In English texts and everyday communication, the word “like” serves a variety of purposes. It can act as an adjective, a preposition, an adverb, a conjunction, a noun, or a verb.
- Adjective
This word is classified under adjectives if it is used to modify a noun or a pronoun by indicating similarities in qualities or characteristics. For example, in the sentence below:
You’re not talking about like things when you compare football and golf.
The word “like” is used as an adjective that describes the noun “things.”
Definition:
a. having the same or similar qualities
- Example:
- I responded in like manner.
- Preposition
Another common function of the word “like” is as a preposition that also means “for example” or “similar to.” In the sample sentence below:
Their house is like a barn.
The word “like” is used as a preposition that indicates that the “house” is similar to a “barn.”
Definition:
a. having the same characteristics or qualities as
- Example:
- There were other suits like mine in the shop.
b. used to draw attention to the nature of an action or event
- Example:
- We apologize for coming over unannounced like this.
c. such as; for example
- Example:
- They discussed books like 1984 and Animal Farm.
- Adverb
The word ”like” can also be categorized as an adverb if it is used to modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. Take for example, the sentence below:
The distance is more like 750 miles.
In this sentence, the word modifies the adjective “750,” and is therefore considered as an adverb.
Definition:
a. nearly; approximately
- Example:
- It was like 8 feet deep.
b. used in speech as a meaningless filler or to signify the speaker’s uncertainty about an expression just used
- Example:
- There was this funny smell—sort of dusty like.
- Conjunction
There are also some cases wherein the word “like” is used as a conjunction that connects two clauses to form one sentence. For instance, in the sample sentence below:
I hate girls who change boyfriends like they change clothes.
The word “like” serves as a conjunction that links together the clauses “I hate girls who change boyfriends” and “they change clothes.”
Definition:
a. in the same way that; as
- Example:
- They raven down scenery like children do sweetmeats.
b. as though; as if
- Example:
- I felt like I’d been kicked by a horse.
- Noun
Other times, the word “like” is considered as a noun, which refers to something of the same kind. In the example:
Did you ever hear the like?
The word “like” is used as a noun that is used to indicate a thing of the same kind.
Definition:
a. a thing or things of the same kind
- Example:
- We will never see anyone of her like again.
- Verb
The word “like” is also typically used as a verb that indicates a state of being. Take for example, the sentence:
He likes baseball more than anything.
In this sentence, the word suggests the state of being of the pronoun “he,” and is therefore considered as a verb.
Definition:
a. to enjoy (something); to get pleasure from (something)
- Example:
- I like all Dan Brown’s books.
b. wish for; want
- Example:
- Would you like a cup of tea?
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Описание презентации по отдельным слайдам:
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Word Meaning
Lecture # 6
Grigoryeva M. -
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Word Meaning
Approaches to word meaning
Meaning and Notion (понятие)
Types of word meaning
Types of morpheme meaning
Motivation
-
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Each word has two aspects:
the outer aspect
( its sound form)
catthe inner aspect
(its meaning)
long-legged, fury animal with sharp teeth
and claws -
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Sound and meaning do not always constitute a constant unit even in the same language
EX a temple
a part of a human head
a large church -
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Semantics (Semasiology)
Is a branch of lexicology which studies the
meaning of words and word equivalents -
6 слайд
Approaches to Word Meaning
The Referential (analytical) approachThe Functional (contextual) approach
Operational (information-oriented) approach
-
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The Referential (analytical) approach
formulates the essence of meaning by establishing the interdependence between words and things or concepts they denotedistinguishes between three components closely connected with meaning:
the sound-form of the linguistic sign,
the concept
the actual referent -
8 слайд
Basic Triangle
concept (thought, reference) – the thought of the object that singles out its essential features
referent – object denoted by the word, part of reality
sound-form (symbol, sign) – linguistic sign
concept – flowersound-form referent
[rәuz] -
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In what way does meaning correlate with
each element of the triangle ?In what relation does meaning stand to
each of them? -
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Meaning and Sound-form
are not identical
different
EX. dove — [dΛv] English sound-forms
[golub’] Russian BUT
[taube] German
the same meaning -
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Meaning and Sound-form
nearly identical sound-forms have different meanings in different languages
EX. [kot] Russian – a male cat
[kot] English – a small bed for a childidentical sound-forms have different meanings (‘homonyms)
EX. knight [nait]
night [nait] -
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Meaning and Sound-form
