Word parts combining forms

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Presentation on theme: «Лексикология. Лекция 3. Морфологическая структура.»— Presentation transcript:

1

Лексикология. Лекция 3. Морфологическая структура.
M o r p h e m e s the smallest indivisible meaningful language units Allomorphs (m o r p h e m e v a r i a n t s) — all the representations of the given morpheme that manifest alteration please, pleas -ing, pleas -ure, pleas –ant Stem — the part of the word that remains unchanged throughout its paradigm. The stem of the paradigm hearty — heartier — (the) heartiest is hearty-. .

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Simple Derived Free Bound STEM

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Stem When a derivational or functional affix is stripped from the word, what remains is a stem (or astern base). The stem expresses the lexical and the part of speech meaning. For the paradigm heart (sing.) —hearts (pl.) the stem may be represented as heart-. This stem is a single morpheme, it contains nothing but the root, so it is a simple stem. It is also a free stem because it is homonymous to the word heart. A stem may also be defined as the part of the word that remains unchanged throughout its paradigm. The stem of the paradigm hearty — heartier — (the) heartiest is hearty-. It is a free stem, but as it consists of a root morpheme and an affix, it is not simple but derived.

4

Classification of stems
Bound stems are especially characteristic of loan words. The point may be illustrated by the following French borrowings: arrogance, charity, courage, coward, distort, involve, notion, legible and tolerable. After the affixes of these words are taken away the remaining elements are: arrog-, char-, cour-, cow-, -tort, -volve, not-, leg-, toler-, which do not coincide with any semantically related independent words.

5

The Word and the Morpheme
The correlation between the word and the morpheme is problematic There is a set of intermediary units (half-words — half-morphemes) Jack’s, a boy, have done.

6

This approach to treating various lingual units is known in linguistics as “a field approach”: polar phenomena possessing the unambiguous characteristic features of the opposed units constitute “the core”, or “the center” of the field, while the intermediary phenomena combining some of the characteristics of the poles make up “the periphery” of the field; e.g.: functional words make up the periphery of the class of words since their functioning is close to the functioning of morphemes

7

Semi-affixes Semi-affixes are morphemes that are bound but which retain a word-like quality. Examples are: anti-, counter-, -like and -worthy.  So we can have: anti-clockwise or anticlockwise counter-example or counterexample bird-like or birdlike note-worthy or noteworthy

8

COMBINING FORM A combining form is a type of word component based on an independent word that has been modified to be joined with another word or combining form to create a compound word. 1.Every combining form has its own semantic meaning, but unlike their source words, combining forms generally cannot stand alone as complete words by themselves. 2. Combining forms are part of many English words and are especially common in areas such as science, medicine, and technological terms.

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COMBINING FORM 3. In English and many other European languages, combining forms are frequently based on Latin or classical Greek words, and so compound words made from them are commonly called classical compounds. 4. The English versions can sometimes be several steps removed from their original language. For example, the suffix -graphy originated as the English version of the French -graphie, which comes from the Latin -graphia. The Latin term, in turn, comes from the Greek graphein, which means to write.

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Combining forms 5. Combining forms are even more word-like than semi-affixes and frequently occur in technical literature, for instance  Indo-European or gastro-enteritis. 6.  Some words can be made up entirely from bound forms, but without a free morpheme, e.g.  Francophile.

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Combining forms kilometer: kilo- (comb. f.) metro (word).
autotroph: auto- (comb. f.) -troph (comb. f.). electrocardiogram: electro- (comb. f.) cardio- (comb. f.) -gram (comb. f.). hydroxylic: hydro- (comb. f.) ox- (comb. f.) -yl (comb. f.) –ic (suffix). chloride: chlor- (comb. f.) -ide (suffix). diathermy: dia- (prefix) -thermy (comb. f.).

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Combining forms • There are combining forms that always precede another lexical element, therm- / thermo- (precedes): thermo-electric, thermo-dynamic, thermometer, thermo-nuclear. others always follow them, -gram (follows): dactylogram — отпечаток пальцев, histogram — гистограмма and finally there are combining forms that can precede or follow a word: phono- / phon- o –phone (precedes or follows): tele-phone, allo-phone, phono-graph, phono-logy • The origin of most of them is Greek or Latin, though there are some exceptions, as atto- and femto-, from Norwegian and Danish.

