Word parts meaning list

A reader asks about the terms prefix, root, and suffix, and wonders how to distinguish them in a word.

At the most basic level, words are made up of units of meaning called morphemes. A morpheme may be a recognizable word like tree, run, or button that cannot be broken down into smaller meaningful parts.

A morpheme can represent meaning without being a word. For example, the prefix un- expresses the idea of negation. The suffix -ness, used to turn adjectives into abstract nouns, is a morpheme. The root struct, seen in structure and construct, is a morpheme that embodies the meaning of “to build,” but it cannot stand alone as an English word.

A root is a word’s basic part and carries its fundamental meaning. In the word sadness, for example, the root is sad. Sometimes two roots combine to make one word, as in telephone, a combination of the morpheme tele, which relates to distance, and the morpheme phone, which relates to sound.

Prefixes and suffixes belong to a set of morphemes called affixes. An affix is an element added to the base form or stem of a word to modify its meaning.

Standard English makes use of two types of affix: prefixes and suffixes. A prefix is added at the beginning of a word. For example, the prefix re- is added to a root or a word to denote the idea of doing it again: return, renew, reconstruct.

A suffix is added at the end of a word.

Suffixes are of two kinds, derivational and inflectional. A derivational suffix changes the underlying meaning of the word; an inflectional suffix changes the tense of a verb or the number of a noun, or performs some other grammatical purpose.

Some common derivational suffixes are, -er, -al, -ful, and -ize. The suffix -er added to a verb creates a person or object that performs the action of the verb: teach/teacher, walk/walker, kill/killer, compute/computer; -al and -ful change nouns into adjectives: accident/accidental, forget/forgetful; -ize changes a noun into a verb: terror/terrorize.

Common inflectional suffixes are endings such as, –ed, -ly, -‘s, -s, -er, -ed, -es, -est, and -ing.

Derivational endings are added to a root. For example, the word reconstruction is made up of the root struct, two prefixes, re- and con-, and a suffix, tion. (Because struct ends in t and tion begins with t, one of the ts had to go.)

Inflectional endings are added to a stem, which is the entire word that the ending is being added to. In the words reconstructed and reconstructing, for example, the stem is reconstruct-.

Glossary of Terms and Terminology Relating to Determining the Meaning of Words by Analyzing Word Parts

• The root of a word: Also referred to as the base of a word and the stem of a word, is the main part of a word without any syllables before the root of the word, which is a prefix, or after the root of the word, which is a suffix.
• Prefixes: The part of a word that is connected to and before the stem or root of a word
• Suffixes: The part of a word that is connected to and after the stem of the word. Some suffixes, like «s», «es», «d» and «ed» which make words plural or of the past tense, are quite simple but others are more complex.

Word Stems

Vocabulary can be acquired and somewhat mastered knowing about the meanings of word stems, word prefixes and word suffixes.

As mentioned previously, the stem of a word, which is also referred to as the base of a word and the root of a word, is the main part of a word without any syllables before the stem of the word, which is a prefix, or after the stem of the word, which is a suffix.

For example, examine the word «reinstatement». The root of the word is «instate»; the prefix for the word reinstatement is «re» and the suffix for the word «reinstatement» is «ment». The meaning of the root of the word is to place or put into a position ; the meaning of the prefix is to redo or do again ; and the meaning of the suffix is the result of some action or occurrence. Based on these definitions, you should now be able to discover and determine the meaning of the word «reinstatement» as the placing something again in a position or place.

As you can see in the word above, word roots or stems are typically entire words. For example, here is a list of word stems or roots with an added prefix and/or suffix:

• Word stem: Engage

Word stem with a prefix: Reengage

Word stem with a suffix: Engagement

• Word stem: Tangle

Word stem with a prefix: Entangle:

Word stem with a suffix: Entanglement

• Word stem: Sweet

Word stem with a prefix: Hypersweet

Word stem with a suffix: Sweetener

Word stem with a suffix: Sweeter

Word stem with a suffix: Sweetest

• Word stem: Mystery

Word stem with a suffix: Mysterious

• Word stem: Discover

Word stem with a prefix: Rediscover

Word stem with a suffix: Rediscovery

• Word stem: Ceremony

Word stem with a suffix: Ceremonial

• Word stem: Festive

Word stem with a prefix: Unfestive

Word stem with a suffix: Festival

• Word stem: Section

Word stem with a prefix: Dissection

Word stem with a suffix: Sectional

• Word stem: Thermal

Word stem with a prefix: Hypothermal

Word stem with a suffix: Hypothermia

• Word stem: Political

Word stem with a prefix: Apolitical

Word stem with a suffix: Politicism

• Word stem: Establish

Word stem with a prefix : Disestablish

Word stem with a suffix: Disestablishment

• Word stem: Call

Word stem with a prefix : Recall

Word stem with a suffix: Caller

• Word stem: Large

Word stem with a prefix : Enlarge

Word stem with a suffix: Larger

Word stem with a suffix: Largest

• Word stem: Establish

Word stem with a prefix : Disestablish

Word stem with a prefix : Disestablishment

Word Prefixes

As previously stated, vocabulary can be acquired and somewhat mastered knowing about the meanings of prefixes and suffixes which are attached to the beginning of a word stem and after a word stem, respectively.

Some of the most commonly used prefixes, examples of words with these prefixes and the meaning of these words are listed below.

Mono: One or singular

Example: Monopoly which means under the control and possession of one individual or one group

A and an: Not or without

Example: Apathetic meaning without emotion and anemic meaning without blood or a component of blood

Anti: Against or before

Example: Antiseptic meaning an agent that fights against germs

Auto: Self

Example: Autobiographical meaning a story about self or one self

Co, com and con: With and together

Example: Concurrent meaning together and at the same time, conjoined meaning joined together and communicate meaning to convey a message with others

Uni: One

Example: Unicycle meaning a one wheeled cycle and unicellular meaning one celled

Bi: Two

Example: Bifocals meaning two lenses for eye glasses and bicycle meaning a two wheeled cycle

Tri: Three

Example: Triples meaning three infants born at the same time by the same mother and tricycle meaning a three wheeled cycle

Quad: Four

Example: Quadruplets meaning four infants born at the same time by the same mother and quadrilateral meaning a four sided figure

Circum: Around

Example: Circumcision meaning the surgery that a new born baby boy gets around the tip of the penis and circumference which is the measurement around a circle

Contra: Against

Example: Contraindicated meaning against indications and not appropriate

De: Undo

Example: Decrease meaning to lower and undo

Hyper: More than normal

Example: Hyperglycemia meaning more than normal blood sugar and hyperactive meaning more active than normal

Inter: Between

Example: Intersection meaning the spot between two streets or other things

Inter: Between

Example: Interaction meaning an action, such as a conversation, between two people of things

In: Into and not

Example: Internal meaning inner and inactive meaning not active

Peri: Around

Example: Perimeter meaning the length around a geometric figure like a square, triangle or rectangle and perioral meaning around the mouth

Ex: Out of

Example: External meaning outside and exit meaning a way to leave an area

Homo: The same

Example: Homogeneous meaning a group of people or things that are the same in terms of gender, age, or shape for example

Hetero: Different

Example: Heterogeneous meaning a group of people or things that are different in terms of a characteristic such as gender, age, or shape for example

Micro: Small

Example: Microscopic meaning very small and microscope meaning a scientific instrument that is used to see verify small things

Macro: Large

Example: Macroeconomics meaning the study of economics on a large scale, such as global economics

Pre: Before

Example: Prenuptial meaning before marriage

Sub: Under

Example: Subway meaning a means of transportation that is underground and substandard meaning not up to and less than the standard

Word Suffixes

As stated previously, suffixes are connected to and after the stem of the word. Some suffixes, like «s», «es», «d» and «ed» which make words plural or of the past tense, are quite simple but others are more complex.

Unlike prefixes, many suffixes do not have a specific meaning; instead many suffixes change a part of speech to another part of speech. For example, the suffix «ish» often changes a noun into an adjective and the suffix «ly» often changes an adjective into an adverb. The word child is a noun but when «ish» is added to the end of the word child, it becomes childish which is an adjective that means like a child; and when «ly» is added to the end of an adjective like generous, the word is now an adverb as generously.

Like prefixes and word stems or roots, knowing the meaning of suffixes can improve one’s vocabulary acquisition and vocabulary mastery.

Below is a list of suffixes, their meanings and examples of each:

Er: More than

Example: Sweeter meaning more sweet than something else. This suffix is used with comparative adjectives which compare two things.