even considerable changes in sound-form do not affect the meaningEX Old English lufian [luvian] – love [l Λ v]
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Meaning and Concept
concept is a category of human cognitionconcept is abstract and reflects the most common and typical features of different objects and phenomena in the world
meanings of words are different in different languages
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Meaning and Concept
identical concepts may have different semantic structures in different languagesEX. concept “a building for human habitation” –
English Russian
HOUSE ДОМ+ in Russian ДОМ
“fixed residence of family or household”
In English HOME -
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Meaning and Referent
one and the same object (referent) may be denoted by more than one word of a different meaning
cat
pussy
animal
tiger -
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Meaning
is not identical with any of the three points of the triangle –
the sound form,
the concept
the referentBUT
is closely connected with them. -
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Functional Approach
studies the functions of a word in speech
meaning of a word is studied through relations of it with other linguistic units
EX. to move (we move, move a chair)
movement (movement of smth, slow movement)The distriution ( the position of the word in relation to
others) of the verb to move and a noun movement is
different as they belong to different classes of words and
their meanings are different -
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Operational approach
is centered on defining meaning through its role in
the process of communicationEX John came at 6
Beside the direct meaning the sentence may imply that:
He was late
He failed to keep his promise
He was punctual as usual
He came but he didn’t want toThe implication depends on the concrete situation
-
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Lexical Meaning and Notion
Notion denotes the reflection in the mind of real objectsNotion is a unit of thinking
Lexical meaning is the realization of a notion by means of a definite language system
Word is a language unit -
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Lexical Meaning and Notion
Notions are international especially with the nations of the same cultural levelMeanings are nationally limited
EX GO (E) —- ИДТИ(R)
“To move”
BUT !!!
To GO by bus (E)
ЕХАТЬ (R)EX Man -мужчина, человек
Она – хороший человек (R)
She is a good person (E) -
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Types of Meaning
Types of meaninggrammatical
meaninglexico-grammatical
meaning
lexical meaning
denotational
connotational -
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Grammatical Meaning
component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different wordsEX. girls, winters, toys, tables –
grammatical meaning of pluralityasked, thought, walked –
meaning of past tense -
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Lexico-grammatical meaning
(part –of- speech meaning)
is revealed in the classification of lexical items into:
major word classes (N, V, Adj, Adv)
minor ones (artc, prep, conj)words of one lexico-grammatical class have the same paradigm
-
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Lexical Meaning
is the meaning proper to the given linguistic unit in all its forms and distributionsEX . Go – goes — went
lexical meaning – process of movement -
25 слайд
PRACTICE
Group the words into 3 column according to the grammatical, lexical or part-of –speech meaning
Boy’s, nearest, at, beautiful,
think, man, drift, wrote,
tremendous, ship’s, the most beautiful,
table, near, for, went, friend’s,
handsome, thinking, boy,
nearer, thought, boys,
lamp, go, during. -
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Grammatical
The case of nouns: boy’s, ship’s, friend’s
The degree of comparison of adj: nearest, the most beautiful
The tense of verbs: wrote, went, thoughtLexical
Think, thinking, thought
Went, go
Boy’s, boy, boys
Nearest, near, nearer
At, for, during (“time”)
Beautiful, the most beautifulPart-of-speech
Nouns—verbs—adj—-prep -
27 слайд
Aspects of Lexical meaning
The denotational aspectThe connotational aspect
The pragmatic aspect
-
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Denotational Meaning
“denote” – to be a sign of, stand as a symbol for”establishes the correlation between the name and the object
makes communication possibleEX booklet
“a small thin book that gives info about smth” -
29 слайд
PRACTICE
Explain denotational meaningA lion-hunter
To have a heart like a lion
To feel like a lion
To roar like a lion
To be thrown to the lions
The lion’s share
To put your head in lion’s mouth -
30 слайд
PRACTICE
A lion-hunter
A host that seeks out celebrities to impress guests
To have a heart like a lion
To have great courage
To feel like a lion
To be in the best of health
To roar like a lion
To shout very loudly
To be thrown to the lions
To be criticized strongly or treated badly
The lion’s share
Much more than one’s share
To put your head in lion’s mouth -
31 слайд
Connotational Meaning
reflects the attitude of the speaker towards what he speaks about
it is optional – a word either has it or notConnotation gives additional information and includes:
The emotive charge EX Daddy (for father)
Intensity EX to adore (for to love)
Imagery EX to wade through a book
“ to walk with an effort” -
32 слайд
PRACTICE
Give possible interpretation of the sentencesShe failed to buy it and felt a strange pang.
Don’t be afraid of that woman! It’s just barking!