13

Three types of morphemic segmentability
c o m p l e t e (живое членение слов) , c o n d i t i o n a l (условное членение слов) d e f e c t i v e (дефектное членение слов) .

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words segmentable fearless Non-segmentable girl

15

C o n d i t i o n a l morphemic segmentability
characterises words whose segmentation into the constituent morphemes is doubtful for semantic reasons. pseudo-morphemes or quasi-morphemes cf. retain, detain or receive, deceive, re-organise, deorganise, decode

16

D e f e c t i v e morphemic segmentability
the property of words whose component morphemes seldom or never recur in other words. a unique morpheme cf. lionet, cellaret – pocket ringlet, leaflet – hamlet

17

Classification of morphemes
root-morphemes (roots) Roots express the concrete, “material” part of the meaning of the word and constitute its central part affixal (derivational)  morphemes (affixes). Affixes express the specificational part of the meaning of the word: they specify, or transform the meaning of the root. 

18

An affix is not-root or a bound morpheme that modifies the meaning and / or syntactic category of the stem in some way. Affixes are classified into prefixes, suffixes, infixes, interfixes.

19

THE SEMANTIC CRITERION
lexical, or word-building (derivational) affixes together with the root constitute the stem of the word grammatical, or word-changing affixes express different morphological categories, such as number, case, tense and others. 

20

Classification of morphemes
Prefixes in English are only lexical: the word underestimate is derived from the word estimate with the help of the prefix under-. 

21

Classification of morphemes
A suffix is a morpheme following the root forming a new derivative in a different word class (-en, -y, -less in heart-en, heart-y, heart-less) or expressing different morphological categories

22

Classification of morphemes
Suffixes in English lexical or grammatical (inflexions, inflections, inflectional endings) underestimates:  -ate is a lexical suffix, because it is used to derive the verb estimate (v) from the noun esteem (n), –s is a grammatical suffix making the 3rd person, singular form of the verb to underestimate.

23

Grammatical suffixes Grammatical suffixes in English have certain peculiarities: since they are the remnants of the old inflectional system, there are few (only six) remaining word-changing suffixes in English: -(e)s, -ed, — ing, — er, — est, — en;  most of them are homonymous, e.g. -(e)s is used to form the plural of the noun (dogs), the genitive of the noun (my friend’s), and the 3rd person singular of the verb (works);  some of them have lost their inflectional properties and  can be attached to units larger than the word, e.g.: his daughter Mary’s arrival. 

24

Suffixes can be classified into different types in accordance with different principles:
According to the lexical-grammatical character of the base suffixes are usually added to, they may be: deverbal suffixes (those added to the verbal base): -er (builder); -ing (writing); denominal suffixes (those added to the nominal base): — less (timeless); -ful (hopeful); -ist (scientist); -some (troublesome); deajectival suffixes (those added to the adjectival base): — en (widen); -ly (friendly); -ish (whitish); -ness (brightness).

25

According to the part of speech formed suffixes fall into several groups:
noun-forming suffixes: -age (breakage, bondage); -ance/- ence (assistance, reference); -dom (freedom, kingdom); — er (teacher, baker); -ess (actress, hostess); -ing (building, wasing); adjective-forming suffixes: -able/-ible/-uble (favourable, incredible, soluble); -al (formal, official); -ic (dynamic); — ant/-ent (repentant, dependent); numeral-forming suffixes: -fold (twofold); -teen (fourteen); -th (sixth); -ty (thirty); verb-forming suffixes: -ate (activate); -er (glimmer); -fy/- ify (terrify, specify); -ize (minimize); -ish (establish); adverb-forming suffixes: -ly (quickly, coldly); -ward/- wards (backward, northwards); -wise (likewise).

26

Semantically suffixes fall into:
Monosemantic: the suffix -ess has only one meaning ‘female’ – tigress, taloress; Polysemantic: the suffix -hood has two meanings: ‘condition or quality’ – falsehood, womanhood; ‘collection or group’ – brotherhood.

27

According to their generalizing denotational meaning suffixes may fall into several groups. E.g., noun-suffixes fall into those denoting: the agent of the action: -er (baker); -ant (accountant); appurtenance: -an/-ian (Victorian, Russian); -ese (Chinese); collectivity: -dom (officialdom); -ry (pleasantry); diminutiveness:-ie (birdie); -let (cloudlet); -ling (wolfling).