Est: Most

Example: Sweetest meaning the most sweet of more than two things. This suffix is used with superlative adjectives that compare more than two things.

Ing: Continuing or continuous

Example: Running meaning that the person or thing is continuing to run.

Ish: Like or similar to

Example: Childish meaning like a child and foolish meaning like a fool

Less: Without

Example: Childless meaning without children

Ful: With or full of

Example: Beautiful meaning full of beauty

Ible and Able: Can or able to

Example: Enjoyable meaning that something can be enjoyed. These suffixes often changed a word that is a verb into an adjective.

Ness: With

Example: Kindness meaning with being kin. This suffix usually changes adjectives like kind into a noun like kindness.

Ment: State of

Example: Sentiment meaning in the state of feeling. This suffix typically changes a verb into a noun.

Al: Like

Example: Capable meaning able to do something in the correct manner or with competency

Pulling it All Together to Decipher the Meaning of Difficult Words

In this final section of your English and Language TEAS examination review, we have listed some sentences with difficult vocabulary words. Read each of the sentences and try to determine the meanings of these difficult vocabulary words.

If you have difficulty with these sentences, look the words up in a dictionary. You may also prepare yourself for these types of TEAS examination questions by flipping through a dictionary, looking for difficult words and then trying to determine its meaning while you cover and hide the definition with your finger .

As the detectives investigated the mass murder and arson case, it was determined that one of the chief suspects had an alibi about their whereabouts the night of these crimes that was corroborated by several people and the suspect’s time card at his place of employment.

What does the word corroborated mean?

One of the chief witnesses for the suspect’s defense told confusing and illogical stories; therefore, the jurors felt that the witness was capricious and not predictable.

What does the word capricious mean?

Nancy, who has known Karen for over 20 years, recently learned that Karen was the antithesis of selflessness which was quite a surprise to Nancy.

What does the word antithesis mean?

An example of synergism is that the whole is greater than the sum of the parts.

What does the word synergism mean?

Throughout the ages, there have been many people who have been shunned and even persecuted for thinking differently and coming forward with a new paradigm. For example, Pythagoras, a Greek philosopher, was rejected when he said that the earth was round and not flat.

What does the word paradigm mean?

Mary was far less loquacious than her gregarious friends were.

What does the word gregarious mean?

Mary was far less loquacious than her talkative friends were.

What does the word loquacious mean?

Although many people go to college after high school to learn about and major in theoretical subjects that they are not able to apply immediately, there are others that choose to go to a vocational school to learn pragmatic skills that they are able to use immediately in the real world.

What does the word pragmatic mean?

During a conversation with my friend, she stated, «Judy must be very wealthy; she lives in Beverly Hills.» I told my friend that that statement was a nonsequitur.

What does the word nonsequitur mean?

One of the primary reasons that authors should know who their target audience of readers will be prior to beginning the piece of writing because a failure to know the target audience and their characteristics may lead to the author’s use of esoteric terms and terminology that the readers are not able to understand and comprehend. For example, the words and abbreviations of NPO, a definitive diagnosis and immunoassay are usually incomprehensible to general population.

What does the word esoteric mean?

When Suzie’s children wanted a puppy for Christmas, Suzie was ambivalanet about getting one because she thought it would be nice to have the children learn about caring for a pet but she did not want to have to house break and train a puppy at this time.

What does the word ambivalent mean?

Many professional authors experience writer’s block which makes them less prolific than they want to be.

What does the word prolific mean?

Angina, a disease of the heart, is characterized with intermittent chest pain.

What does the word intermittent mean?

Despite the fact that the Jones family donated to the new church building fund, their small donation was not nearly as magnanimous as many thought it would be.

What does the word magnanimous mean?

One of the cruelest characteristics of a bully is their belligerence.

What does the word belligerence mean?

RELATED TEAS VOCABULARY ACQUISITION CONTENT:

• Using Context Clues to Determine the Meaning of Words or Phrases 
• Determine the Meaning of Words by Analyzing Word Parts (Currently here)

Recommended textbook solutions

What are word parts?[edit | edit source]

First, try to answer these questions by filling in the blanks:

1. To ‘redo’ means: to do ____ (Answer)

2. The word which starts the same as ‘careful’, but means its opposite is: ____ (Answer)

3. If John is 2 metres tall and Harry is 1.8 metres tall, then John is tall__ than Harry. (Answer)

If you answered these questions right, then this shows that you already know a bit about word parts.