He got up from his chair moving slowly, like an old man.
The girl went to her father and pulled his sleeve.
He was longing to begin to be generous.
She was a woman with shiny red hands and work-swollen finger knuckles. -
33 слайд
PRACTICE
Give possible interpretation of the sentences
She failed to buy it and felt a strange pang.
(pain—dissatisfaction that makes her suffer)
Don’t be afraid of that woman! It’s just barking!
(make loud sharp sound—-the behavior that implies that the person is frightened)
He got up from his chair moving slowly, like an old man.
(to go at slow speed—was suffering or was ill)
The girl went to her father and pulled his sleeve.
(to move smth towards oneself— to try to attract smb’s attention)
He was longing to begin to be generous.
(to start doing— hadn’t been generous before)
She was a woman with shiny red hands and work-swollen finger knuckles.
(colour— a labourer involved into physical work ,constant contact with water) -
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The pragmatic aspect of lexical meaning
the situation in which the word is uttered,
the social circumstances (formal, informal, etc.),
social relationships between the interlocutors (polite, rough, etc.),
the type and purpose of communication (poetic, official, etc.)EX horse (neutral)
steed (poetic)
nag (slang)
gee-gee (baby language) -
35 слайд
PRACTICE
State what image underline the meaningI heard what she said but it didn’t sink into my mind.
You should be ashamed of yourself, crawling to the director like that.
They seized on the idea.
Bill, chasing some skirt again?
I saw him dive into a small pub.
Why are you trying to pin the blame on me?
He only married her for her dough. -
36 слайд
PRACTICE
State what image underline the meaning
I heard what she said but it didn’t sink into my mind.
(to understand completely)
You should be ashamed of yourself, crawling to the director like that.
(to behave humbly in order to win favour)
They seized on the idea.
(to be eager to take and use)
Bill, chasing some skirt again?
(a girl)
I saw him dive into a small pub.
(to enter suddenly)
Why are you trying to pin the blame on me?
(to blame smb unfairly)
He only married her for her dough.
(money) -
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Types of Morpheme Meaning
lexical
differential
functional
distributional -
38 слайд
Lexical Meaning in Morphemes
root-morphemes that are homonymous to words possess lexical meaning
EX. boy – boyhood – boyishaffixes have lexical meaning of a more generalized character
EX. –er “agent, doer of an action” -
39 слайд
Lexical Meaning in Morphemes
has denotational and connotational components
EX. –ly, -like, -ish –
denotational meaning of similiarity
womanly , womanishconnotational component –
-ly (positive evaluation), -ish (deragotary) женственный — женоподобный -
40 слайд
Differential Meaning
a semantic component that serves to distinguish one word from all others containing identical morphemesEX. cranberry, blackberry, gooseberry
-
41 слайд
Functional Meaning
found only in derivational affixes
a semantic component which serves to
refer the word to the certain part of speechEX. just, adj. – justice, n.
-
42 слайд
Distributional Meaning
the meaning of the order and the arrangement of morphemes making up the word
found in words containing more than one morpheme
different arrangement of the same morphemes would make the word meaningless
EX. sing- + -er =singer,
-er + sing- = ? -
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Motivation
denotes the relationship between the phonetic or morphemic composition and structural pattern of the word on the one hand, and its meaning on the othercan be phonetical
morphological
semantic -
44 слайд
Phonetical Motivation
when there is a certain similarity between the sounds that make up the word and those produced by animals, objects, etc.EX. sizzle, boom, splash, cuckoo
-
45 слайд
Morphological Motivation
when there is a direct connection between the structure of a word and its meaning
EX. finger-ring – ring-finger,A direct connection between the lexical meaning of the component morphemes
EX think –rethink “thinking again” -
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Semantic Motivation
based on co-existence of direct and figurative meanings of the same wordEX a watchdog –
”a dog kept for watching property”a watchdog –
“a watchful human guardian” (semantic motivation) -
-
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Analyze the meaning of the words.
Define the type of motivation
a) morphologically motivated
b) semantically motivatedDriver
Leg
Horse
Wall
Hand-made
Careless
piggish -
49 слайд
Analyze the meaning of the words.
