The prefix is a word part attached to the beginning of a word root to modify its meaning. Keep in mind that not all medical terms will have a prefix. A prefix can be used to modify the meaning of a word. The combining form is a word root with the combining vowel attached which is then separated by a vertical slash.
Contents
- 1 What is the difference between a word root and a combining form quizlet?
- 2 Is a combining form a root word?
- 3 What is an example of a combining form?
- 4 What are the rules to combining forms or word roots in a medical word?
- 5 What is a combining word?
- 6 Which word part is a combining form?
- 7 What are root words examples?
- 8 What does a combining form link?
- 9 What does the word root Hepat mean?
- 10 What joins a root word to a suffix?
- 11 What is the rule for word roots suffixes and prefixes?
- 12 What is the difference between a prefix suffix and root word in medical terminology?
- 13 When a word root ends in a vowel and the suffix begins with the same vowel?
What is the difference between a combining form and a work root. Combining form is the combination of the root and a combining vowel, the word root gives the essential meaning of the term. Prefix is the small part added to the beginning of the term, suffix is the word ending.
Is a combining form a root word?
The combination of a word root and a vowel is known as a COMBINING FORM.
What is an example of a combining form?
A combining form is a word that is used, or used with a particular meaning, only when joined to another word. For example, ‘-legged’ as in ‘four-legged’ and ‘-fold’ as in ‘fivefold’ are combining forms.
What are the rules to combining forms or word roots in a medical word?
When you take a word root and add a vowel it becomes a combining form. This vowel is usually an ―o‖, and it is called a combining vowel. – cyst/o – therm/o The combining vowel is used before suffixes that begin with a consonant and before another word root. Prefixes are not included in this rule.
What is a combining word?
A combining form is a form of a word that only appears as part of another word. Unlike affixes, combining forms are substantial enough to form a word simply by connecting to an affix, such as when the combining form cephal- joins with the suffix -ic to form cephalic.
Which word part is a combining form?
WHY: A combining form is a word root combined with a vowel. The word part “lipo” is the word root “lip,” which means “fat,” combined with the vowel “o.” The word parts “iso-,” “hypo-,” and “neo-” are prefixes that end in “o.”
What are root words examples?
Root Words as Word Stems
- acri – bitter (acrid, acrimony, acridity)
- astro – star (astronaut, astronomy, astrophysics)
- aud – hear (audience, audible, audio)
- auto – self (autonomy, autocrat, automatic)
- bene – good (benefactor, benevolent, beneficial)
- carn – flesh (carnal, carnivorous, reincarnate)
What does a combining form link?
(T/F) A combining form links multiple roots to each other. True. (T/F) A combining form links a suffix that begins with a consonant.
What does the word root Hepat mean?
Hepat-: Prefix or combining form used before a vowel to refer to the liver. From the Greek hepar, liver.
What joins a root word to a suffix?
Combining form (word root + vowel) is usually used to join a word root to a suffix or other root that begins with a consonant.
What is the rule for word roots suffixes and prefixes?
A word cannot end with a combining form (word root + vowel). A suffix is added at the end of the word. A combining vowel will be used if the suffix begins with a consonant. A combining vowel is generally not used if the suffix begins with a vowel (there are some exceptions to this rule).
What is the difference between a prefix suffix and root word in medical terminology?
Prefix: A prefix is placed at the beginning of a word to modify or change its meaning. Pre means “before.” Prefixes may also indicate a location, number, or time. Root: central part of a word. Suffix: The ending part of a word that modifies the meaning of the word.
When a word root ends in a vowel and the suffix begins with the same vowel?
If the root ends in a vowel and the suffix begins with the same word, drop the final vowel from the root and do not use a combining vowel. Most often, a combining vowel is inserted between two roots even when the second root begins with a vowel. Also Combining vowel used to join root to suffix.
10.1. The morphological structure of English words.
10.2. Definition of word-formation. Synchronic and diachronic approaches to word formation.
10.3. Main units of word-formation. Derivational analysis.
10.4. Ways of word-formation.
10.5. Functional approach to word-formation.
10.6. The communicative aspect of word-formation.
10.1. Structurally, words are divisible into smaller units which are called morphemes. Morphemes are the smallest indivisible two-facet (significant) units. A morpheme exists only as a constituent part of the word.
One morpheme may have different phonemic shapes, i.e. it is represented by allomorphs (its variants),
e.g. in please, pleasure, pleasant [pli: z], [ple3-], [plez-] are allomorphs of one morpheme.
Semantically, all morphemes are classified into roots and affixes. The root is the lexical centre of the word, its basic part; it has an individual lexical meaning,
e.g. in help, helper, helpful, helpless, helping, unhelpful — help- is the root.
Affixes are used to build stems; they are classified into prefixes and suffixes; there are also infixes. A prefix precedes the root, a suffix follows it; an infix is inserted in the body of the word,
e.g. prefixes: re -think, mis -take, dis -cover, over -eat, ex -wife;
suffixes: danger- ous, familiar- ize, kind- ness, swea- ty etc.
Structurally, morphemes fall into: free morphemes, bound morphemes, semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes.
A free morpheme is one that coincides with a stem or a word-form. A great many root-morphemes are free,
e.g. in friendship the root -friend — is free as it coincides with a word-form of the noun friend.
A bound morpheme occurs only as a part of a word. All affixes are bound morphemes because they always make part of a word,
e.g. in friendship the suffix -ship is a bound morpheme.
Some root morphemes are also bound as they always occur in combination with other roots and/or affixes,
e.g. in conceive, receive, perceive — ceive — is a bound root.
To this group belong so-called combining forms, root morphemes of Greek and Latin origin,
e.g. tele -, mega, — logy, micro -, — phone: telephone, microphone, telegraph, etc.
Semi-bound morphemes are those that can function both as a free root morpheme and as an affix (sometimes with a change of sound form and/or meaning),
e.g. proof, a. » giving or having protection against smth harmful or unwanted» (a free root morpheme): proof against weather;
-proof (in adjectives) » treated or made so as not to be harmed by or so as to give protection against» (a semi-bound morpheme): bulletproof, ovenproof, dustproof, etc.
Morphemic analysis aims at determining the morphemic (morphological) structure of a word, i.e. the aim is to split the word into morphemes and state their number, types and the pattern of arrangement. The basic unit of morphemic analysis is the morpheme.
In segmenting words into morphemes, we use the method of Immediate and Unltimate Constituents. At each stage of the analysis, a word is broken down into two meaningful parts (ICs, i.e. Immediate Constituents). At the next stage, each IC is broken down into two smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is completed when we get indivisible constituents, i.e. Ultimate Constituents, or morphs, which represent morphemes in concrete words,
e.g. 
Friend-, -ly, -ness are indivisible into smaller meaningful units, so they are Ultimate Constituents (morphs) and the word friendliness consists of 3 morphemes: friend-+-li+-ness.
There are two structural types of words at the morphemic level of analysis: monomorphic (non-segmentable, indivisible) and polymorphic words (segmentable, divisible). The former consist only of a root morpheme, e.g. cat, give, soon, blue, oh, three. The latter consist of two or more morphemes, e.g. disagreeableness is a polymorphic word which consists of four morphemes, one root and three affixes: dis- + -agree- + -able + -ness. The morphemic structure is Pr + R + Sf1 + Sf2.
10.2. Word-Formation (W-F) is building words from available linguistic material after certain structural and semantic patterns. It is also a branch of lexicology that studies the process of building words as well as the derivative structure of words, the patterns on which they are built and derivational relations between words.
Synchronically, linguists study the system of W-F at a given time; diachronically, they are concerned with the history of W-F, and the history of building concrete words. The results of the synchronic and the diachronic analysis may not always coincide,
e.g. historically, to beg was derived from beggar, but synchronically the noun beggar is considered derived from the verb after the pattern v + -er/-ar → N, as the noun is structurally and semantically more complex. Cf. also: peddle- ← -pedlar/peddler, lie ← liar.
10.3. The aim of derivational analysis is to determine the derivational structure of a word, i.e. to state the derivational pattern after which it is built and the derivational base (the source of derivation).
Traditionally, the basic units of derivational analysis are: the derived word (the derivative), the derivational base, the derivational pattern, the derivational affix.
