but unlike root-morphemes most of them have the part-of-speech meaning which makes them structurally the important part of the word as they condition the lexico-grammatical class the word belongs to. Due to this component of their meaning the derivational affixes are classified into affixes building different parts of speech: nouns, verbs, adjectives or adverbs.
Roots and derivational affixes are generally easily distinguished and the difference between them is clearly felt as, e.g., in the words helpless, handy, blackness, Londoner, refill, etc.: the root-morphemes help-, hand-, black-, London-, fill-, are understood as the lexical centers of the words, and –less, -y, -ness, -er, re- are felt as morphemes dependent on these roots.
Distinction is also made of free and bound morphemes.
Free morphemes coincide with word-forms of independently functioning words. It is obvious that free morphemes can be found only among roots, so the morpheme boy- in the word boy is a free morpheme; in the word undesirable there is only one free morpheme desire-; the word pen-holder has two free morphemes pen- and hold-. It follows that bound morphemes are those that do not coincide with separate word- forms, consequently all derivational morphemes, such as –ness, -able, -er are bound. Root-morphemes may be both free and bound. The morphemes theor- in the words theory, theoretical, or horr- in the words horror, horrible, horrify; Angl- in Anglo-Saxon; Afr- in Afro-Asian are all bound roots as there are no identical word-forms.
It should also be noted that morphemes may have different phonemic shapes. In the word-cluster please , pleasing , pleasure , pleasant the phonemic shapes of the word stand in complementary distribution or in alternation with each other. All the representations of the given morpheme, that manifest alternation are called allomorphs/or morphemic variants/ of that morpheme.
The combining form allo- from Greek allos “other” is used in linguistic terminology to denote elements of a group whose members together consistute a structural unit of the language (allophones, allomorphs). Thus, for example, -ion/ -tion/ -sion/ -ation are the positional variants of the same suffix, they do not differ in meaning or function but show a slight difference in sound form depending on the final phoneme of the preceding stem. They are considered as variants of one and the same morpheme and called its allomorphs.
Allomorph is defined as a positional variant of a morpheme occurring in a specific environment and so characterized by complementary description.
Complementary distribution is said to take place, when two linguistic variants cannot appear in the same environment.
Different morphemes are characterized by contrastive distribution, i.e. if they occur in the same environment they signal different meanings. The suffixes –able and –ed, for instance, are different morphemes, not allomorphs, because adjectives in –able mean “ capable of beings”.
Allomorphs will also occur among prefixes. Their form then depends on the initials of the stem with which they will assimilate.
Two or more sound forms of a stem existing under conditions of complementary distribution may also be regarded as allomorphs, as, for instance, in long a: length n.
II. Structural types of words.
The morphological analysis of word- structure on the morphemic level aims at splitting the word into its constituent morphemes – the basic units at this level of analysis – and at determining their number and types. The four types (root words, derived words, compound, shortenings) represent the main structural types of Modern English words, and conversion, derivation and composition the most productive ways of word building.
According to the number of morphemes words can be classified into monomorphic and polymorphic. Monomorphic or root-words consist of only one root-morpheme, e.g. small, dog, make, give, etc. All polymorphic word fall into two subgroups: derived words and compound words – according to the number of root-morphemes they have. Derived words are composed of one root-morpheme and one or more derivational morphemes, e.g. acceptable, outdo, disagreeable, etc. Compound words are those which contain at least two root-morphemes, the number of derivational morphemes being insignificant. There can be both root- and derivational morphemes in compounds as in pen-holder, light-mindedness, or only root-morphemes as in lamp-shade, eye-ball, etc.
These structural types are not of equal importance. The clue to the correct understanding of their comparative value lies in a careful consideration of: 1)the importance of each type in the existing wordstock, and 2) their frequency value in actual speech. Frequency is by far the most important factor. According to the available word counts made in different parts of speech, we find that derived words numerically constitute the largest class of words in the existing wordstock; derived nouns comprise approximately 67% of the total number, adjectives about 86%, whereas compound nouns make about 15% and adjectives about 4%. Root words come to 18% in nouns, i.e. a trifle more than the number of compound words; adjectives root words come to approximately 12%.