Define the type of motivation
a) morphologically motivated
b) semantically motivated
Driver
Someone who drives a vehicle
morphologically motivated
Leg
The part of a piece of furniture such as a table
semantically motivated
Horse
A piece of equipment shaped like a box, used in gymnastics
semantically motivated -
50 слайд
Wall
Emotions or behavior preventing people from feeling close
semantically motivated
Hand-made
Made by hand, not machine
morphologically motivated
Careless
Not taking enough care
morphologically motivated
Piggish
Selfish
semantically motivated -
51 слайд
I heard what she said but it didn’t sink in my mind
“do down to the bottom”
‘to be accepted by mind” semantic motivationWhy are you trying to pin the blame on me?
“fasten smth somewhere using a pin” –
”to blame smb” semantic motivationI was following the man when he dived into a pub.
“jump into deep water” –
”to enter into suddenly” semantic motivationYou should be ashamed of yourself, crawling to the director like that
“to move along on hands and knees close to the ground” –
“to behave very humbly in order to win favor” semantic motivation
![Meaning and Sound-formare not identical
different
EX. dove - [dΛv]...](https://documents.infourok.ru/2d0c9b9d-1c12-4da2-8c1e-80496902c301/slide_10.jpg "Meaning and Sound-formare not identical
different
EX. dove - [dΛv]...")
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A Grammatical Analysis for Children
The word like serves as seven of the parts of speech. The only function it doesn’t serve? It isn’t a pronoun. But it does cover the other seven.
Like as a Verb
If your children ask about the correct meaning of like, point out that it serves as a verb, all by itself. Your children can say, “I like waffles” or “I would like another serving.”
Like as a Preposition
Point out that it also serves as a preposition and in that capacity hooks nouns to sentences. Your children can say, “He runs like the wind.”
Indeed, go ahead and point out that to be can join like if they truly want to show what something or somebody was like.
Thus the commercial “I want to be like Mike” has its grammar in order.
So does “He was like a father to me.”
But virtually everyone addicted to the like word uses it to show not what something is like but what something actually is. They use it to show identity (is), not similarity (like): He’s like tall. Well, is he or isn’t he?
Like as a Noun
You can also point out that like serves as a noun, as in likes and dislikes.
Like as an Adjective
The word spans almost all parts of speech and can serve as an adjective (she mastered lacrosse, field hockey, and like sports).
Like as an Adverb
Informally, like can serve as an adverb (the tree is more like 100 than 50 feet).
Like as a Conjunction
Here we stir up a hornet’s nest. According to some sources, the word like can also act as a subordinating conjunction.
Charles Darwin wrote in 1866: “Unfortunately few have observed like you have done.” New Fowler, p. 458.
Consider the words of Random House:
Like as a conjunction meaning “as, in the same way as” (Many shoppers study the food ads like brokers study market reports) or “as if” (It looks like it will rain) has been used for nearly 500 years and by many distinguished literary and intellectual figures. Since the mid-19th century there have been objections, often vehement, to these uses. Nevertheless, such uses are almost universal today in all but the most formal speech and writing. In extremely careful speech and in much formal writing, as, as if, and as though are more commonly used than like: The commanding general accepted full responsibility for the incident, as any professional soldier would. Many of the Greenwich Village bohemians lived as if (or as though) there were no tomorrow. Random House, p. 1114.
Other sources fervently disagree with this loose approach. Mr. Fowler himself minced no words:
Every illiterate person uses this construction daily . . . . New Fowler, p. 458.
The Oxford English Dictionary notes that examples of the use of like as a conjunction do appear in the works of “many recent writers of standing” but also points out that such use is “generally condemned as vulgar or slovenly . . . .” Quoted in New Fowler, p. 458.
Click page 2 below ….
Like as a Conjunction: Four Uses
New Fowler examined the works of leading writers in England, America, and other countries, and identified four situations where they use like as a conjunction:
1. The If you knew Susie Exception: Repeat the Verb
In the subordinate clause, writers often repeat the verb appearing in the main clause. They introduce the subordinate clause with like:
I need a new car like I need a hole in the head. —E. Good, 2001.
If you knew Susie like I know Susie . . . .
New Fowler’s Comment: “[This construction] must surely escape further censure or reproach.”
The following examples and comments appear in New Fowler, p. 458.
2. To Replace As If or As Though
It looks like it’s still a fox. —New Yorker, 1986.
3. The Like I said Exception
Substitutes for as in “fixed, somewhat jocular, phrases of saying and telling . . . .”
Like you say, you’re a dead woman. —M. Wesley, 1983.
4. To Make Comparisons
Used in the same way as “in the manner (that)” or “in the way (that).”
How was I to know she’d turn out like she did? —C. Burns, 1985.