28

According to their stylistic reference suffixes may be classified into:
those characterized by neutral stylistic reference: -able (agreeable); -er (writer); — ing (meeting); those having a certain stylistic value: -oid (asteroid); -tron (cyclotron). These suffixes occur usually in terms and are bookish.

29

Classification of morphemes
A prefix is a derivational morpheme preceding the root-morpheme and modifying its meaning (understand – mis-understand, correct – in-correct).

30

Prefixes can be classified according to different principles
According to the lexico-grammatical character of the base prefixes are usually added to, they may be: deverbal (those added to the verbal base): re- (rewrite); over- (overdo); out- (outstay); denominal (those added to the nominal base): — (unbutton); de- (detrain); ex- (ex-president); deadjectival (those added to the adjectival base): un- (uneasy); bi- (biannual). deadverbial (those added to the adverbial base): un- (unfortunately); in- independently).

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adverb-forming prefixes: un- (unfortunately); up- (uphill).
According to the class of words they preferably form prefixes are divided into: verb-forming prefixes: en-/em- (enclose, embed); be- (befriend); de- (dethrone); noun-forming prefixes: non- (non-smoker); sub- (sub- (subcommittee); ex- (ex- husband) adjective-forming prefixes: un- (unfair); il- (illiterate); ir- (irregular); adverb-forming prefixes: un- (unfortunately); up- (uphill).

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Semantically prefixes fall into:
Monosemantic: the prefix ex- has only one meaning ‘former’ – ex-boxer; Polysemantic; the prefix dis- has four meanings: ‘not’ (disadvantage); ‘reversal or absence of an action or state’ (diseconomy, disaffirm); ‘removal of’ (to disbranch); ‘completeness or intensification of an unpleasant action’ (disgruntled).

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According to their generalizing denotational meaning prefixes fall into:
negative prefixes: un- (ungrateful); non- (nonpolotical); in- (incorrect); dis- (disloyal); a- (amoral); reversative prefixes: un2- (untie); de- (decentralize); dis2- (disconnect); pejorative prefixes: mis- (mispronounce); mal- (maltreat); pseudo- (pseudo-scientific); prefixes of time and order: fore- (foretell); pre- (pre-war); post- (post-war), ex- (ex-president); prefix of repetition: re- (rebuild, rewrite); locative prefixes: super- (superstructure), sub- (subway), inter- (inter-continental), trans- (transatlantic).

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These prefixes are of a literary-bookish character.
According to their stylistic reference prefixes fall into: those characterized by neutral stylistic reference: over- (oversee); under- (underestimate); un-(unknown); those possessing quite a definite stylistic value: pseudo- (pseudo-classical); super- (superstructure); ultra- (ultraviolet); uni- (unilateral); bi- (bifocal). These prefixes are of a literary-bookish character.

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4. PRODUCTIVE AND NON-PRODUCTIVE AFFIXES
The word-forming activity of affixes may change in the course of time. This raises the question of productivity of derivational affixes, i.e. the ability of being used to form new, occasional or potential words, which can be readily understood by the language-speakers. Thus, productive affixes are those used to form new words in this particular period of language development.

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Some productive affixes
Noun-forming suffixes: -er (manager), -ing (playing), -ness (darkness), -ism1 (materialism), -ist (parachutist), -ism (realism), — -ancy (redundancy), -ry (gimmickry), -or (reactor), -ics (cybernetics). Adjective-forming suffixes  -y (tweedy), -ish (smartish), -ed (learned), -able (tolerable), -less (jobless), -ic (electronic). Adverb-forming suffixes -ly (equally) Verb-forming suffixes -ize/-ise (realise), -ate (oxidate), -ify (qualify). Prefixes un- (unhappy), re- (reconstruct), dis- (disappoint)

37

Noun-forming suffixes
Non-productive affixes are the affixes which are not able to form new words in this particular period of language development Noun-forming suffixes  -th (truth), -hood (sisterhood), -ship (scholarship). Adjective-forming suffixes -ly (sickly), -some (tiresome), -en (golden), -ous (courageous), -ful (careful) Verb-forming suffix -en (strengthen)

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The productivity of an affix should not be confused with its frequency of occurrence that is understood as the existence in the vocabulary of a great number of words containing the affix in question. An affix may occur in hundreds of words, but if it is not used to form new words, it is not productive, for instance, the adjective suffix –ful.