Knowing what they mean and how they work is a very powerful tool.

What types of word parts are there?[edit | edit source]

Prefixes[edit | edit source]

Look at these words:

rename, restart, redesign

1. Where does ‘re-‘ go in these words and what does it mean? (Answer)

A word part which always features at the front of a word is called a prefix (pronounced: PREE-fikz).

Place a possible prefix before these words and start to think about how it changes the meaning of the word (the first one has been done for you):

2. kind

(unkind)

The prefix is: un- (make sure you remember the dash after a prefix)

3. polite

(________)

The prefix is: (Answer)

4. fire

(_______)

The prefix is: (Answer)

5. come

(________)

The prefix is: (Answer)

6. mature

(_________)

The prefix is: (Answer)

Suffixes[edit | edit source]

Now look at these words:

fearless, careless, hatless

1. Where does ‘-less’ go in these words and what does it mean? (Answer)

A word part which always features at the end of a word is called a suffix (pronounced: SUFF-ikz).

Test your suffix knowledge and continue thinking about how it changes the meaning of the word (the first one has been done for you):

2. If Alex is heavier than everyone, then he is the: heaviest

The suffix is: -est (make sure you remember to write the dash «-» before a suffix)

3. The process of attracting is called: ______

The suffix is: _____ (Answer)

4. If someone takes a lot of care, then they are described as: ________

The suffix is: _____ (Answer)

5. If someone is without fear, then they are: ________

The suffix is: _____ (Answer)

6. If someone is kind, they they usually show: ________

The suffix is: _____ (Answer)

Roots[edit | edit source]

Finally, there are the main parts of words called roots.

Roots usually appear in the middle of words, but that’s NOT a good way to think about them.

Look at these examples to see why:

• -dict- is the root of: predict, dictate, and diction
  • In these examples, -dict- is at the front and end of words.

• -port- is the root of: imports, exported, and transportation
  • In these examples, -port- is in the middle of words.

(Notice how when we write a root, we put a dash «-» on both sides. Beware that some authors don’t and would just write ‘port’, though.)

Here are two key points to help you tell if a word part is a root:

POINT 1

First, notice how prefixes and suffixes can never stand on their own.

We don’t say: un-, re-, -ness, or -tion

On the other hand, roots might stand on their own.

We do say: kind, fear, and come.

We don’t say: dict

(We do say over- as ‘over’ and ‘-less’ as ‘less’, but this is an example of a prefix and suffix which have the same spelling as a root. Now you see a reason why we ALWAYS put the dashes with them.)

POINT 2

Second, notice how roots carry the main meaning of a word and are what we attach the prefixes and suffixes to.

Try to identify the roots in these words (the first one has been done for you):

1. For antimatter, the root is -matter-

2. For misfire, the root is: ______ (Answer)

3. For transport, export, and support, the root of all of them is: ______ (Answer)

4. For talk, talked, and talking, the root of all of them is: ______ (Answer)

5. For success, access, and recession, the root of all of them is: ______ (Answer)

So, remind yourself that the three types of parts of words are:

6. ______, ______, and ____ (Answer)

Watch out for rules![edit | edit source]

You may have been thinking about rules which tell you how prefixes, suffixes, and roots work.

Remember that English has no rules that work in ALL cases.

For instance, we get the plural of egg, tree, and hand by putting the suffix -s on the end:

eggs, trees, hands

But, we DON’T get the plural of goose that way (after all, it’s geese).

Here are 5 key points for you to remember about making and applying rules concerning word parts.

Make sure you think of other cases where they apply.

Rule 1: Use sense and not just spelling[edit | edit source]

re- is a prefix that means ‘again’, right?

So, what about ‘red’, ‘reck’, and ‘really?’

Well, spelling doesn’t tell you everything!

You can look for clues in pronunciation.

For instance, we usually say re- as «REE»; but this isn’t foolproof either, because of how we say ‘really.’

Start thinking about things to do with the sense of a word such as whether or not you can replace re- with other prefixes (like how ‘redo’ could be changed to ‘undo’).

Is it like this for suffixes, too?

Absolutely. Just think about how -ing is a suffix, but how it clearly isn’t a suffix for the words ‘sing’ and ‘thing.’

