Word origins of the english language

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The following are lists of words in the English language that are known as «loanwords» or «borrowings,» which are derived from other languages.

For Old English-derived words, see List of English words of Old English origin.

• English words of African origin
• List of English words of Afrikaans origin
  • List of South African English regionalisms
  • List of South African slang words
• List of English words from indigenous languages of the Americas
• List of English words of Arabic origin
  • List of Arabic star names
• List of English words of Australian Aboriginal origin
• List of English words of Brittonic origin
• Lists of English words of Celtic origin
• List of English words of Chinese origin
• List of English words of Czech origin
• List of English words of Dravidian origin (Kannada, Malayalam, Tamil, Telugu)
• List of English words of Dutch origin
  • List of English words of Afrikaans origin
  • List of South African slang words
  • List of place names of Dutch origin
  • Australian places with Dutch names
• List of English words of Etruscan origin
• List of English words of Finnish origin
• List of English words of French origin
  • Glossary of ballet, mostly French words
  • List of French expressions in English
  • List of English words with dual French and Anglo-Saxon variations
  • List of pseudo-French words adapted to English
  • List of English Latinates of Germanic origin
• List of English words of Gaulish origin
• List of German expressions in English
  • List of pseudo-German words adapted to English
• English words of Greek origin (a discussion rather than a list)
  • List of Greek morphemes used in English
• List of English words of Hawaiian origin
• List of English words of Hebrew origin
• List of English words of Hindi or Urdu origin
• List of English words of Hungarian origin
• List of English words of Indian origin
• List of English words of Indonesian origin, including from Javanese, Malay (Sumatran) Sundanese, Papuan (West Papua), Balinese, Dayak and other local languages in Indonesia
• List of English words of Irish origin
  • List of Irish words used in the English language
• List of English words of Italian origin
  • List of Italian musical terms used in English
• List of English words of Japanese origin
• List of English words of Korean origin
• List of Latin words with English derivatives
• List of English words of Malay origin
• List of English words of Māori origin
• List of English words of Niger-Congo origin
• List of English words of Old Norse origin
• List of English words of Persian origin
• List of English words of Philippine origin
• List of English words of Polish origin
• List of English words of Polynesian origin
• List of English words of Portuguese origin
• List of English words of Romani origin
• List of English words of Romanian origin
• List of English words of Russian origin
• List of English words of Sami origin
• List of English words of Sanskrit origin
• List of English words of Scandinavian origin (incl. Danish, Norwegian)
• List of English words of Scots origin
• List of English words of Scottish Gaelic origin
• List of English words of Semitic origin
• List of English words of Spanish origin
• List of English words of Swedish origin
• List of English words of Turkic origin
• List of English words of Ukrainian origin
• List of English words of Welsh origin
• List of English words of Yiddish origin
• List of English words of Zulu origin

See also[edit]

• Anglicisation
• English terms with diacritical marks
• Inkhorn term
• Linguistic purism in English
• List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English
• List of Greek and Latin roots in English
• List of proposed etymologies of OK
• List of Latin legal terms

References[edit]

External links[edit]

• Ancient Egyptian Loan-Words in English
• List of etymologies of English words

Etymology – the study of word origins – is a fantastically interesting discipline that yields some incredible facts about where the hugely diverse array of words that make up the English language come from.

Whether you’re a native speaker or currently learning English, you’ll be amazed at some of the stories behind words you use every day. From tales of frenzied Viking warriors to a theatre-owner’s bet to get people using a made-up word, a little-thought-about history lies waiting to be discovered. Knowing more about the words we use makes studying English even more fun, so here are fourteen of our favourite word origins – and we’ve barely scratched the surface!

1. Dunce

The origins of this derogatory word for someone considered incapable of learning (the opposite of a “bright” student) are surprisingly old, dating to the time of one John Duns Scotus, who was born around 1266 and died in 1308. Scotus was a Scottish Franciscan philosopher and theologian whose works on metaphysics, theology, grammar and logic were so popular that they earned him the honour of a papal accolade. His followers became known as ‘Duns’. So how did this word come to be associated with academic ineptitude? Well, the Renaissance came along and poor Duns’ theories and methods were widely discredited by Protestant and Humanist scholars, while Duns’ supporters clung to his ideas; subsequently, the word “Dunsman” or “Dunce” (which arises from the way in which “Duns” was pronounced in Medieval times) was used in a derogatory fashion to describe those who continued to support outdated ideas. The word gradually became used in a more general sense to refer to someone considered slow-witted. Interestingly, though his name is now used disparagingly, Duns’ teaching is still held in high regard by the Catholic Church, and he was beatified as recently as 1993.

2. Quiz

The story behind the origins of the word “quiz” is so good that we really wish it was true – but it probably isn’t. Legend has it that a Dublin theatre-owner made a bet that he could introduce a new word into the English language within a day or two (the amount of time differs in different tellings of the story), and that the people of Dublin would make up the meaning of the word themselves. So he wrote the nonsense word “quiz” on some pieces of paper and got a gang of street urchins to write it on walls across Dublin. The next day everyone was talking about it, and it wasn’t long before it became incorporated into everyday language, meaning a sort of “test”, because this is what the people thought the mysterious word was supposed to be. According to the telling of the story recorded in Gleanings and Reminiscences by F.T. Porter (written in 1875), the events of this humorous tale unfolded in 1791, and this is where the story becomes less convincing. The word “quiz” is attested earlier than this date, used to refer to someone who is eccentric or odd (hence the word “quizzical”); it was also the name of a yo-yo-like toy popular in 1790. That said, it’s still difficult to find a compelling explanation for the origins of this word, so perhaps there is an element of truth in this excellent story after all.