The derivational base is the source of a derived word, i.e. a stem, a word-form, a word-group (sometimes even a sentence) which motivates the derivative semantically and on which the latter is based structurally,
e.g. in dutifully the base is dutiful-, which is a stem;
in unsmiling it is the word-form smiling (participle I);
in blue-eyed it is the word-group blue eye.
In affixation, derivational affixes are added to derivational bases to build new words, i.e. derivatives. They repattern the bases, changing them structurally and semantically. They also mark derivational relations between words,
e.g. in encouragement en- and -ment are derivational affixes: a prefix and a suffix; they are used to build the word encouragement: (en- + courage) + -ment.
They also mark the derivational relations between courage and encourage, encourage and encouragement.
A derivational pattern is a scheme (a formula) describing the structure of derived words already existing in the language and after which new words may be built,
e.g. the pattern of friendliness is a+ -ness- → N, i.e. an adjective stem + the noun-forming suffix -ness.
Derivationally, all words fall into two classes: simple (non-derived) words and derivatives. Simple words are those that are non-motivated semantically and independent of other linguistic units structurally, e.g. boy, run, quiet, receive, etc. Derived words are motivated structurally and semantically by other linguistic units, e.g. to spam, spamming, spammer, anti-spamming are motivated by spam.
Each derived word is characterized by a certain derivational structure. In traditional linguistics, the derivational structure is viewed as a binary entity, reflecting the relationship between derivational bases and derivatives and consisting of a stem and a derivational affix,
e.g. the structure of nationalization is nationaliz- + -ation
(described by the formula, or pattern v + -ation → N).
But there is a different point of view. In modern W-F, the derivational structure of a word is defined as a finite set of derivational steps necessary to produce (build) the derived word,
e.g. [(nation + -al) + — ize ] + -ation.
To describe derivational structures and derivational relations, it is convenient to use the relator language and a system of oriented graphs. In this language, a word is generated by joining relators to the amorphous root O. Thus, R1O describes the structure of a simple verb (cut, permiate); R2O shows the structure of a simple noun (friend, nation); R3O is a simple adjective (small, gregarious) and R4O is a simple adverb (then, late).
e.g. The derivational structure of nationalization is described by the R-formula R2R1R3R2O; the R-formula of unemployment is R2R2R1O (employ → employment → unemployment).
In oriented graphs, a branch slanting left and down » /» correspond to R1; a vertical branch » I» corresponds to R2; a branch slanting right and down » » to R3, and a horizontal right branch to R4.
Thus we can show the derivational structure of unemployment like this:
and dutifulness like this:
Words whose derivational structures can be described by one R-formula are called monostructural, e.g. dutifulness, encouragement; words whose derivational structures can be described by two (or more) R-formulas are polystructural,
e.g. disagreement R2R2R1O / R2R1R1O
(agree → disagree → disagreement R2R1R1O or
agree → agreement → disagreement R2R2R1O)
There are complex units of word-formation. They are derivational clusters and derivational sets.
A derivational cluster is a group of words that have the same root and are derivationally related. The structure of a cluster can be shown with the help of a graph,
e.g. READ
reread read
misreadreaderreadable
reading
readership ∙ unreadable
A derivational set is a group of words that are built after the same derivational pattern,
e.g. n + -ish → A: mulish, dollish, apish, bookish, wolfish, etc,
Table TWO TYPES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
| MORPHEMIC ANALYSIS | DERIVATIONAL ANALYSIS | |
| AIM | to find out the morphemic structure (composition) | to determine the derivational structure |
| BASIC UNITS | morphemes (roots and affixes) | derived word, derivational pattern, derivational base, derivational step, derivational means (e.g. affix) |
| RESULTS: CLASSES OF WORDS | monomorphic (non-segmentable) and polymorphic (segmentable) words | simple and derived words |
| EXAMPLES | 1. cut, v. and cut, n. are monomorphic (root) words | 1. cut, v. is a simple word (R1O); cut, n. is derived from it (R2R1O) |
| 2. encouragement, unemployment consist of three morphemes and have the same morphemic composition: Pr + R + Sf | 2. encouragement and unemployment have different derivational structures: v + -ment → N (R2R1R2O) and un- + n → N (R2R2R1O) |
10.4. Traditionally, the following ways of W-F are distinguished:
affixation, compounding, conversion, shortening, blending, back-formation. Sound interchange, sound imitation, distinctive stress, lexicalization, coinage certainly do not belong to word-formation as no derivational patterns are used.
Affixation is formation of words by adding derivational affixes to derivational bases. Affixation is devided into prefixation and suffixation,
e.g. the following prefixes and suffixes are used to build words with negative or opposite meanings: un-, non-, a-, contra-, counter-, de-, dis-, in-, mis-, -less, e.g. non-toxic.
Compounding is building words by combining two (or more) derivational bases (stems or word-forms),
e.g. big -ticket (= expensive), fifty-fifty, laid-back, statesman.
Among compounds, we distinguish derivational compounds, formed by adding a derivational affix (usu. a suffix) to a word group,
e.g. heart-shaped (= shaped like a heart), stone-cutter (= one who cuts stone).
Conversion consists in making a word from some existing word by transferring it into another part of speech. The new word acquires a new paradigm; the sound form and the morphimic composition remain unchanged. The most productive conversion patterns are n → V (i.e. formation of verbs from noun-stems), v → N (formation of nouns from verb stems), a → V (formation of verbs from adjective stems),
e.g. a drink, a do, a go, a swim: Have another try.
to face, to nose, to paper, to mother, to ape;
to cool, to pale, to rough, to black, to yellow, etc.
Nouns and verbs can be converted from other parts of speech, too, for example, adverbs: to down, to out, to up; ifs and buts.
Shortening consists in substituting a part for a whole. Shortening may result in building new lexical items (i.e. lexical shortenings) and so-called graphic abbreviations, which are not words but signs representing words in written speech; in reading, they are substituted by the words they stand for,
e.g. Dr = doctor, St = street, saint, Oct = 0ctober, etc.
Lexical shortenings are produced in two ways:
(1) clipping, i.e. a new word is made from a syllable (or two syllables) of the original word,
e.g. back-clippings: pro ← professional, chimp ← chimpanzee,
fore-clippings: copter ← helicopter, gator ← alligator,
fore-and-aft clippings: duct ← deduction, tec ← detective,
(2) abbreviation, i.e. a new word is made from the initial letters of the original word or word-group. Abbreviations are devided into letter-based initialisms (FBI ← the Federal Bureau of Investigation) and acronyms pronounced as root words (AIDS, NATO).
Blending is building new words, called blends, fusions, telescopic words, or portmanteau words, by merging (usu.irregular) fragments of two existing words,
e.g. biopic ← biography + picture, alcoholiday ← alcohol + holiday.
Back-formation is derivation of new words by subtracting a real or supposed affix (usu. a suffix) from existing words (on analogy with existing derivational pairs),
e.g. to enthuse ← enthusiasm, to intuit ← intuition.
Sound interchange and distinctive stress are not ways of word-formation. They are ways of distinguishing words or word forms,
e.g. food -feed, speech — speak, life — live;
‘ insult, n. — in ‘ sult, v., ‘ perfect, a. — per ‘ fect, v.
Sound interchange may be combined with affixation and/or the shift of stress,
e.g. strong — strength, wide — width.
10.5. Productivity and activity of derivational ways and means.
Productivity and activity in W-F are close but not identical. By productivity of derivational ways/types/patterns/means we mean ability to derive new words,
e.g. The suffix -er/ the pattern v + -er → N is highly productive.
By activity we mean the number of words derived with the help of a certain derivational means or after a derivational pattern,
e.g. — er is found in hundreds of words so it is active.
Sometimes productivity and activity go together, but they may not always do.
| DERIVATIONAL MEANS | EXAMPLE | PRODUCTIVITY | ACTIVITY |
| -ly | nicely | + | + |
| -ous | dangerous | _ | + |
| -th | breadth | _ | _ |
In modern English, the most productive way of W-P is affixation (suffixation more so than prefixation), then comes compounding, shortening takes third place, with conversion coming fourth.
Productivity may change historically. Some derivational means / patterns may be non-productive for centuries or decades, then become productive, then decline again,
e.g. In the late 19th c. US -ine was a popular feminine suffix on the analogy of heroine, forming such words as actorine, doctorine, speakerine. It is not productive or active now.
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- Identify word parts in medical terms.
- Examine the rules for building medical terms.
Word Parts
Medical terms are built from word parts. Those word parts are , , , and . When a word root is combined with a combining form vowel the word part is referred to as a .