Rule 2: You cannot add prefixes and suffixes to everything[edit | edit source]

For the root -do-, we can attach prefixes and get:

redo, undo, overdo

Think for a moment about some prefixes we can’t attach to it (and look in the answer key for some possible answers):

1. _________ (Answer)

Is it like this for suffixes, too?

Just consider the word ‘fun.’

If an activity is more fun than every other activity, do we say it is the ‘funnest’ activity? No.

Rule 3: You cannot take prefixes and suffixes off everything[edit | edit source]

Which one can you NOT take the prefix anti- off?

antimatter, anticipate, antisocial

1. __________ (Answer)

Which one can you NOT take the prefix re- off?

redesign, resend, receive

2. __________ (Answer)

So, we cannot always take prefixes off words and be left with words.

Suffixes are a bit more complicated, because there are two types; one which you can nearly always take off, and one which you nearly always can’t.

We will talk more about this later; but for now, just don’t assume that you can always take a suffix off a word.

(Okay, that’s three helpful rules learned. I hope you are remembering to think of your own examples or this stuff won’t stick!)

Rule 4: Word parts can have more than one meaning[edit | edit source]

The ‘un-‘ in ‘unhappy’ has a different meaning to the un- in ‘undress’.

In the first case, ‘un-‘ means ‘not.’

In the second case, it just means ‘reversal.’

So, don’t make the mistake of believing that you will know the meaning of a word part after meeting it just once.

Rule 5: A word part can be spelled in more than one way[edit | edit source]

For prefixes, look at ‘in-‘, which means ‘not’, as in ‘injustice.’

1. What do we put before ‘possible’ to mean ‘not possible?’ (Answer)

For roots, look at ‘-vis-‘, which means ‘see’, as in ‘visual.’

Now consider that it can also be spelled ‘-vid-‘, as in ‘video.’

For suffixes, look at ‘-s’, which makes plurals, as in ‘eggs.’

2. But, what do we put at the end of ‘box’ to make it plural? (Answer)

So, remember that a word part can be spelled in more than one way.

Go over these five rules again before moving onto the next subsection.

In summary:

Be careful, because word parts CAN have multiple meanings, multiple spellings, and CAN’T be swapped, chopped off, or attached haphazardly.

The parts of speech[edit | edit source]

Sentences are made up of different types of words and each type has its own job to do in the sentence.

We call these types ‘parts of speech.’

There are lots of different ones, but we will look at the four main types.

Noun[edit | edit source]

A noun is the name of a person, place, thing, or idea.

A common noun names a general item (like ‘dog’ or ‘happiness’).

A proper noun names a particular item (a particular person, particular place, particular thing,…) and always begins with a capital letter (like ‘Josh’ or ‘London’).

Anna is going to Germany on Friday and will take her bicycle on the journey.

The common nouns in this sentence are:

1. __________ (Answer)

The proper nouns in this sentence are:

2. __________ (Answer)

Nouns have a singular form (like: egg, hand, goose) and a plural form (like: eggs, hands, geese).

Finally, a pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun (so we don’t have to repeat it).

Examples include: she, he, they, it

When she goes to Germany, she will take her bike, because it has excellent cycling roads.

The pronouns in this sentence are:

3. __________ (Answer)

Adjective[edit | edit source]

An adjective is a word that describes a noun.

When it is cold and snowy, wear thick, black clothes.

The adjectives in this sentence are:

1. __________ (Answer)

Adjectives can be modified to make comparisons:

The comparative (pronounced: kom-PAH-ruh-tiv) of:

• tall is taller
• red is redder
• fun is more fun
• difficult is more difficult

The superlative (pronounced: soo-PURR-luh-tiv) of:

• tall is tallest
• red is reddest
• fun is most fun
• difficult is most difficult

Verb[edit | edit source]

A verb is a doing or action word.

Jack always runs to school while Anna eats her breakfast.

1. What are the verbs in this sentence? (Answer)

Verbs are quite complicated.

What is most important to us is learning the FORMS of a verb, because this is where suffixes feature.

As an example, the forms of ‘initiate’ are: initiate, initiates, initiated, initiating

We will look further into this in lesson 2.

Adverb[edit | edit source]

An adverb is a word that that modifies a verb, adjective, or even another adverb.

An adverb answers how, when, where, or to what extent.

I always do my work extremely carefully.

The adverbs in this sentence are:

1. __________ (Answer)

Notice how they often end in the suffix ‘-ly’.