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INFIX regular vowel interchange which takes place inside the root and transforms its meaning “from within” can be treated as an infix, e.g.: a lexical infix – blood – to bleed; a grammatical infix – tooth – teeth.

40

Infixes Grammatical infixes are also defined as inner inflections as opposed to grammatical suffixes which are called outer inflections. Since infixation is not a productive (regular) means of word-building or word-changing in modern English, it is more often seen as partial suppletivity. Full suppletivity takes place when completely different roots are paradigmatically united, e.g.: go – went.

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INTERFIX An interfix is an affix with little meaning that occurs between two contentful morphemes: Sportsman Linguodidactic Speedometre

There
exist linguistic forms which in modern languages are used as bound
forms although in Greek and Latin from which they are borrowed they
functioned
as independent words. They
constitute
a specific type of linguistic units.

Combining
forms
are particularly frequent in the specialised vocabularies of arts and
sciences. They have long become familiar in the international
scientific terminology. Many of them attain widespread currency
in everyday language:

astron
− star
→ astronomy;

autos
− self
→ automatic;

bios
− life
→ biology;

electron
−
amber → electronics;

ge
− earth
→ geology;

graph
−
to
write → typography;

hydor
−
water
→hydroelectric;

logos
−
speech
→
physiology;

oikos
− house,
habitat →
1) economics,
2)
ecological
system;

philein
− love
→
philology’

phone
− sound,
voice →
telephone;

photos
− light
→
photograph;

skopein
− to
view →
microscope;

tēle
− far
→
telescope.

It
is obvious from the above list that combining forms mostly occur
together with other combining forms and not with native roots. Almost
all of the above examples are international words, each entering a
considerable word-family:

autobiography,
autodiagnosis, automobile, autonomy, autogeni,
autopilot,
autoloader;

bio-astronautics,
biochemistry, bio-ecology, bionics, biophysics;

economics,
economist, economise,
eco-climate, eco-activist, eco-type, eco-catastrophe;

geodesy,
geometry, geography;

hydrodynamic,
hydromechanic, hydroponic, hydrotherapeutic.

hydrography,
phonograph, photograph, telegraph.

lexicology, philology,
phonology.

4. Word — composition. Classification of compound words.

Word — composition
is another type of word-building which is highly productive. That is
when new words are produced by combining two or more stems. The bulk
of compound words is motivated and the semantic relations between the
two components are transparent. This
type of word-building, in which new words are produced by combining
two or more stems, is one of the three most productive types in
Modern English, the other two are conversion and affixation.
Compounds, though certainly fewer in quantity than derived or root
words, still represent one of the most typical and specific features
of English word-structure.

The
great variety of compound types brings about a great variety of
classifications. Compound words may be classified according to the
type of composition and
the linking element;
according to the
part of speech
to which the compound belongs; and within each part of speech
according to the
structural pattern.
It is also possible to subdivide compounds according to other
characteristics, i.e. semantically,
into motivated
and
idiomatic
compounds
(in the motivated ones the meaning of the constituents can be either
direct
or figurative).
Structurally, compounds are distinguished as endocentric
(Eng.
beetroot,
ice—cold,
knee—deep,
babysit,
whitewash.
UA.
землеустрій, сівозміна, літакобудування)
and
exocentric
(Eng.
scarecrow
—
something
that
scares
crows,
UA.
гуртожиток,
склоріз, самопал)
with
the
subgroup
of
bahuvrihi
(Eng.
lazy—bones,
fathead,
bonehead,
readcoat
UA.
шибайголова,
одчайдух, жовтобрюх)
and
syntactic
and
asyntactic
combinations
(Which
of those fellows do you like to command a search-and-destroy
mission? (King); “Now come along, Bridget. I don’t want any
silliness”, she said in her Genghis-Khan-at-height-of-evil
voice (Fielding); Kurtz caught sight of Permutter’s sunken,
I-fooled-you
grin in the wide rearview mirror (King)).
A
classification according to the
type of the syntactic phrase
with which the compound is correlated has also been suggested. Even
so there remain some miscellaneous types that defy classification,
such as phrase
compounds,
reduplicative
compounds,
pseudo-compounds
and quotation
compounds.