Identifying Word Parts in Medical Terms
By the end of this book, you will have identified hundreds of word parts within medical terms. Let’s start with some common medical terms that many non-medically trained people may be familiar with.
Osteoarthritis
Oste/o/arthr/itis – Inflammation of bone and joint.
Oste/o is a that means bone
arthr/o is a that means joint
-itis is a that means inflammation
Intravenous
Intra/ven/ous – Pertaining to within a vein.
Intra- is a that means within
ven/o – is a that means vein
-ous is a that means pertaining to
Notice, when breaking down words that you place slashes between word parts and a slash on each side of a .
Language Review
Before we begin analyzing the rules let’s complete a short language review that will assist with pronunciation and spelling.
Short Vowels
a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes y are indicated by lower case.
Long Vowels
A, E, I, O, U are indicated by upper case.
Consonants
Consonants are all of the other letters in the alphabet. b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, and z.
Language Rules
Language rules are a good place to start when building a medical terminology foundation. Many medical terms are built from word parts and can be translated . At first, literal translations sound awkward. Once you build a medical vocabulary and become proficient at using it, the awkwardness will slip away. For example, suffixes will no longer be stated and will be assumed. The definition of intravenous then becomes within the vein.
Since you are at the beginning of building your medical terminology foundation, stay literal when applicable. It should be noted that as with all language rules there are always exceptions and we refer to those as .
Language Rules for Building Medical Terms
- When combining two , you keep the .
- When combining a with a that begins with a consonant, you keep the .
Gastr/o/enter/o/logy – The study of the stomach and the intestines
- Following rule 1, when we join combining form gastr/o (meaning stomach) with the combining form enter/o (meaning intestines) we keep the combining form vowel o.
- Following rule 2, when we join the combining form enter/o (meaning intestines) with the suffix -logy (that starts with a suffix and means the study of) we keep the combining form vowel o.
- When combining a with a that begins with a vowel, you drop the .
- A goes at the beginning of the word and no is used.
Intra/ven/ous – Pertaining to within the vein
- Following rule 3, notice that when combining the combining form ven/o (meaning vein) with the suffix -ous ( that starts with a vowel and means pertaining to) we drop the combining form vowel o.
- Following rule 4, the prefix intra- (meaning within) is at the beginning of the medical term with no combining form vowel used.
- When defining a medical word, start with the first and then work left to right stating the word parts. You may need to add words. As long as the filler word does not change the meaning of the word you may use it for the purpose of building a medical vocabulary. Once you start to apply the word in the context of a sentence it will be easier to decide which filler word(s) to choose.
Intra/ven/ous – Pertaining to within the vein or Pertaining to within a vein.
- Following rule 5, notice that I start with the suffix -ous (that means pertaining to) then we work left to right starting with the prefix Intra- (meaning within) and the combining form ven/o (meaning vein).
- Notice that we have used two different definitions that mean the same thing.
- In these examples we do not have the context of a full sentence. For the purpose of building a medical terminology foundation either definition is accepted.
Words in English public website
Ling 216
Rice University
Prof. S. Kemmer
Types of Word Formation Processes
Compounding
Compounding forms a word out of two or more root morphemes. The words
are called compounds or compound words.
In Linguistics, compounds can be either native or borrowed.
Native English roots are
typically free morphemes, so that means native compounds are made out of
independent words that can occur by themselves. Examples:
mailman (composed of free root mail and free root man)
mail carrier
dog house
fireplace
fireplug (a regional word for ‘fire hydrant’)
fire hydrant
dry run
cupcake
cup holder
email
e-ticket
pick-up truck
talking-to
Some compounds have a preposition as one of the component words as in the
last 2 examples.
In Greek and Latin, in contrast to English, roots do not typically stand
alone. So compounds are composed of bound roots. Compounds formed in
English from borrowed Latin and Greek morphemes preserve this
characteristic. Examples include photograph,
iatrogenic, and many thousands of other classical words.
Note that compounds are written in various ways in English:
with a space between the elements; with a hyphen between the
elements; or simply with the two roots run together with no separation.
The way the word is written does not affect its status as a
compound. Over time, the convention for writing compounds can change,
usually in the direction from separate words (e.g. email used to be written with a hyphen.
In the 19th century, today and tomorrow were sometimes still written to-day and to-morrow. The to originally was the preposition to with an older meaning ‘at [a particular period of time]’.
Clock work changed
to clock-work and finally to one word with no break
(clockwork). If you read older literature you might see some
compound words that are now written as one word appearing
with unfamiliar spaces or hyphens between the components.
Another thing to note about compounds is that they can combine words
of different parts of speech. The list above shows mostly noun-noun
compounds, which is probably the most common part of speech
combination, but there are others, such as adjective-noun (dry
run, blackbird, hard drive), verb-noun (pick-pocket,
cut-purse, lick-spittle) and even verb-particle (where
‘particle’ means a word basically designating spatial expression that
functions to complete a literal or metaphorical path), as in
run-through, hold-over. Sometimes these compounds are
different in the part of speech of the whole compound vs. the part of
speech of its components. Note that the last two are actually nouns,
despite their components.
Some compounds have more than two component words. These are formed
by successively combining words into compounds, e.g. pick-up truck,
formed from pick-up and truck , where the first component,
pick-up is itself a compound formed from
pick and up. Other examples are ice-cream
cone, no-fault insurance and even more complex compounds like
top-rack dishwasher safe.
There are a number of subtypes of compounds that do not have to do
with part of speech, but rather the sound characteristics of the
words. These subtypes are not mutually exclusive.
Rhyming compounds (subtype of compounds)
These words are compounded from two rhyming words. Examples:
lovey-dovey
chiller-killer
There are words that are formally very similar to rhyming compounds,
but are not quite compounds in English because the second element is
not really a word—it is just a nonsense item added to a root word to
form a rhyme. Examples:
higgledy-piggledy
tootsie-wootsie
This formation
process is associated in English with child talk (and talk addressed
to children), technically called hypocoristic language. Examples:
bunnie-wunnie
Henny Penny
snuggly-wuggly
Georgie Porgie
Piggie-Wiggie
Another word type that looks a bit like rhyming compounds
comprises words that are formed of
two elements that almost match, but differ in their vowels.
Again, the second element is typically a nonsense form:
pitter-patter
zigzag
tick-tock
riffraff
flipflop
Derivation
Derivation is the creation of words by modification of a root without
the addition of other roots. Often the effect is a change in part of
speech.
Affixation (Subtype of Derivation)
The most common type of derivation is the addition of one or more affixes to a
root, as in the word derivation itself. This process is called
affixation, a term which covers both prefixation and suffixation.
Blending
Blending is one of the most beloved of word formation processes in
English. It is especially creative in that speakers take two words
and merge them based not on morpheme structure but on sound structure.
The resulting words are called blends.
Usually in word formation we combine roots or affixes along their
edges: one morpheme comes to an end before the next one starts. For example, we
form derivation out of the sequence of morphemes
de+riv+at(e)+ion. One morpheme follows the next and each one has
identifiable
boundaries. The morphemes do not overlap.
But in
blending, part of one word is stitched onto another word, without any
regard for where one morpheme ends and another begins. For example,
the word swooshtika ‘Nike swoosh as a logo symbolizing
corporate power and hegemony’
was formed from swoosh and swastika. The swoosh
part remains whole and recognizable in the blend, but the tika part is
not a morpheme, either in the word swastika or
in the blend. The blend is a perfect merger of form, and also of
content. The meaning contains an implicit analogy between the
swastika and the swoosh, and thus conceptually blends them into one
new kind of thing having properties of both, but also combined
properties of neither source. Other examples include glitterati (blending
glitter and literati) ‘Hollywood social set’, mockumentary (mock and
documentary) ‘spoof documentary’.
The earliest blends in English only go back to the 19th century, with
wordplay coinages by Lewis Carroll in Jabberwocky. For example, he
introduced to the language slithy, formed from lithe and
slimy, and galumph, (from gallop and
triumph. Interestingly galumph has survived as a word in
English, but it now seems to mean ‘walk in a stomping, ungainly way’.
Some blends that have been around for quite a while include brunch
(breakfast and lunch), motel (motor hotel), electrocute (electric and
execute), smog (smoke and
fog) and cheeseburger (cheese and hamburger).