But we cannot fail to perceive that root-words occupy a predominant place. In English, according to the recent frequency counts, about 60% of the total number of nouns and 62% of the total number of adjectives in current use are root-words. Of the total number of adjectives and nouns, derived words comprise about 38% and 37% respectively while compound words comprise an insignificant 2% in nouns and 0.2% in adjectives. Thus it is the root-words that constitute the foundation and the backbone of the vocabulary and that are of paramount importance in speech. It should also be mentioned that root words are characterized by a high degree of collocability and a complex variety of meanings in contrast with words of other structural types whose semantic structures are much poorer. Root- words also serve as parent forms for all types of derived and compound words.
III. Principles of morphemic analysis.
In most cases the morphemic structure of words is transparent enough and individual morphemes clearly stand out within the word. The segmentation of words is generally carried out according to the method of Immediate and Ultimate Constituents. This method is based on the binary principle, i.e. each stage of the procedure involves two components the word immediately breaks into. At each stage these two components are referred to as the Immediate Constituents. Each Immediate Constituent at the next stage of analysis is in turn broken into smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is completed when we arrive at constituents incapable of further division, i.e. morphemes. These are referred to Ultimate Constituents.
A synchronic morphological analysis is most effectively accomplished by the procedure known as the analysis into Immediate Constituents. ICs are the two meaningful parts forming a large linguistic unity.
The method is based on the fact that a word characterized by morphological divisibility is involved in certain structural correlations. To sum up: as we break the word we obtain at any level only ICs one of which is the stem of the given word. All the time the analysis is based on the patterns characteristic of the English vocabulary. As a pattern showing the interdependence of all the constituents segregated at various stages, we obtain the following formula:
un+ { [ ( gent- + -le ) + -man ] + -ly}
Breaking a word into its Immediate Constituents we observe in each cut the structural order of the constituents.
A diagram presenting the four cuts described looks as follows:
1. un- / gentlemanly
2. un- / gentleman / — ly
3. un- / gentle / — man / — ly
4. un- / gentl / — e / — man / — ly
A similar analysis on the word-formation level showing not only the morphemic constituents of the word but also the structural pattern on which it is built.
The analysis of word-structure at the morphemic level must proceed to the stage of Ultimate Constituents. For example, the noun friendliness is first segmented into the ICs: [frendlı-] recurring in the adjectives friendly-looking and friendly and [-nıs] found in a countless number of nouns, such as unhappiness, blackness, sameness, etc. the IC [-nıs] is at the same time an UC of the word, as it cannot be broken into any smaller elements possessing both sound-form and meaning. Any further division of –ness would give individual speech-sounds which denote nothing by themselves. The IC [frendlı-] is next broken into the ICs [-lı] and [frend-] which are both UCs of the word.
Morphemic analysis under the method of Ultimate Constituents may be carried out on the basis of two principles: the so-called root-principle and affix principle.
According to the affix principle the splitting of the word into its constituent morphemes is based on the identification of the affix within a set of words, e.g. the identification of the suffix –er leads to the segmentation of words singer, teacher, swimmer into the derivational morpheme – er and the roots teach- , sing-, drive-.
According to the root-principle, the segmentation of the word is based on the identification of the root-morpheme in a word-cluster, for example the identification of the root-morpheme agree- in the words agreeable, agreement, disagree.
As a rule, the application of these principles is sufficient for the morphemic segmentation of words.