The
classification according to the type of composition
establishes the following groups:

1)
The predominant type is a mere juxtaposition without connecting
elements: heartache
n,
heart-beat
n,
heart-break
n,
heart-breaking
adj,
heart-broken
adj,
heart-felt
adj.

2)
Composition with a vowel or a consonant as a linking element. The
examples are very few: electromotive
adj,
speedometer
n,
Afro-Asian
adj,
handicraft
n,
statesman
n.

3)
Compounds with linking elements represented by preposition or
conjunction stems: down-and-out
n,
matter-of-fact
adj,
son-in-law
n,
pepper-and-salt
adj,
wall-to-wall
adj,
up-to-date
adj,
on
the up-and-up adv
(continually improving), up-and-coming,
as
in the following example: No
doubt he’d
had the pick of some up-and-coming jazzmen
in Paris (Wain).
There
are also a few other lexicalised phrases like devil-may-care
adj,
forget-me-not
n,
pick-me-up
n,
stick-in-the-mud
n,
what’s-her
name n.

The
classification of compounds according to the structure of immediate
constituents
distinguishes:

1) compounds
consisting of simple stems: film-star.
Compounds
formed by joining together stems of words already available in the
language and the two ICs of which are stems of notional words are
also called compounds
proper:
ice-cold
(N+A),
ill-luck
(A+N); (UA.
диван-ліжко,
матч-реванш,
лікар-терапевт)

2)
compounds
where at least one of the constituents is a derived stem:
chain-smoker;

3)
compounds
where at least one of the constituents is a clipped stem:
maths-mistress
(in
British English) and math-mistress
(in
American English). The subgroup will contain abbreviations like H-bag
(handbag) or
Xmas
(Christmas), whodunit n (for
mystery novels) considered substandard;

4)
compounds where at least one of the constituents is a compound stem:
wastepaper-basket.

In coordinative
compounds
neither of the components dominates the other, both are structurally
and semantically independent and constitute two structural
and semantic centres, e.g. breath-taking,
self-discipline, word-for ma it on.

Compounds are not
homogeneous in structure. Traditionally three types are
distinguished:
neutral,
morphological
and syntactic.

In neutral
compounds
the process of compounding is realised without any linking elements,
by a mere juxtaposition of two stems, as in blackbird,
shop-window, sunflower, bedroom, tallboy, etc.
There are three subtypes of neutral compounds depending on the
structure of the constituent stems.

The examples above represent
the subtype which may be described as simple
neutral compounds:
they consist of simple affixless stems.

Compounds which have affixes
in their structure are called derived
or
derivational
compounds (compound-derivatives).
E. g. absent-mindedness,
blue-eyed, golden-haired, broad-shouldered, lady-killer, film-goer,
music-lover, honey-mooner, first-nighter, late-comer, newcomer,
early-riser, evildoer.

The productivity of this
type is confirmed by a considerable number of comparatively recent
formations, such as teenager,
babysitter, strap-hanger, fourseater (car
or boat with four seats), doubledecker
(a ship or
bus with two decks). Numerous nonce-words are coined on this pattern
which is another proof of its high productivity: e. g. luncher-out
(a person
who habitually takes his lunch in restaurants and not at home),
goose-flesher
(murder
story).

In
the coining of the derivational compounds two types of word-formation
are at work. The essence of the derivational compounds will be clear
if we compare them with derivatives and compounds proper that possess
a similar structure. Take, for example, brainstraster,
honeymooner and
mill-owner.
The
ultimate constituents of all three are: noun
stem +
noun
stem+-er.
Analysing into immediate constituents, we see that the immediate
constituents (IC’s) of the compound mill-owner
are
two noun stems, the first simple, the second derived: mill+owner,
of
which the last, the determinatum, as well as the whole compound,
names a person. For the word honeymooner
no
such division is possible, since mooner
does
not exist as a free stem. The IC’s are honeymoon+-er,
and
the suffix -er
signals
that the whole denotes a person: the structure is (honey+moon)+-er.