These go back to the first half of the twentieth
century. Others, such as stagflation (stagnation and inflation),
spork (spoon and fork), and carjacking (car and hijacking) arose
since the 1970s.
Here are some more recent blends I have run across:
mocktail (mock and cocktail) ‘cocktail with no alcohol’
splog (spam and blog) ‘fake blog designed to attract hits and
raise Google-ranking’
Britpoperati (Britpop and literati) ‘those knowledgable about current British pop music’
Clipping
Clipping is a type of abbreviation of a word in which one part is
‘clipped’ off the rest, and the remaining word now means essentially the same
thing as what the whole word means or meant. For example, the word
rifle is a fairly modern clipping of an earlier compound
rifle gun, meaning a gun with a rifled barrel. (Rifled means
having a spiral groove causing the bullet to spin, and thus making it
more accurate.) Another clipping is burger, formed by clipping
off the beginning of the word hamburger. (This clipping could
only come about once hamburg+er was reanalyzed as ham+burger.)
Acronyms
Acronyms are formed by taking the initial letters of a phrase
and making a word out of it. Acronyms provide a way of turning a phrase into a word. The classical acronym is also
pronounced as a word. Scuba was formed
from self-contained underwater breathing apparatus. The
word snafu was originally WW2 army slang for Situation
Normal All Fucked Up. Acronyms were being used more and more by
military bureaucrats, and soldiers coined snafu in an
apparent parody of this overused device. Sometimes an acronym uses not just the first letter, but the first syllable of a component word, for example radar, RAdio Detection And Ranging and sonar, SOund Navigation and Ranging. Radar forms an analogical model for both sonar and lidar, a technology that measures distance to a target and and maps its surface by
bouncing a laser off it. There is some evidence that lidar was not coined as an acronym, but instead as a blend of light and radar. Based on the word itself, either etymology appears to work, so many speakers assume that lidar is an acronym rather than a blend.
A German example that strings together the initial syllables of the
words in the phrase, is Gestapo , from GEheime STAats POlizei
‘Sectret State Police’. Another is Stasi, from STAats
SIcherheit ‘State Security’.
Acronyms are a subtype of initialism. Initialisms also include words made from the initial letters of a Phrase but NOT pronounced as a normal word — it is instead pronounced as a string of letters. Organzation names aroften initialisms of his type. Examples:
NOW (National Organization of Women)
US or U.S., USA or U.S.A. (United States)
UN or U.N. (United Nations)
IMF (International Monetary Fund)
Some organizations ARE pronounced as a word:
UNICEF
MADD (Mothers Against Drunk Driving)
The last example incorporates a meaning into the word that fits the nature of the organization. Sometimes this type is called a Reverse Acronym or a Backronym.
These can be thought of as a special case of acronyms.
Memos, email, and text messaging (text-speak) are modes of communication
that give rise to both clippings and acronyms, since these
word formation methods are designed to abbreviate.
Some acronyms:
NB — Nota bene, literally ‘note well’. Used by scholars making notes
on texts. (A large number of other scholarly acronyms from Latin are
used, probably most invented in the medieval period or Renaissance,
not originally in Latin)
BRB — be right back (from 1980s, 90s)
FYI — for your information (from mid 20th century)
LOL — laughing
out loud (early 21st century) — now pronounced either /lol/ or /el o
el/; has spawned compounds like Lolcats).
ROFL — rolling on the floor laughing
ROFLMAO — rolling on the floor laughing my ass off
Reanalysis
Sometimes speakers unconsciously change the morphological boundaries of a word, creating a new morph or making an old one unrecognizable. This happened in hamburger, which was originally Hamburger steak ‘chopped and formed steak in the Hamburg style, then hamburger (hamburg + er), then ham + burger
Folk etymology
A popular idea of a word’s origin that is not in accordance with its real origin.
Many folk etymologies are cases of reanalysis in which the word is not only reanalysis but it changes under the influence of the new understanding of its morphemes. The result is that speakers think it has a different origin than it does.
Analogy
Sometimes speakers take an existing word as a model and form other words using some of its morphemes as a fixed part, and changing one of them to something new, with an analogically similar meaning. Cheeseburger was formed on the analogy of hamburger, replacing a perceived morpheme ham with cheese.
carjack and skyjack were also formed by analogy.
Novel creation
In novel creation, a speaker or writer forms a word without starting
from other morphemes. It is as if the word if formed out of ‘whole
cloth’, without reusing any parts.
Some examples of now-conventionalized words that were novel creations
include blimp, googol (the mathematical term),
bling, and possibly slang, which emerged in the last 200
years with no obvious etymology. Some novel creations seem to display
‘sound symbolism’, in which a word’s phonological form suggests its
meaning in some way. For example, the sound of the word bling
seems to evoke heavy jewelry making noise. Another novel creation whose sound seems
to relate to its meaning is badonkadonk, ‘female rear end’, a
reduplicated word which can remind English speakers of the repetitive
movement of the rear end while walking.
Creative respelling
Sometimes words are formed by simply changing the spelling of a word
that the speaker wants to relate to the new word. Product names
often involve creative respelling, such as Mr. Kleen.
© Suzanne Kemmer
Presentation on theme: «1 Introduction to Word Parts and Word Construction.»— Presentation transcript:
1
1 Introduction to Word Parts and Word Construction
2
Learning Objectives Use the technique of programmed learning and frames. Apply the phonetic pronunciation guides that are used in frames. Recognize that medical terminology has both constructed and nonconstructed terms.
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Learning Objectives (cont.)
Identify each of the three word parts (word roots, prefixes, and suffixes) used to construct medical terms. Identify the function of a combining vowel that is added to a word root to form a combining form. Recognize that many medical terms are constructed from word parts and can be deconstructed into their word parts.
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The Programmed Learning Approach
Missing word is provided in the frame in the left margin. Each frame consists of a block of information, with the blank in the box on the right side of the page. Programmed learning: consists of blocks of information, known as frames, which contain one or more blanks.
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The Programmed Learning Approach (cont.)
Write the missing word in the blank as you proceed from frame to frame. Work without looking at the answer first, to make each frame a challenge. Always check your answer before moving to the next frame, making sure the spelling is correct.
6
The Programmed Learning Approach (cont.)
Pronunciation Syllable Emphasis Use the website for pronunciation To help with pronunciation, the phonetic form of the word is provided in parentheses whenever a new term is introduced. Syllable emphasis: The syllable with the greatest spoken emphasis is shown in all capital letters.
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Constructed and Nonconstructed Terms
Constructed medical terms Learning constructed medical terms Deciphering constructed words Constructed medical terms are made up of multiple word parts that are combined to form a new word. The key to learning constructed medical terms is to learn the meaning of the various word parts first. The meaning of a constructed word can be deciphered by defining the parts.
8
Constructed and Nonconstructed Terms (cont.)
Examples of constructed terms: Pathology (path/o – disease) + (-logy – study of) Tonsillectomy (tonsill/o – tonsil) + (-ectomy – surgical excision, removal) Neonatologist (neo – new) + (nat/o – birth) + (-logist – one who studies) Pathology: the study of disease Tonsillectomy: surgical excision of the tonsils Neonatologist: physician who specializes in newborns
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Terms (cont.) Nonconstructed terms
Include eponyms, terms derived from other languages, acronyms, and abbreviations. Nonconstructed words must be memorized. Nonconstructed terms are terms that are not formed from individual word parts. Nonconstructed terms include eponyms, terms derived from other languages, acronyms, and abbreviations. Nonconstructed words must be memorized.
10
Constructed and Nonconstructed Terms
Examples of nonconstructed terms: Impetigo Coma Cushing syndrome Impetigo: a contagious skin infection characterized by the transformation of vesicles into a yellowish crust. Coma: a general term describing several levels of abnormally decreased consciousness Cushing syndrome: a syndrome caused by excessive secretion of the hormone cortisol
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Figure 1.1 Medical terms are either constructed words or words you must memorize.
12
The Word Parts There are three primary types of word parts: prefixes, word roots, and suffixes. Prefix Word root Suffix A prefix is a word part that is affixed to the beginning of a word. A word root is a word part that provides the primary meaning of the term. A suffix is a word part that is affixed to the end of a word.
13
Figure 1.2 Most medical terms are formed by assembling word parts.
14
The Word Parts (cont.) Not every medical term has all three word parts. Many medical terms have more than one word root. Some medical terms are made simply of a prefix and a suffix. A fourth word element is the combining vowel.