Here are some more examples of adverbs: daily, completely, almost, often, never, soon, cleverly

Lesson 1 Quiz[edit | edit source]

If there was anything you didn’t understand, read it once more, because here’s a quiz (that you should try to get perfect before lesson 2):

1. What are the three main types of word parts?

2. What is the common root of ‘audio’, ‘audible’, and ‘audience’, and what do you think it means?

3. Deconstruct the word ‘prefixes’ into its word parts.

4. Which prefix can be found in the opposite to ‘increase?’

5. ‘non-believer’ features the prefix ‘non-‘ but keeps the dash. Are there examples where id doesn’t?

6. Does ‘over-‘ just mean ‘physically above’, as in ‘overhang’?

7. How else can you spell the suffix ‘-y’ (as in mess -> messy)?

8. What are the four main types of parts of speech?

9. Think of examples of adverbs that don’t end in ‘-ly.’

10. Think of three words that have more than one type of part of speech.

(Answers)

Answer Key[edit | edit source]

What are word parts? (Answers)[edit | edit source]

(Go back to questions)

1. again

2. careless

3. er (making the word ‘taller’)

What types of word parts are there? (Answers)[edit | edit source]

Prefixes (Answers)[edit | edit source]

(Go back to questions)

1. At the front and it means ‘again’.

2. (Already done as an example)

3. impolite; the prefix is: im-

4. misfire; the prefix is: mis-

5. overcome; the prefix is: over-

6. premature; the prefix is: pre-

Suffixes (Answers)[edit | edit source]

(Go back to questions)

1. At the end.

2. (Already done as an example)

3. attraction; the suffix is: -tion

4. careful; the suffix is: -ful

5. fearless; the suffix is: -less

6. kindness; the suffix is: -ness

Roots (Answers)[edit | edit source]

(Go back to questions)

1. (Already done as an example)

2. -fire-

3. -port-

4. -talk-

5. -cess-

6. prefix, suffix, and root

Watch out for rules! (Answers)[edit | edit source]

Rule 2: You cannot add prefixes and suffixes to everything (Answers)[edit | edit source]

(Go back to questions)

1. subdo, interdo, predo

Rule 3: You cannot take prefixes and suffixes off everything (Answers)[edit | edit source]

(Go back to questions)

1. anticipate

2. receive

Rule 5: A word part can be spelled in more than one way (Answers)[edit | edit source]

(Go back to questions)

1. im-, as in ‘impossible’

2. -es, as in ‘boxes’

The parts of speech (Answers)[edit | edit source]

Noun (Answers)[edit | edit source]

(Go back to questions)

1. bicycle, journey

2. Anna, Germany, Friday

3. she, it

Adjective (Answers)[edit | edit source]

(Go back to questions)

1. cold, snowy, thick, black

Adverb (Answers)[edit | edit source]

(Go back to questions)

1. extremely, carefully

Lesson 1 Quiz (Answers)[edit | edit source]

(Go back to questions)

1. prefix, root, suffix

2. -audi-, it means ‘hearing’ or ‘listening’

3. ‘pre-‘ is the prefix; ‘-fix-‘ is the root; ‘-es’ is the suffix

4. ‘de-‘ is the suffix, as in ‘decrease’

5. ‘nonprofit’ (if your example was different, check a dictionary)

6. No. It may also mean ‘excess’, as in ‘overambitious’, or ‘outer’, as in ‘overcoat.’

7. ‘-ey’, as in ‘clayey.’

8. noun, verb, adjective, adverb

9. often, soon

10. ‘abstract’ can be a noun or adjective. ‘fool’ can be a noun or verb. ‘set’ can be a noun, adjective, or verb.

The
modern approach to word studies is based on distinguishing between
the external
and
the
internal structures
of the word.

By
external
structure of the word we
mean its morphological
structure.
For example, in the word post-impressionists
the
following morphemes can be distinguished: the prefixes post-,
im-, the
root press,
the
noun-forming suffixes —ion,
—ist,
and the grammatical suffix of plurality -s.
All these morphemes constitute the external structure of the word
post-impressionists.

The
internal
structure of the word, or
its meaning,
is
commonly referred to as the word’s semantic
structure. This
is the word’s main aspect. Words can serve the purposes of human
communication solely due to their meanings.

The
area of lexicology specializing in the semantic studies of the word
is called semantics.