The
process of word-building in these seemingly similar words is
different: mill-owner
is
coined by composition, honeymooner
—
by
derivation
from the compound honeymoon.
Honeymoon being
a compound, honeymooner
is
a derivative. Now brains
trust “a
group of experts” is a phrase, so brainstruster
is
formed by two simultaneous processes —
by
composition and by derivation and may be called a derivational
compound. Its IC’s are (brains+
trust)+-еr.

The
suffix -er
is
one of the productive suffixes in forming derivational compounds.
Other examples of the same pattern are:

backbencher
− an
M.P. occupying the back bench,

do-gooder
− (ironically
used in AmE),

eye-opener
− enlightening
circumstance,

first-nighter
− habitual
frequenter of the first performance of plays,

go-getter
− (colloq.)
a pushing person,

late-comer,

left-hander
− left-handed
person or blow.

Another
frequent type of derivational compounds are the possessive compounds
of the type kind-hearted:
adjective
stem+noun stem+ -ed.
Its
IC’s are a noun phrase kind
heart and
the suffix -ed
that
unites the elements of the phrase and turns them into the elements of
a compound adjective. Similar examples are extremely numerous.
Compounds of this type can be coined very freely to meet the
requirements of different situations.

Very
few go back to Old English, such as one-eyed
and
three-headed,
most
of the cases are coined in Modern English. Examples are practically
unlimited, especially in words describing personal appearance or
character:

absent-minded, bare-legged, black-haired, blue-eyed, cruel-hearted,

light-minded, ill-mannered, many-sided, narrow-minded, shortsighted, etc.

The
first element may also be a noun stem: bow-legged,
heart-shaped and
very often a numeral: three-coloured.

The
derivational compounds often become the basis of further derivation.
Cf.

war-minded
→
war-mindedness;

whole-hearted
→
whole-heartedness
→
whole-heartedly,

schoolboyish
→
schoolboyishness;
do-it-yourselfer
→
do-it-yourselfism.

The
process is also called phrasal
derivation:

mini-skirt
→
mini-skirted,

nothing
but →
nothingbutism,

dress
up →
dressuppable,

Romeo-and-Julietishness,

or
quotation
derivation
as when an unwillingness to do anything is characterised as
let-George-do-it-ity.
All
these are nonce-words, with some ironic or jocular connotation.

The third subtype of neutral
compounds is called contracted
compounds.
These
words have a shortened (contracted) stem in their structure: TV-set
(-program, -show, -canal, etc.),
V-day
(Victory day), G-man (Government man “FBI
agent”), H-bag
(handbag), T-shirt, etc.

Morphological compounds
are few in number. This type is non-productive. It is represented by
words in which two compounding stems are combined by a linking vowel
or consonant, e. g. Anglo-Saxon,
Franko-Prussian, handiwork, handicraft, craftsmanship, spokesman,
statesman.

Syntactic compounds
(the term is arbitrary) are formed from segments of speech,
preserving in their structure numerous traces of syntagmatic
relations typical of speech: articles, prepositions, adverbs, as in
the nouns lily-of-the-valley,
Jack-of-all-trades, good-for-nothing, mother-in-law, sit-at-home.
Syntactical
relations and grammatical patterns current in present-day English can
be clearly traced in the structures of such compound nouns as
pick-me-up,
know-all, know-nothing, go-between, get-together, whodunit. The
last word (meaning “a detective story”) was obviously coined from
the ungrammatical variant of the word-group who
(has) done it.

In reduplication
new words
are made by doubling a stem, either without any phonetic changes as
in bye-bye
(coll, for
good-bye)
or with a
variation of the root-vowel or consonant as in
ping-pong, chit-chat (this
second type is called gradational
reduplication).

This type of word-building
is greatly facilitated in Modern English by the vast number of
monosyllables. Stylistically speaking, most words made by
reduplication represent informal groups: colloquialisms and slang:

walkie-talkie − a
portable radio;

riff-raff − the
worthless or disreputable element of society;

chi-chi − sl.
for chic as
in a chi-chi
girl.