15
Figure 1.3 The human body, with many of the common combining forms.
16
The Word Parts (cont.) Combining form
The most common combining vowel is the letter o. Use the combining vowel properly. Combining vowel connects word root with a suffix that begins with a consonant. Some constructed medical terms use combining vowels to unite two word roots. Combining form: A word root plus combining vowel is called a combining form and involves the use of a slash between the word root and the combining vowel. When forming words from word parts, use the combining vowel properly. As a general rule, the combining vowel is used only to connect a word root with a suffix that begins with a consonant. Some constructed medical terms use combining vowels to unite two word roots.
17
Forming Words from Word Parts (cont.)
A prefix usually requires no change when another word part unites with it to form a new term.
18
Origin of Medical Terms
Most medical terms come from Latin and Greek. The ancient Greeks are considered the fathers of modern medicine. The Romans advanced medicine with their own experiments and observations and added Latin terms to the growing body of medical language.
19
Origin of Medical Terms (cont.)
Sometimes the origins of medical terms relate to history, poetry, mythology, geography, physical objects, and ideas. Figure 1.4 The Greek father of medicine, Hippocrates, who originated many medical terms. Source: Courtesy of the National Library of Medicine.
20
Word Parts: Prefixes anti- brady- endo- epi- neo- pre-
anti- = against, opposite of brady- = slow endo- = within epi- = upon, over, above, on top neo- = new pre- = to come before
21
Word Parts: Word Root / Combining Vowel
append/o, appendic/o bi/o cardi/o cerebr/o dermat/o dermat/o = skin append/o, appendic/o = appendix bi/o = life cardi/o = heart cerebr/o = brain, cerebrum dermat/o = skin -logy = study of dermatology
22
Word Parts: Word Root / Combining Vowel (cont.)
electr/o encephal/o gastr/o hem/o hepat/o electr/o = electricity encephal/o = brain gastr/o = stomach hem/o = blood hepat/o = liver
23
Word Parts: Word Root / Combining Vowel (cont.)
hyster/o laryng/o leuk/o mamm/o mast/o hyster/o = uterus laryng/o = larynx, voice box leuk/o = white mamm/o = breast mast/o = breast
24
Word Parts: Word Root / Combining Vowel (cont.)
ment/o nat/o neur/o path/o proct/o neur/o = nerve -itis = inflammation neuritis ment/o = mind nat/o = birth neur/o = nerve path/o = disease proct/o = rectum or anus
25
Word Parts: Word Root / Combining Vowel (cont.)
psych/o rhin/o tonsill/o vas/o psych/o = mind rhin/o = nose tonsill/o = almond, tonsil vas/o = vessel
26
Word Parts: Suffixes -al -ectomy -emia -gram -ia -al = pertaining to
-ectomy = surgical excision, removal -emia = condition of blood -gram = a record or image -ia = condition of
27
Word Parts: Suffixes (cont.)
-iatry -ic -itis -logist -logy -iatry = treatment, specialty -ic = pertaining to -itis = inflammation -logist = one who studies -logy = study or science of
28
Word Parts: Suffixes (cont.)
-pathy -philia -plasty -scope -tic proct/o = rectum or anus -scope = instrument used for viewing -pathy = disease -philia = loving -plasty = surgical repair -scope = instrument used for viewing -tic = pertaining to proctoscope
29
Summary Medical terms are deciphered by breaking them into word parts, then defining first the suffix, then the prefix, then the word root(s) or combining forms.
30
Summary (cont.) Prefix Word root or combining form Suffix
A prefix comes before the word root or combining form. A suffix is a word ending and comes after the word root(s) or combining form(s). The word root or combining form provides the essential meaning of the term.
31
Summary (cont.) Most common combining vowel
Infrequently used combining vowels Retaining the combining vowel Dropping the combining vowel The combining vowel for most word roots is the letter “o”. “i” and “e” are infrequently used as combining vowels for some word roots. If the combining form is to be joined with another word root or combining form that begins with a consonant, the vowel is retained. If it is to be joined with a suffix that starts with a vowel, the combining vowel is dropped.
32
Combining Form Quiz bi/o a. breast gastr/o b. liver mast/o c. vessel
hepat/o d. life vas/o e. stomach bi/o answer is d. gastr/o answer is e. mast/o answer is a. hepat/o answer is b. vas/o answer is c.
What is the combining form of a root word?
When you take a word root and add a vowel it becomes a combining form. This vowel is usually an ―o‖, and it is called a combining vowel. – cyst/o – therm/o The combining vowel is used before suffixes that begin with a consonant and before another word root. Prefixes are not included in this rule.
What words have the root not?
Non- Doesn’t Do It
- nonfat: “not” having fat.
- nonperishable: “not” subject to spoiling or decaying.
- nonpoisonous: “not” poisonous.
- nonstick: of that which does “not” stick.
- nonsensical: of “not” making sense.
- nonsmoker: one who does “not” smoke.
- nonexistent: of something that does “not” exist.
What is it called when you add a prefix to a root word?
Prefixes and suffixes are known as affixes. The original word, before you add the affixes, is known as a root word. A root word can stand on its own as a complete word. For example the word reform.
How long does it take to build a friendship?
It takes about 40-60 hours of time spent together in the first few weeks after meeting for people to form a casual friendship. To transition from a casual friend to friend takes about 80-100 hours of together time. For friends to become good or best friends, it takes about 200 or more hours spent together.
What are the levels of friendship?
The four stages are 1) Acquaintance, 2) Peer friend, 3) Close Friend, and 4) Best friend. Let’s take a closer look at each one.
How many hours do you have to spend with someone to be friends?
Combining the two studies, Hall found it took between 40 and 60 hours to move from an acquaintance to a casual friendship, from 80 to 100 hours to call someone a friend, and over 200 hours of togetherness before someone rated as a best friend.
How do I get closer to a friend?
Below are some ways to bond with a friend, any friend, so that you guys can get one step closer to calling each other besties.
- 1Share the bad things, as well as the good.
- 2Figure out what you have in common.
- 3Really listen to them when they talk.
- 4Keep things simple.
- Always be yourself.
How do I get closer to my crush?
- 10 Simple Steps To Get Closer With Your Crush. By Brown Girl Magazine.
- Make Them See You. This may seem obvious enough but unless your crush notices you – there may be no continuation to your story.
- Make Friends.
- Make Friends with Their Friends.
- Be Nice.
- Common Grounds.
- Become Good Friends.
- Be A Good Listener.
How do I bond with a friend?
If you’re looking to strengthen your relationships — or even forge new ones — pay attention to these nine surprising ways you can bond with someone.
- Create A Common Goal.
- Go On A Trip.
- Do Something Adventurous.
- Frequent A Shared Space.
- Share A Meal.
- Dive Deep Into Personal Questions.
- Share Your Hardships With Each Other.
How do you build a strong connection with someone?
Here are seven things you can do to build a connection with someone new:
- Go On An Adventure.
- Take Time To Have A Conversation.
- Ask Open Questions.
- Try Being Non-Judgmental.
- Do An Activity Together.
- Go To A Busy Place.
- Be Positive.
What activities can enhance your friendship?
11 Ways to Encourage Friendship Skills and Social Play
- Try a greeting game.
- Play tag.
- Have them co-author a story.
- Give them a puzzle.
- Send them on a scavenger hunt.
- Build skills with building blocks.
- Teach them how to reach out.
- Get dramatic.
What makes a good friendship?
Good friends handle conflict respectfully and respect boundaries. Sometimes you and your friend might disagree on something. A good friend will tell you if you’ve done something to hurt them. If you tell a good friend they’ve hurt you, they’ll be sorry and won’t do it again.
What is a healthy friendship?
A healthy friendship is one that is a positive influence in your life. A healthy friendship is like any other relationship, encouraging you to flourish and making you feel better and better about knowing the other person.
How can you tell a true friend?
7 Signs of a True Friend
- Good Friends Accept You for Who You Are.
- Friends Stick Around During the Good Times and the Bad.
- A Real Friend Celebrates Life With You.
- True Friends Will Make the Time to See You.
- A Real Friend Will Tell You the Truth, Even If You Don’t Like.
- A True Friend Encourages You to Achieve Your Goals.
What causes a person to be two-faced?