However, the morphemic structure of words in a number of cases defies such analysis, as it is not always so transparent and simple as in the cases mentioned above. Sometimes not only the segmentation of words into morphemes, but the recognition of certain sound-clusters as morphemes become doubtful which naturally affects the classification of words. In words like retain, detain, contain or receive, deceive, conceive, perceive the sound-clusters [rı-], [dı-] seem to be singled quite easily, on the other hand, they undoubtedly have nothing in common with the phonetically identical prefixes re-, de- as found in words re-write, re-organize, de-organize, de-code. Moreover, neither the sound-cluster [rı-] or [dı-], nor the [-teın] or [-sı:v] possess any lexical or functional meaning of their own. Yet, these sound-clusters are felt as having a certain meaning because [rı-] distinguishes retain from detain and [-teın] distinguishes retain from receive.
It follows that all these sound-clusters have a differential and a certain distributional meaning as their order arrangement point to the affixal status of re-, de-, con-, per- and makes one understand —tain and –ceive as roots. The differential and distributional meanings seem to give sufficient ground to recognize these sound-clusters as morphemes, but as they lack lexical meaning of their own, they are set apart from all other types of morphemes and are known in linguistic literature as pseudo- morphemes. Pseudo- morphemes of the same kind are also encountered in words like rusty-fusty.
IV. Derivational level of analysis. Stems. Types of Stems. Derivational types of word.
The morphemic analysis of words only defines the constituent morphemes, determining their types and their meaning but does not reveal the hierarchy of the morphemes comprising the word. Words are no mere sum totals of morpheme, the latter reveal a definite, sometimes very complex interrelation. Morphemes are arranged according to certain rules, the arrangement differing in various types of words and particular groups within the same types. The pattern of morpheme arrangement underlies the classification of words into different types and enables one to understand how new words appear in the language. These relations within the word and the interrelations between different types and classes of words are known as derivative or word- formation relations.
The analysis of derivative relations aims at establishing a correlation between different types and the structural patterns words are built on. The basic unit at the derivational level is the stem.
The stem is defined as that part of the word which remains unchanged throughout its paradigm, thus the stem which appears in the paradigm (to) ask ( ), asks, asked, asking is ask-; thestem of the word singer ( ), singer’s, singers, singers’ is singer-. It is the stem of the word that takes the inflections which shape the word grammatically as one or another part of speech.
The structure of stems should be described in terms of IC’s analysis, which at this level aims at establishing the patterns of typical derivative relations within the stem and the derivative correlation between stems of different types.
There are three types of stems: simple, derived and compound.
Simple stems are semantically non-motivated and do not constitute a pattern on analogy with which new stems may be modeled. Simple stems are generally monomorphic and phonetically identical with the root morpheme. The derivational structure of stems does not always coincide with the result of morphemic analysis. Comparison proves that not all morphemes relevant at the morphemic level are relevant at the derivational level of analysis. It follows that bound morphemes and all types of pseudo- morphemes are irrelevant to the derivational structure of stems as they do not meet requirements of double opposition and derivative interrelations. So the stem of such words as retain, receive, horrible, pocket, motion, etc. should be regarded as simple, non- motivated stems.
Derived stems are built on stems of various structures though which they are motivated, i.e. derived stems are understood on the basis of the derivative relations between their IC’s and the correlated stems. The derived stems are mostly polymorphic in which case the segmentation results only in one IC that is itself a stem, the other IC being necessarily a derivational affix.
Derived stems are not necessarily polymorphic.
Compound stems are made up of two IC’s, both of which are themselves stems, for example match-box, driving-suit, pen-holder, etc. It is built by joining of two stems, one of which is simple, the other derived.
In more complex cases the result of the analysis at the two levels sometimes seems even to contracted one another.
The derivational types of words are classified according to the structure of their stems into simple, derived and compound words.
Derived words are those composed of one root- morpheme and one or more derivational morpheme.
Compound words contain at least two root- morphemes, the number of derivational morphemes being insignificant.
Derivational compound is a word formed by a simultaneous process of composition and derivational.
Compound words proper are formed by joining together stems of word already available in the language.