Another
structural aspect of the word is its unity.
The word possesses both external (or formal) unity and semantic
unity. Formal unity of the word is sometimes interpreted as
indivisibility. The example of post-impressionists
has
already shown that the word is not indivisible. Yet, its component
morphemes are permanently linked together in opposition to
word-groups, both free and with fixed contexts, whose components
possess a certain structural freedom, e.g. bright
light, to take for granted.

The
formal unity of the word can best be illustrated by comparing a word
and a word-group comprising identical constituents. The difference
between a
blackbird and
a black bird is
explained by their relationship with the grammatical system of the
language. The word blackbird,
which
is characterized by unity, possesses a single grammatical framing:
blackbird/s.
The
first constituent black
is
not subject to any grammatical changes. In the word-group a black
bird each
constituent can acquire grammatical forms of its own: the
blackest birds I’ve ever seen. Other
words can be inserted between the components: a
black night bird.

The
same example may be used to illustrate what we mean by semantic
unity.

In
the word-group a black
bird each
of the meaningful words conveys a separate concept: bird
– a
kind of living creature; black
– a
colour.

The
word blackbird
conveys
only one concept: the type of bird. This is one of the main features
of any word: it always conveys one concept, no matter how many
component morphemes it may have in its external structure.

A
further structural feature of the word is its susceptibility
to
grammatical employment. In speech most words can be used in different
grammatical forms in which their interrelations are realized.

All
that we have said about the word can be summed up as follows.

The
word
is
a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication,
materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning,
susceptible to grammatical employment and characterized by formal and
semantic unity.

1. The main problems of lexicology

Two
of these have been already underlined. The
problem of word-building is
associated with prevailing morphological word-structures and with
processes of making new words. Semantics
is
the study of meaning. Modern approaches to this problem are
characterized by two different levels of study: syntagmatic
and
paradigmatic.

On
the syntagmatic
level, the
semantic structure of the word is analysed in its linear
relationships with neighbouring words in connected speech. In other
words, the semantic characteristics of the word are observed,
described and studied on the basis of its typical contexts.

On
the paradigmatic
level, the
word is studied in its relationships with other words in the
vocabulary system. So, a word may be studied in comparison with other
words of similar meaning. E.g. work
n – labour
n.
Work работа,
труд; 1
the
job that a person does especially in order to earn money. This word
has many meanings (in
Oxford Dictionary – 14),
many synonyms and idioms [`idiemz]: creative
work творческая
деятельность; public
work общественные
работы;
his life`s work дело
его жизни; dirty
work (difficult,
unpleasant) 1
чёрная работа; 2
грязное
дело, подлость.
Nice
work! Отлично!
Здорово!
Saying (поговорка):
All
work and no play makes Jack a dull boy (мешай
дело с бездельем, проживёшь век с
весельем)
–
it is not healthy to spend all your time working; you need to relax
too.

Labour:
“work”
и “labour” не взаимозаменимы; labour
– 1 work,
especially physical work: manual
labour,
a
labour camp
– исправительно-трудовой
лагерь; 2
people
who work: a
shortage of labour; cheap labour; skilled labour –
квалифицированные
рабочие, Labour
Party; labour relations; a labour of
Sisyphus;
Sisyphean
labour [,sisi‘fi:en]
сизифов труд; тяжёлый и бесплодный труд
– of a task impossible to complete. From the Greek myth in which
Sisyphus was punished for the bad things he had done in his life with
the never-ending task of rolling a large stone to the top of a hill,
from which it always rolled down again.

Other
words of similar meaning (e.g. to
refuse v – to reject v),
of
opposite meaning (e.g. busy
adj – idle adj; to accept v – to reject v),
of
different stylistic characteristics (e.g. man
n – chap n – bloke n – guy n).
Man
–
chap
(coll.)
–
парень, малый; a
good chap
–
славный малый; old
chap – старина;
chap
– BrE,
informal,
becoming old-fashioned – used to talk about a man in a friendly
way: He
isn`t such a bad chap really. Bloke
(coll.)
тип,
парень: He
seemed like a nice bloke.
Guy
– coll.
US – малый;
tough
guy железный
малый; wise
guy умник;
guys
(informal,
especially US) a
group of people of either sex: Come
on, you guys!

Consequently,
the main problems of paradigmatic studies are synonymy,
antonymy, functional styles.

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