To START: A person who is two-faced, or otherwise known as a back-stabber, is a learned behavior. That means they were not born that way. No one is born with built in jealousy, or wanting to gossip about others. A behavior or personality trait that was learned by watching others, taught in school, or by other means.
What does two-faced person mean?
Someone who is two-faced is not sincere, saying unpleasant things about you to other people while seeming to be pleasant when they are with you: I don’t trust her – I suspect she’s a bit two-faced.
What’s another word for 2 faced?
Synonyms & Antonyms of two-faced
- artificial,
- backhanded,
- counterfeit,
- double,
- double-dealing,
- double-faced,
- fake,
- feigned,
There
exist linguistic forms which in modern languages are used as bound
forms although in Greek and Latin from which they are borrowed they
functioned
as independent words. They
constitute
a specific type of linguistic units.
Combining
forms
are particularly frequent in the specialised vocabularies of arts and
sciences. They have long become familiar in the international
scientific terminology. Many of them attain widespread currency
in everyday language:
astron
− star
→ astronomy;
autos
− self
→ automatic;
bios
− life
→ biology;
electron
−
amber → electronics;
ge
− earth
→ geology;
graph
−
to
write → typography;
hydor
−
water
→hydroelectric;
logos
−
speech
→
physiology;
oikos
− house,
habitat →
1) economics,
2)
ecological
system;
philein
− love
→
philology’
phone
− sound,
voice →
telephone;
photos
− light
→
photograph;
skopein
− to
view →
microscope;
tēle
− far
→
telescope.
It
is obvious from the above list that combining forms mostly occur
together with other combining forms and not with native roots. Almost
all of the above examples are international words, each entering a
considerable word-family:
autobiography,
autodiagnosis, automobile, autonomy, autogeni,
autopilot,
autoloader;
bio-astronautics,
biochemistry, bio-ecology, bionics, biophysics;
economics,
economist, economise,
eco-climate, eco-activist, eco-type, eco-catastrophe;
geodesy,
geometry, geography;
hydrodynamic,
hydromechanic, hydroponic, hydrotherapeutic.
hydrography,
phonograph, photograph, telegraph.
lexicology, philology,
phonology.
4. Word — composition. Classification of compound words.
Word — composition
is another type of word-building which is highly productive. That is
when new words are produced by combining two or more stems. The bulk
of compound words is motivated and the semantic relations between the
two components are transparent. This
type of word-building, in which new words are produced by combining
two or more stems, is one of the three most productive types in
Modern English, the other two are conversion and affixation.
Compounds, though certainly fewer in quantity than derived or root
words, still represent one of the most typical and specific features
of English word-structure.
The
great variety of compound types brings about a great variety of
classifications. Compound words may be classified according to the
type of composition and
the linking element;
according to the
part of speech
to which the compound belongs; and within each part of speech
according to the
structural pattern.
It is also possible to subdivide compounds according to other
characteristics, i.e. semantically,
into motivated
and
idiomatic
compounds
(in the motivated ones the meaning of the constituents can be either
direct
or figurative).
Structurally, compounds are distinguished as endocentric
(Eng.
beetroot,
ice—cold,
knee—deep,
babysit,
whitewash.
UA.
землеустрій, сівозміна, літакобудування)
and
exocentric
(Eng.
scarecrow
—
something
that
scares
crows,
UA.
гуртожиток,
склоріз, самопал)
with
the
subgroup
of
bahuvrihi
(Eng.
lazy—bones,
fathead,
bonehead,
readcoat
UA.
шибайголова,
одчайдух, жовтобрюх)
and
syntactic
and
asyntactic
combinations
(Which
of those fellows do you like to command a search-and-destroy
mission? (King); “Now come along, Bridget. I don’t want any
silliness”, she said in her Genghis-Khan-at-height-of-evil
voice (Fielding); Kurtz caught sight of Permutter’s sunken,
I-fooled-you
grin in the wide rearview mirror (King)).
A
classification according to the
type of the syntactic phrase
with which the compound is correlated has also been suggested. Even
so there remain some miscellaneous types that defy classification,
such as phrase
compounds,
reduplicative
compounds,
pseudo-compounds
and quotation
compounds.
The
classification according to the type of composition
establishes the following groups:
1)
The predominant type is a mere juxtaposition without connecting
elements: heartache
n,
heart-beat
n,
heart-break
n,
heart-breaking
adj,
heart-broken
adj,
heart-felt
adj.
2)
Composition with a vowel or a consonant as a linking element. The
examples are very few: electromotive
adj,
speedometer
n,
Afro-Asian
adj,
handicraft
n,
statesman
n.
3)
Compounds with linking elements represented by preposition or
conjunction stems: down-and-out
n,
matter-of-fact
adj,
son-in-law
n,
pepper-and-salt
adj,
wall-to-wall
adj,
up-to-date
adj,
on
the up-and-up adv
(continually improving), up-and-coming,
as
in the following example: No
doubt he’d
had the pick of some up-and-coming jazzmen
in Paris (Wain).
There
are also a few other lexicalised phrases like devil-may-care
adj,
forget-me-not
n,
pick-me-up
n,
stick-in-the-mud
n,
what’s-her
name n.
The
classification of compounds according to the structure of immediate
constituents
distinguishes:
1) compounds
consisting of simple stems: film-star.
Compounds
formed by joining together stems of words already available in the
language and the two ICs of which are stems of notional words are
also called compounds
proper:
ice-cold
(N+A),
ill-luck
(A+N); (UA.
диван-ліжко,
матч-реванш,
лікар-терапевт)
2)
compounds
where at least one of the constituents is a derived stem:
chain-smoker;
3)
compounds
where at least one of the constituents is a clipped stem:
maths-mistress
(in
British English) and math-mistress
(in
American English). The subgroup will contain abbreviations like H-bag
(handbag) or
Xmas
(Christmas), whodunit n (for
mystery novels) considered substandard;
4)
compounds where at least one of the constituents is a compound stem:
wastepaper-basket.
In coordinative
compounds
neither of the components dominates the other, both are structurally
and semantically independent and constitute two structural
and semantic centres, e.g. breath-taking,
self-discipline, word-for ma it on.
Compounds are not
homogeneous in structure. Traditionally three types are
distinguished:
neutral,
morphological
and syntactic.
In neutral
compounds
the process of compounding is realised without any linking elements,
by a mere juxtaposition of two stems, as in blackbird,
shop-window, sunflower, bedroom, tallboy, etc.
There are three subtypes of neutral compounds depending on the
structure of the constituent stems.
The examples above represent
the subtype which may be described as simple
neutral compounds:
they consist of simple affixless stems.
Compounds which have affixes
in their structure are called derived
or
derivational
compounds (compound-derivatives).
E. g. absent-mindedness,
blue-eyed, golden-haired, broad-shouldered, lady-killer, film-goer,
music-lover, honey-mooner, first-nighter, late-comer, newcomer,
early-riser, evildoer.
The productivity of this
type is confirmed by a considerable number of comparatively recent
formations, such as teenager,
babysitter, strap-hanger, fourseater (car
or boat with four seats), doubledecker
(a ship or
bus with two decks). Numerous nonce-words are coined on this pattern
which is another proof of its high productivity: e. g. luncher-out
(a person
who habitually takes his lunch in restaurants and not at home),
goose-flesher
(murder
story).
In
the coining of the derivational compounds two types of word-formation
are at work. The essence of the derivational compounds will be clear
if we compare them with derivatives and compounds proper that possess
a similar structure. Take, for example, brainstraster,
honeymooner and
mill-owner.
The
ultimate constituents of all three are: noun
stem +
noun
stem+-er.
Analysing into immediate constituents, we see that the immediate
constituents (IC’s) of the compound mill-owner
are
two noun stems, the first simple, the second derived: mill+owner,
of
which the last, the determinatum, as well as the whole compound,
names a person. For the word honeymooner
no
such division is possible, since mooner
does
not exist as a free stem. The IC’s are honeymoon+-er,
and
the suffix -er
signals
that the whole denotes a person: the structure is (honey+moon)+-er.
The
process of word-building in these seemingly similar words is
different: mill-owner
is
coined by composition, honeymooner
—
by
derivation
from the compound honeymoon.
Honeymoon being
a compound, honeymooner
is
a derivative. Now brains
trust “a
group of experts” is a phrase, so brainstruster
is
formed by two simultaneous processes —
by
composition and by derivation and may be called a derivational
compound. Its IC’s are (brains+
trust)+-еr.