Теги:
Word structure in modern english
Реферат
Английский
Просмотров: 27758
Найти в Wikkipedia статьи с фразой: Word structure in modern english
1. LECTURE 4 WORD STRUCTURE AND WORD FORMATION www.philology.bsu.by/кафедры/кафедра английского языкознания/учебные материалы/кафедра английского языкознания/папки преп
LEXICOLOGY COURSE
LECTURE 4
WORD STRUCTURE AND
WORD FORMATION
www.philology.bsu.by/кафедры/кафедра английского
языкознания/учебные материалы/кафедра английского
языкознания/папки преподавателей/Толстоухова В.Ф.
2. The questions under consideration
1. Morpheme. Allomorph
2. Word Structure
3. Immediate Constituents Analysis
4. Affixation
5. Conversion
6. Word-Composition
6.1. Properties of compounds
7. Other Types of Word Formation
3. Word-formation (definition)
Word-formation is the branch of
lexicology that studies
the derivative structure of existing words
and
the patterns on which a language builds
new words.
It is a certain principle of classification of
lexicon and
one of the main ways of enriching the
vocabulary.
4. Word-formation is studied
synchronically
Scholars investigate
the existing system
of the types of wordformation
Diachronically
Scholars investigate
the history of wordformation
5. 1. Morpheme. Allomorph
The smallest unit of language that carries
information about meaning or function is
the morpheme.
(Greek morphe «form»
+ -eme «the smallest distinctive unit»)
6. Examples of morphemes
BUILD+ER
build (with the meaning of «construct»)
-er (which indicates that the entire word
functions as a noun with the meaning
«one who builds»).
HOUSE+S
house (with the meaning of «dwelling»)
-s (with the meaning «more than one»)
7. simple words vs complex words
and
boy — boy-s
hunt — hunt-er —hunt-er-s
act act-ive — act-iv-ate ––re-act-iv-ate
Simple words cannot be divided into
smaller parts. Complex words contain
two or more morphemes.
8. morphemes are two-facet language units
A morpheme is a meaning and a stretch
of sound joined together.
It is the minimum meaningful language
unit.
9. Structure of morphemes
free morpheme
(can be a word by
itself,
coincides with the
stem or a word-form)
bound morpheme
(must be attached to
another element,
only can be a part of
a word )
10. allomorphs (from Greek allos «other»)
allomorphs (from Greek allos
«other»)
All the representatives of the given
morpheme are called allomorphs of that
morpheme.
An allomorph is a positional variant of
that or this morpheme occurring in a
specific environment.
11. Examples of allomorphs
an orange, an accent, a car
cats, dogs, judges (the plural morpheme –
s)
assert /assert-ion, permit/permiss-ive,
include/inclus-ive, electric/electric-ity,
impress/impress-ion
12. 2. Word Structure
Words that can be divided have two or
more parts:
a root
affixes (a prefix, a suffix )
inflection
13. Word Structure
A root constitutes the core of the word
and carries the major component of its
meaning. It has more specific and
definite meaning
Affixes are morphemes that modify the
meaning of the root. An affix added
before the root is called a prefix (unending); an affix added after the root is
called a suffix (kind-ness).
14. Examples of word structure
un-work-able
govern-ment
fright-en-ing
re-play
A word may have one or more affixes of
either kind, or several of both kinds.
15. A base
A base is the form to which an affix is
added. In many cases, the base is also the
root. In other cases, however, the base
can be larger than a root.
Blackened
Blacken (verbal base) +ed
Blacken
Black (not only the root for the entire word
but also the base for) +en
16. suffixes vs inflections
Suffixes can form a new part of speech,
e.g.: beauty — beautiful. They can also
change the meaning of the root, e.g.:
black — blackish.
Inflections are morphemes used to
change grammar forms of the word, e.g.:
work — works — worked—working.
English is not a highly inflected language.