In a modern novel an angry
father accuses his teenager son of doing
nothing but dilly-dallying all over the town.
(dilly-dallying
—
wasting time,
doing nothing, loitering)

Another example of a word
made by reduplication may be found in the following quotation from
The
Importance of Being Earnest by
O. Wilde:

Lady Bracknell.
I think it is high time that Mr. Bunbury made up his mind whether he
was going to live or to die. This shilly-shallying with the question
is absurd. (shilly-shallying
—
irresolution,
indecision)

The structure of most
compounds is transparent, as it were, and clearly betrays the origin
of these words from word-combinations: leg-pulling,
what-iffing,
what-iffers,
up-to-no-gooders,
breakfast-in-the-bedder
(“a
person who prefers to have his breakfast in bed”), etc.

There
are two
important peculiarities distinguishing compounding in English from
compounding in other languages.
Firstly, both immediate constituents of an English compound are free
forms, i.e. they can be used as independent words with a distinct
meaning of their own. The conditions of distribution will be
different but the sound pattern the same, except for the stress. The
point may be illustrated by a brief list of the most frequently used
compounds studied in every elementary course of English: afternoon,
anyway, anybody, anything, birthday, day-off, downstairs, everybody,
fountain-pen, grown-up, ice-cream, large-scale, looking-glass,
mankind,
mother-in-law, motherland, nevertheless, notebook, nowhere,
post-card,
railway, schoolboy, skating-rink, somebody, staircase, Sunday.

The combining elements in Russian and Ukrainian
are as a rule bound forms
руководство,
жовто-блакитний,
соціально-політичний, землекористування,
харчоблок, but
in English combinations like
Anglo-Saxon, Anglo-Soviet, Indo-European
socio-political
or politico-economical
or medicochirurgical
where the first elements are bound
forms, occur very rarely and seem to be avoided. They are coined on
the neo-Latin pattern.

In Ukrainian compound
adjectives of the type
соціально-політичний,
історико-філологічний, народно-демократичний,
are very
productive, have no equivalent compound adjectives in English and are
rendered by two adjectives:

газонафтова
компанія — gas
and oil company

фінансово-політична
група — financial
political group

військово-промисловий
комплекс —
military
industrial complex

The
second feature
that should attract attention is that the regular pattern for the
English language is a two-stem compound, as is clearly testified by
all the preceding examples. An exception to this rule is observed
when the combining element is represented by a form-word stem, as
in mother-in-law,
bread-and-butter, whisky-and-soda, deaf-and-dumb, good-for-nothing,
man-of-war, mother-of-pearl, stick-in-the-mud.

If,
however, the number of stems is more than two, so that one of the
immediate constituents is itself a compound, it will be more often
the determinant than the determinatum. Thus aircraft-carrier,
waste-paper-basket
are
words, but baby
outfit, village schoolmaster, night watchman
and
similar combinations are syntactic groups with two stresses, or even
phrases with the conjunction and:
book-keeper and typist.

The
predominance of two-stem structures in English compounding
distinguishes it from the German language which can coin
monstrosities like the anecdotal
Vierwaldstatterseeschraubendampfschiffgesellschaft
or
Feuer-
and Unfallversicherungsgesellschaft.

One
more specific feature
of English compounding is the important role the attributive
syntactic function can play in providing a phrase with structural
cohesion and turning it into a compound. Compare:

…
we’ve
done last-minute changes before …(
Priestley)

we
changed it at the
last minute more than once.

four-year
course, pass-fail basis (a
student passes or fails but is not graded).

It
often happens that elements of a phrase united by their attributive
function become further united phonemically by stress and graphically
by a hyphen, or even solid spelling. Cf.

common
sense →
common-sense
advice;

old
age →
old-age
pensioner;

the
records are out of date →
out-of-date
records;

the
let-sleeping-dogs-lie approach (Priestley).
→
Let
sleeping dogs lie (a
proverb).

This
last type is also called quotation
compound
or holophrasis.
The speaker/or writer
creates those combinations freely as the need for them arises: they
are originally nonce-compounds. In the course of time they may become
firmly established in the language:

the ban-the-bomb voice,

round-the-clock duty.

Other
syntactical functions unusual for the combination can also provide
structural cohesion:

working
class →
He
wasn’t
working-class enough.

The
function of hyphenated spelling in these cases is not quite clear. It
may be argued that it serves to indicate syntactical relationships
and not structural cohesion, e. g. keep-your-distance
chilliness. It
is then not a word-formative but a phrase-formative device.

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