The
suffix -er
is
one of the productive suffixes in forming derivational compounds.
Other examples of the same pattern are:
backbencher
− an
M.P. occupying the back bench,
do-gooder
− (ironically
used in AmE),
eye-opener
− enlightening
circumstance,
first-nighter
− habitual
frequenter of the first performance of plays,
go-getter
− (colloq.)
a pushing person,
late-comer,
left-hander
− left-handed
person or blow.
Another
frequent type of derivational compounds are the possessive compounds
of the type kind-hearted:
adjective
stem+noun stem+ -ed.
Its
IC’s are a noun phrase kind
heart and
the suffix -ed
that
unites the elements of the phrase and turns them into the elements of
a compound adjective. Similar examples are extremely numerous.
Compounds of this type can be coined very freely to meet the
requirements of different situations.
Very
few go back to Old English, such as one-eyed
and
three-headed,
most
of the cases are coined in Modern English. Examples are practically
unlimited, especially in words describing personal appearance or
character:
-
absent-minded,
bare-legged,
black-haired,
blue-eyed,
cruel-hearted,
light-minded,
ill-mannered,
many-sided,
narrow-minded,
shortsighted,
etc.
The
first element may also be a noun stem: bow-legged,
heart-shaped and
very often a numeral: three-coloured.
The
derivational compounds often become the basis of further derivation.
Cf.
war-minded
→
war-mindedness;
whole-hearted
→
whole-heartedness
→
whole-heartedly,
schoolboyish
→
schoolboyishness;
do-it-yourselfer
→
do-it-yourselfism.
The
process is also called phrasal
derivation:
mini-skirt
→
mini-skirted,
nothing
but →
nothingbutism,
dress
up →
dressuppable,
Romeo-and-Julietishness,
or
quotation
derivation
as when an unwillingness to do anything is characterised as
let-George-do-it-ity.
All
these are nonce-words, with some ironic or jocular connotation.
The third subtype of neutral
compounds is called contracted
compounds.
These
words have a shortened (contracted) stem in their structure: TV-set
(-program, -show, -canal, etc.),
V-day
(Victory day), G-man (Government man “FBI
agent”), H-bag
(handbag), T-shirt, etc.
Morphological compounds
are few in number. This type is non-productive. It is represented by
words in which two compounding stems are combined by a linking vowel
or consonant, e. g. Anglo-Saxon,
Franko-Prussian, handiwork, handicraft, craftsmanship, spokesman,
statesman.
Syntactic compounds
(the term is arbitrary) are formed from segments of speech,
preserving in their structure numerous traces of syntagmatic
relations typical of speech: articles, prepositions, adverbs, as in
the nouns lily-of-the-valley,
Jack-of-all-trades, good-for-nothing, mother-in-law, sit-at-home.
Syntactical
relations and grammatical patterns current in present-day English can
be clearly traced in the structures of such compound nouns as
pick-me-up,
know-all, know-nothing, go-between, get-together, whodunit. The
last word (meaning “a detective story”) was obviously coined from
the ungrammatical variant of the word-group who
(has) done it.
In reduplication
new words
are made by doubling a stem, either without any phonetic changes as
in bye-bye
(coll, for
good-bye)
or with a
variation of the root-vowel or consonant as in
ping-pong, chit-chat (this
second type is called gradational
reduplication).
This type of word-building
is greatly facilitated in Modern English by the vast number of
monosyllables. Stylistically speaking, most words made by
reduplication represent informal groups: colloquialisms and slang:
walkie-talkie − a
portable radio;
riff-raff − the
worthless or disreputable element of society;
chi-chi − sl.
for chic as
in a chi-chi
girl.
In a modern novel an angry
father accuses his teenager son of doing
nothing but dilly-dallying all over the town.
(dilly-dallying
—
wasting time,
doing nothing, loitering)
Another example of a word
made by reduplication may be found in the following quotation from
The
Importance of Being Earnest by
O. Wilde:
Lady Bracknell.
I think it is high time that Mr. Bunbury made up his mind whether he
was going to live or to die. This shilly-shallying with the question
is absurd. (shilly-shallying
—
irresolution,
indecision)
The structure of most
compounds is transparent, as it were, and clearly betrays the origin
of these words from word-combinations: leg-pulling,
what-iffing,
what-iffers,
up-to-no-gooders,
breakfast-in-the-bedder
(“a
person who prefers to have his breakfast in bed”), etc.
There
are two
important peculiarities distinguishing compounding in English from
compounding in other languages.
Firstly, both immediate constituents of an English compound are free
forms, i.e. they can be used as independent words with a distinct
meaning of their own. The conditions of distribution will be
different but the sound pattern the same, except for the stress. The
point may be illustrated by a brief list of the most frequently used
compounds studied in every elementary course of English: afternoon,
anyway, anybody, anything, birthday, day-off, downstairs, everybody,
fountain-pen, grown-up, ice-cream, large-scale, looking-glass,
mankind,
mother-in-law, motherland, nevertheless, notebook, nowhere,
post-card,
railway, schoolboy, skating-rink, somebody, staircase, Sunday.
The combining elements in Russian and Ukrainian
are as a rule bound forms
руководство,
жовто-блакитний,
соціально-політичний, землекористування,
харчоблок, but
in English combinations like
Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Soviet, Indo-European
socio-political
or politico-economical
or medicochirurgical
where the first elements are bound
forms, occur very rarely and seem to be avoided. They are coined on
the neo-Latin pattern.
In Ukrainian compound
adjectives of the type
соціально-політичний,
історико-філологічний, народно-демократичний,
are very
productive, have no equivalent compound adjectives in English and are
rendered by two adjectives:
газонафтова
компанія — gas
and oil company
фінансово-політична
група — financial
political group
військово-промисловий
комплекс —
military
industrial complex
The
second feature
that should attract attention is that the regular pattern for the
English language is a two-stem compound, as is clearly testified by
all the preceding examples. An exception to this rule is observed
when the combining element is represented by a form-word stem, as
in mother-in-law,
bread-and-butter, whisky-and-soda, deaf-and-dumb, good-for-nothing,
man-of-war, mother-of-pearl, stick-in-the-mud.
If,
however, the number of stems is more than two, so that one of the
immediate constituents is itself a compound, it will be more often
the determinant than the determinatum. Thus aircraft-carrier,
waste-paper-basket
are
words, but baby
outfit, village schoolmaster, night watchman
and
similar combinations are syntactic groups with two stresses, or even
phrases with the conjunction and:
book-keeper and typist.
The
predominance of two-stem structures in English compounding
distinguishes it from the German language which can coin
monstrosities like the anecdotal
Vierwaldstatterseeschraubendampfschiffgesellschaft
or
Feuer-
and Unfallversicherungsgesellschaft.
One
more specific feature
of English compounding is the important role the attributive
syntactic function can play in providing a phrase with structural
cohesion and turning it into a compound. Compare:
…
we’ve
done last-minute changes before …(
Priestley)
we
changed it at the
last minute more than once.
four-year
course, pass-fail basis (a
student passes or fails but is not graded).
It
often happens that elements of a phrase united by their attributive
function become further united phonemically by stress and graphically
by a hyphen, or even solid spelling. Cf.
common
sense →
common-sense
advice;
old
age →
old-age
pensioner;
the
records are out of date →
out-of-date
records;
the
let-sleeping-dogs-lie approach (Priestley).
→
Let
sleeping dogs lie (a
proverb).
This
last type is also called quotation
compound
or holophrasis.
The speaker/or writer
creates those combinations freely as the need for them arises: they
are originally nonce-compounds. In the course of time they may become
firmly established in the language:
the ban-the-bomb voice,
round-the-clock duty.
Other
syntactical functions unusual for the combination can also provide
structural cohesion:
working
class →
He
wasn’t
working-class enough.
The
function of hyphenated spelling in these cases is not quite clear. It
may be argued that it serves to indicate syntactical relationships
and not structural cohesion, e. g. keep-your-distance
chilliness. It
is then not a word-formative but a phrase-formative device.
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In the linguistics of word formation, a combining form (also neoclassical element) is a bound base designed to combine with another combining form or a free word. For example, «bio-» combines with «-graphy» to form «biography».
Words with combining forms are variously called combining form compounds, neoclassical compounds, and classical compounds.