17. Four structural types of words in English
simple (root) words consist of one root
morpheme and an inflexion (boy, warm, law,
tables, tenth);
derived words consist of one root
morpheme, one or several affixes and an
inflexion (unmanageable, lawful);
compound words consist of two or more root
morphemes and an inflexion (boyfriend,
outlaw);
compound-derived words consist of two or
more root morphemes, one or more affixes
and an inflexion (left-handed, warm-hearted,
blue-eyed).
18. Two main types of word-formation
word-derivation
(encouragement,
irresistible, worker)
Subdivided into
Affixation
Conversion
Derivational
Composition
word-composition
(blackboard,
daydream, weekend)
Subdivided into
• Derivational
Composition
19. 3. Immediate Constituents Analysis (L. Bloomfield)
Why is it used? (to discover the
derivational structure of lexical units).
How? First we separate a free and a
bound forms. At any level we obtain only
two ICs.
20. Ungentlemanly
1.un— + gentlemanly
2. gentleman + -ly
3. gentle + man
4. as a result, un + (gentle + man) + ly
21. eatable uneatable
eatable
The adjective eatable
consists of two ICs
eat + able and may
be described as a
suffixal derivative
uneatable
the adjective
uneatable is a
prefixal derivative
(the two ICs are un +
eatable)
22. 4. Affixation is a basic means of forming words
suffixation
• is characteristic of
noun and adjective
formation
• does not only modify
the lexical meaning
of the stem,
• but transfers the
word to another part
of speech care (n) /
care — less (adj).
prefixation
• is typical of verb
formation
modifies the lexical
meaning of stems
• joins the part of
speech the
unprefixed word
belongs to, e.g. usual
/un — usual.
23. classification of suffixes
their origin
meaning
part of speech they form
productivity
24. according to their origin:
Romanic (e.g. -age, -ment, -tion),
Native (-er, -dom, -ship),
Greek (-ism, -ize), etc
25. according to their meaning :
-er denotes the agent of the action,
-ess denotes feminine gender,
-ence/ance has abstract meaning,
-age, -dom — collectivity
26. according to their part of speech they form :
noun suffixes -er, -ness, -ment;
adjective-forming suffixes -ish, -ful, -less,
-y;
verb-suffixes -en, -fy,
27. according to their productivity :
What is productivity? It is the relative
freedom with which they can combine
with bases of the appropriate category
productive suffixes are -er, -ly, -ness, ie, -let,
non-productive (-dom, -th)
semi-productive (-eer, -ward).
28. Classification of Prefixes
their origin
meaning
productivity
29. according to their origin:
Native, e.g. un-;
Romanic, e.g. in-;
Greek, e.g. sym-;
30. according to meaning
negative prefixes in-, un-, поп-, a-, dis-;
prefixes of time and order ex-, neo-, after, fore-, post-, proto-;
prefix of repetition re-;
size and degree: hyper-, mega-, mini-,
super-, sur-, ultra-, vice-, etc
31. according to productivity
What is productivity? It is the ability to
make new words:
e.g. un- is highly productive.
32. 5. Conversion (definition)
It is a kind of word formation.
The process of making new parts of
speech without the addition of an affix.
It is a productive way of forming words
in English.
It is sometimes called zero derivation.
33. Examples of coversion
He was knocked out in the first round.
Round the number off to the nearest
tenth.
The neighbors gathered round our
barbecue.
The moon was bright and round.
People came from all the country round.
34. Conversion
Prof. Smirnitsky A. I. in his works on the
English language treats conversion as a
morphological way of forming words.
Other linguists (H. Marchand, V.N.
Yartseva, Yu.A. Zhluktenko, A.Y.
Zagoruiko, I.V. Arnold) treat conversion
as a combined morphological and
syntactic way of word-building, as a new
word appears not in isolation but in a
definite environment of other words.
35. The three most common types of conversion
verbs derived from nouns (to butter, to
ship),
nouns derived from verbs (a survey, a
call),
verbs derived from adjectives (to empty).