As a budding grammarian, you should know of this battle. At Bubba’s you can easily get away with like as a conjunction. But in formal settings—the faculty lounge, scholarly writing (and talking), your master’s thesis—you should use the traditional conjunctions as, as if, and as though. In the words of New Fowler:
It would appear that in many kinds of written and spoken English like as a conjunction is struggling towards acceptable standard or neutral ground. It is not there yet. But the distributional patterns suggest that the long-standing resistance to this omnipresent little word is beginning to crumble. New Fowler, p. 459.
A person can be part of all four populations, or none, or one, or two, or three.
This was perhaps a performance error on her part.
The machine can make parts by the thousand.
Paths permitting additional direct effects are also included as part of the model.
The positive part aims to show that adoption and practice are sufficient to create the fundamental plans of a legal system.
An important part of planning slurry utilization and management system is estimating the amount of nutrients available for land application.
This realization on the part of the players materalizes in two ways.
Second, if a plan exists which is unambiguously in everyone’s interest, then the individual players will not hesitate to choose their part of the plan.
Consumption was part of the ordinary life, still represented, albeit often precariously, by the home front.
Part of the answer lies in the phonetic redundancy of the signal itself, and the rest in the effects of that redundancy on auditory processing.
Phonetic transcription reveals that many of children’s early uses of wh- words are phonetically reduced and part of fixed sequences.
Despite all of this ethnolinguistic variety, the legal process of obtaining a protective order operates, for the most part, quite systematically.
This is particularly clear in the case of research protocols which have become part and parcel of modern oncology.
For the most part, the returning soldiers were welcomed home warmly.
The second part returns to the idea that an excess of privatisation has led to a ‘tragedy of the anti-commons’.
These examples are from corpora and from sources on the web. Any opinions in the examples do not represent the opinion of the Cambridge Dictionary editors or of Cambridge University Press or its licensors.
Is there a single word that means: to like an aspect something larger, but to dislike the whole thing?
As an example, someone might say, «I’d like to be fit», meaning that they would genuinely like the benefits of being fit, but omitting the fact that the only thing stopping them from being fit is that they don’t like exercise. That is, they they would like to be fit if it didn’t involve exercise.
For simplicity, I’m going to use ‘half-like‘ as a place holder in a few more examples.
-
«I’d half-like to buy that new car», meaning «I’d like to buy that new car (if I could find it cheaper)».
-
«I’d half-like to be paid more», meaning «I’d like to be paid more (but I don’t want to work harder)».
-
«I’d half-like to learn a language», meaning «I’d like to learn a language (but there’s so much to watch on TV)».
-
«I’d half-like to retire», meaning «I’d like to retire (but I’d miss my colleagues)».
I’d prefer a non-judgemental term but any single word that has this meaning would be appreciated, even a word in another language.
As per comments, in spoken English, this can be expressed using stresses and pauses.
- «I would like to buy that car …», meaning the same as the above; the stress serving to draw attention to the implicit «but».
Also as per comments (thank you all), this can be expressed by adding a few extra words, for example «quite like», or «like the idea of …», or by making explicit the overriding «but …».
I’m coming to suspect that there may not be a single word that captures what I want, but that there might be several single words that capture different variations of what I want.
In the above samples, if the speaker is aware of the conflict between what they want and what they don’t want, then as per Jason and user888379, they could say «I’m ambivalent about …» or «I’m conflicted about …», and especially so if the desires are closely balanced.
But if the person doesn’t accept the conflict, then those constructs don’t work as well.
To rework the previous examples:
- «He half-wants to be fit.»
- «He’d half-like to buy that new car.»
- «He half-wants to be paid more.»
- «He half-wants to learn a language.»
- «He’d half-like to retire»
«Dreams of» might work, though it doesn’t distinguish between «can’t» and «could but won’t». «Dreams of» could even be used for a person who is working towards a goal, which isn’t the intent I want to convey.
«likes the idea of» could work too, though it isn’t perfect either. It doesn’t distinguish between a weak inclination towards something and a strong inclination countered by an even stronger disinclination.
«deluded», «denial» or more kindly, «unaware» are all potentially applicable, but they would describe the person themselves, rather than their half-want for something.
You could use «unrealistically wants», but it would be a clumsy construction, and perhaps imply an impossible desire, rather than one that would be possible, if the person wanted it a bit more.
«Supposedly wants» is maybe a better expression of this key concept I want to capture: the difference between ‘expressed opinion’ and ‘observed behaviour’, the «he’s just not that into you» factor, a word to describe someone complaining that they want something that is actually within their power to have, if they really wanted it as badly as they claim to want it.