A vowel usually facilitates the combination: in «biography», the Greek thematic vowel -«o»-, in «miniskirt», the Latin thematic -«i»-. This vowel is usually regarded as attached to the initial base («bio-«, «mini-«) rather than the final base («-graphy», «-skirt»), but in Greek-derived forms it is sometimes shown as attached to the final base («-ography», «-ology»). If, however, the final base begins with a vowel (for example, «-archy» as in «monarchy»), the mediating vowel has traditionally been avoided (no *»monoarchy»), but in recent coinages it is often kept and generally accompanied by a hyphen («auto-analysis», «bio-energy», «hydro-electricity», not *»autanalysis», *»bienergy», *»hydrelectricity»).
Translation
There are hundreds of combining forms in English and other European languages. As traditionally defined, they cannot stand alone as free words, but there are many exceptions to this rule, and in the late 20th century such forms are increasingly used independently: «bio» as a clipping of «biography», «telly» as a respelt clipping of «television». Most combining forms translate readily into everyday language, especially nouns: «bio-» as ‘life’ «-graphy» as ‘writing, description’. Because of this, the compounds of which they are part (usually «classical» or «learned compounds») can be more or less straightforwardly paraphrased: «biography» as ‘writing about a life’, «neurology» as ‘the study of the nervous system’. Many combining forms are designed to take initial or final position: «autobiography» has the two initial or preposed forms «auto-«, «bio-«, and one postposed form «-graphy». Although most occupy one position or the other, some can occupy both: «-graph-» as in «graphology» and «monograph»; «-phil-» as in «philology» and «Anglophile». Occasionally, the same base is repeated in one word: «logology» the study of words, «phobophobia» the fear of fear.
Preposed and postposed
Forms that come first include: «aero-» air, «crypto-» hidden, «demo-» people, «geo-» earth, «odonto-» tooth, «ornitho-» bird, «thalasso» sea. Many have both a traditional simple meaning and a modern telescopic meaning: in «biology», «bio-» means ‘life’, but in «bio-degradable» it telescopes ‘biologically’; although «hypno-» basically means ‘sleep’ («hypnopaedia» learning through sleep), it also stands for ‘hypnosis’ («hypnotherapy» cure through hypnosis). When a form stands alone as a present-day word, it is usually a telescopic abbreviation: «bio» biography, «chemo» chemotherapy, «hydro» hydroelectricity, «metro» metropolitan. Some telescoped forms can be shorter than the original combining forms: «gynie» is shorter than «gyneco-» and stands for both «gynecology» and «gynecologist»; «anthro» is shorter than «anthropo-» and stands for «anthropology». Forms that come second include: «-ectomy» cutting out, «-graphy» writing, description, «-kinesis» motion, «-logy» study, «-mancy» divination, «-onym» name, «-phagy» eating, «-phony» sound, «-therapy» healing, «-tomy» cutting. They are generally listed in dictionaries without the interfixed vowel, which appears however in such casual phrases as ‘ologies and isms’.
Variants
Some combining forms are variants of one base.
Some are also free words, such as «mania» in «dipsomania» and «phobia» in «claustrophobia».
Some are composites of other elements, such as «encephalo-» brain, from «en-» in, «-cephal-» head, and «-ectomy» cutting out, from «ec-» out, «-tom-» cut, «-y», a noun-forming suffix.
Origins
In Greek and Latin grammar, combining bases usually require a thematic or stem-forming vowel. In «biography», from Greek, the thematic is -«o»-; in «agriculture», from Latin, it is «-i-«. In English, which does not inflect in this way and has no native thematic vowels, an element like -«o»- is an imported glue that holds bases together. Its presence helps to distinguish classical compounds like «biography» and «agriculture» from vernacular compounds like «teapot» and «blackbird». Generally, English has acquired its classical compounds in three ways: through French from Latin and Greek, directly from Latin and Greek, and by coinage in English on Greek and Latin patterns. An exception is «schizophrenia», which came into English through German, and is therefore pronounced ‘skitso’, not ‘skyzo’. The combining forms and the compounds built from them are as much a part of English as of Latin and Greek, and as much a part of French, Spanish, Italian, and any other language that cares to use them. They are an international resource.
The conservative tradition
From the Renaissance until the mid-20th century, the concept of derivational purity has generally regulated the use of combining forms: Greek with Greek, Latin with Latin, and a minimum of hybridization. «Biography» is Greek, «agriculture» Latin, but «television» is a hybrid of Greek «tele-» and Latin «-vision» (probably so coined because the ‘pure’ form «telescope» had already been adopted for another purpose). «Kiddology» facetiously combines vernacular «kid» and «-ology» to produce ‘the science of kidding people’. Most dictionaries follow the «OED» in using «combining form» («comb. form») to label such classical elements, but the name is not widely known. In appendices to dictionaries and grammar books, combining forms are often loosely referred to as roots or affixes: ‘a logo …, properly speaking, is not a word at all but a prefix meaning word and short for logogram, a symbol, much as telly is short for television’ (Montreal «Gazette», 13 Apr. 1981). They are often referred to as affixes because some come first and some come last, but if they were affixes, a word like «biography» would have no base whatever. While affixes are grammatical (like prepositions), combining forms are lexical (like nouns, adjectives, and verbs): for example, «bio-» translates as a noun (life), «-graphy» as a verbal noun (writing). They are also often loosely called roots because they are ancient and have a basic role in word formation, but functionally and often structurally they are distinct from roots: the «-graph» in «autograph» is both a root and a combining form, while the «-graphy» in «cryptography» consists of root «-graph-» and suffix «-y», and is only a combining form.
Contemporary developments
By and large, combining forms were a closed system from the 16c to the earlier 20c: the people who used them were classically educated, their teachers and exemplars generally took a purist’s view on their use, contexts of use were mainly technical, and there was relatively little seepage into the language at large. However, with the decline of classical education and the spread of technical and quasi-technical jargon in the media, a continuum has evolved, with at least five stages:
Pure classical usage
In the older sciences, combining forms are generally used to form such strictly classical and usually Greek compounds as: «anthocyanin», «astrobleme», «chemotherapy», «chronobiology», «cytokinesis», «glossolalia», «lalophobia», «narcolepsy», «osteoporosis», «Pliohippus», «sympathomimetic».
Hybrid classical usage
In technical, semitechnical, and quasi-technical usage at large, coiners of compounds increasingly treat Latin and Greek as one resource, to produce such forms as: «accelerometer», «aero-generator», «bioprospector», «communicology», «electroconductive», «futurology», «mammography», «micro-gravity», «neoliberal», «Scientology», «servomechanism», «Suggestopedia».
Hybrid classical/vernacular usage
In the later 20c, many forms have cut loose from ancient moorings: «crypto-» as in preposed «Crypto-Fascist» and «pseudo-» as in «pseudoradical»; postposed «-meter» in «speedometer», «clapometer». Processes of analogy have created coinages like «petrodollar», «psycho-warfare», «microwave» on such models as «petrochemical», «psychology», «microscope». Such stunt usages as «eco-doom», «eco-fears», «eco-freaks», common in journalism, often employ combining forms telescopically: «eco-«standing for «ecology» and «ecological» and not as used in «economics». In such matters, precision of meaning is secondary to compactness and vividness of expression.
Combining forms as separate words
In recent years, the orthography of many word forms has changed, usually without affecting pronunciation and stress. The same spoken usage may be written «micro-missile», «micro missile», «micromissile», reflecting the same uncertainty or flexibility as in «businessman», «business-man», «business man». When used in such ways, combining forms are often telescopic: «Hydro substation» Hydro-Electricity Board substation, «Metro highways» Metropolitan highways, «porno cult» pornography cult.
New combining forms
The mix of late 20c techno-commercial coinages includes three groups of post- and non-classical forms: (1) «Established forms»: «econo-» from ‘economic’, as in «econometric», «Econo-Car», «mini-» from ‘miniature’, as in «miniskirt», «mini-boom», «-matic» from ‘automatic’, as in «Adjustamatic», «Instamatic», «Stackomatic». (2) Less established forms, often created by blending: «accu-» from ‘accurate’, as in «Accuvision»; «compu-» from ‘computer’, as in «Compucorp»; «docu-» from ‘documentary’, as in «docudrama»; «dura-» from ‘durable’, as in «Duramark». (3) Informal vernacular material in pseudo-classical form: «Easibird», «Healthitone», «Redi-pak», «Relax-a-Cisor» (relax, exerciser).
ee also
* Classical compound
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