36. Less common types of conversion
nouns from:
adjectives (a bitter, the poor, a final),
from phrases, e.g. a down-and-out,
verbs from prepositions (up the price, out
e.g. diplomats were outed from the
country; Truth will out. — Истина станет
известной)
37. Verbs converted from nouns
instrumental use of the object, e.g.
screw — to screw, eye — to eye;
action characteristic of the object, e.g.
ape — to ape;
acquisition: fish — to fish;
deprivation of the object, e.g. dust — to
dust
38. Nouns converted from verbs
instance of an action, e.g. to move — a
move;
word — agent of an action, e.g. to bore
— a bore;
place of an action, e.g. to walk — a
walk;
result of the action, e.g. to cut — a cut
39. 6.Word-Composition
Word-composition is the combination of
two or more existing words to create a
new word
e.g. campsite (N+N), bluebird (A+N),
whitewash (A+V), in-laws (P+N), jumpsuit
(V+N).
40. Word-Composition
In most compounds the rightmost
morpheme determines the category of
the entire word,
e.g. greenhouse is a noun because its
rightmost component is a noun,
spoonfeed is a verb because feed also
belongs to this category, and
nationwide is an adjective just as wide is.
41. 6.1. Properties of compounds
How can compounds in English be
written? — Differently:
as single words,
with an intervening hyphen,
as separate words.
42. endocentric compounds
If a compound denotes a subtype of the
concept denoted by its head it is called
endocentric.
Thus, cat food is a type of food, sky blue is a
type of blue
airplane, steamboat, policeman, bathtowel
43. exocentric compounds
If the meaning of the compound does not
follow from the meanings of its parts it is
said to be exocentric
e.g. redneck is a person and not a type of
neck;
walkman is a type of portable radio.
44. Classification of compounds according to the principle
1) of the parts of speech compound words
represent:
nouns: night-gown, waterfall, looking-glass;
verbs: to honeymoon, to outgrow;
adjectives: peace-loving, hard-working,
pennywise;
adverbs: downstairs, lip-deep;
prepositions: within, into, onto;
numerals: thirty-seven;
45. Classification of compounds according to the principle
2.of the means of composition used to link the
two ICs together:
neutral — formed by joining together two
stems without connecting elements
(juxtaposition), e.g. scarecrow, goldfish,
crybaby;
morphological — components are joined by a
linking element, i.e. vowels ‘o’ and ‘i’ or the
consonant ‘s’, e.g. videophone, tragicomic,
handicraft, craftsman, microchip;
syntactical — the components are joined by
means of form-word stems, e.g. man-of-war,
forget-me-not, bread-and-butter, face-to-face;
46. 7. Other Types of Word Formation
back-formation or disaffixation (baby-sitter —
to baby-sit). Back-formation is a process that
creates a new word by removing a real or
supposed affix from another word in the
language.
sound interchange (speak — speech, blood —
bleed), and sound imitation (walkie-talkie, brag
rags, to giggle);
distinctive change (‘conduct — to con ‘duct,
‘increase — to in crease, ‘subject — to subject);
47. Other Types of Word Formation
blending: these are words that are created
from parts of two already existing items,
usually the first part of one and the final
part of the other:
brunch from breakfast and lunch,
smog from smoke and fog
clipping is a process that shortens a
polysyllabic word by deleting one or
more syllables: prof for professor, burger
for hamburger.
48. Other Types of Word Formation
acronymy: NATO, NASA, WAC, UNESCO.
Acronyms are formed by taking the initial
letters of the words in a phrase and
pronouncing them as a word. (names of
organizations and in terminology).
NASA stands for National Aeronautics
and Space Administration, NA TO —
North Atlantic Treaty Organization
49. Other Types of Word Formation
onomatopoeia, i.e. formations of words
from sounds that resemble those
associated with the object or action to be
named, or that seem suggestive of its
qualities.
e.g. hiss, buzz, meow, cock-a-doodle-doo,
and cuckoo