3. Berserk

When someone “goes berserk”, they go into a frenzy, run amok, perhaps even destroying things. Picture someone going berserk and it’s not difficult to imagine the ancient Norse warriors to whom the word “berserker” originally referred. The word “berserk” conjured up the fury of these men and the untamed ferocity with which they fought, and it’s thought that the word came from two other Old Norse words, “bjorn”, meaning “bear” and “serkr”, meaning “coat”. An alternative explanation, now widely discredited, says that rather than “bjorn”, the first part of the word comes from “berr” meaning “bare” – that is, not wearing armour. Some have said that the “berserkers” were so uncontrollably ferocious due to being in an almost trance-like state, either by working themselves up into a frenzy before battle, or by ingesting hallucinogenic drugs. So, next time you use the expression “going berserk” to describe someone acting irrationally, remember those battle-crazed Vikings and be glad that you’re not on the receiving end of the wrath of a real “berserker”!

4. Nightmare

It sounds as though it refers to a female horse, but in fact the “mare” part of the word “nightmare” (a terrifying dream) comes from Germanic folklore, in which a “mare” is an evil female spirit or goblin that sits upon a sleeper’s chest, suffocating them and/or giving them bad dreams. The same Germanic word – “marōn” – gives rise to similar words in many Scandinavian and European languages. Interestingly, in Germanic folklore, it was believed that this “mare” did more than just terrorise human sleepers. It was thought that it rode horses in the night, leaving them sweaty and exhausted next day, and it even wreaked havoc with trees, twisting their branches.

5. Sandwich

The nation’s favourite lunchtime snack gets its name from the 4th Earl of Sandwich, John Montagu. The story goes that 250 years ago, the 18th-century aristocrat requested that his valet bring him beef served between two slices of bread. He was fond of eating this meal whilst playing card games, as it meant that his hands wouldn’t get greasy from the meat and thus spoil the cards. Observing him, Montagu’s friends began asking for “the same as Sandwich”, and so the sandwich was born. Though people did eat bread with foods such as cheese and meat before this, these meals were known as “bread and cheese” or “bread and meat”. The sandwich is now the ultimate convenience food.

6. Malaria

You wouldn’t have thought that a word we primarily associate with Africa would have originated in the slightly more forgiving climate of Rome. It comes from the medieval Italian words “mal” meaning “bad” and “aria” meaning “air” – so it literally means “bad air”. The term was used to describe the unpleasant air emanating from the marshland surrounding Rome, which was believed to cause the disease we now call malaria (and we now know that it’s the mosquitoes breeding in these conditions that cause the disease, rather than the air itself).

7. Quarantine

The word “quarantine” has its origins in the devastating plague, the so-called Black Death, which swept across Europe in the 14th century, wiping out around 30% of Europe’s population. It comes from the Venetian dialect form of the Italian words “quaranta giorni”, or “forty days”, in reference to the fact that, in an effort to halt the spread of the plague, ships were put into isolation on nearby islands for a forty-day period before those on board were allowed ashore. Originally – attested by a document from 1377 – this period was thirty days and was known as a “trentine”, but this was extended to forty days to allow more time for symptoms to develop. This practice was first implemented by the Venetians controlling the movement of ships into the city of Dubrovnik, which is now part of Croatia but was then under Venetian sovereignty. We now use the word “quarantine” to refer to the practice of restricting the movements, for a period of time, of people or animals who seem healthy, but who might have been exposed to a harmful disease that could spread to others.

8. Clue

Who knew that the word “clue” derives from Greek mythology? It comes from the word “clew”, meaning a ball of yarn. In Greek mythology, Ariadne gives Theseus a ball of yarn to help him find his way out of the Minotaur’s labyrinth. Because of this, the word “clew” came to mean something that points the way. Appropriately enough, Theseus unravelled the yarn behind him as he went into the maze, so that he could work his way back out in reverse. Thus the word “clew” can be understood in this context and in the context of a detective working his way backwards to solve a crime using “clues”. The word gained its modern-day spelling in the 15th century, a time when spelling was rather more fluid than it is today.

9. Hazard

Our word for danger or risk is thought to have its origins in 13th-century Arabic, in which the word “al-zahr” referred to the dice used in various gambling games. There was a big element of risk inherent in these games, not just from the gambling itself but from the danger of dishonest folk using weighted dice. Thus the connotations of peril associated with the word, which got back to Britain because the Crusaders learnt the dice games whilst on campaign in the Holy Land.

10. Groggy

We’ve all felt “groggy” at one time or another – lethargic, sluggish, perhaps through lack of sleep. It originated in the 18th century with a British man named Admiral Vernon, whose sailors gave him the nickname “Old Grog” on account of his cloak, which was made from a material called “grogram”, a weatherproof mixture of silk and wool. In 1740, he decreed that his sailors should be served their rum diluted with water, rather than neat. This was called “grog”, and the feeling experienced by sailors when they’d drunk too much of it was thus called “groggy”.

11. Palace

The word “palace” is another English word with origins in Rome. It comes from one of Rome’s famous ‘Seven Hills’, the Palatine, upon which the Emperor resided in what grew into a sprawling and opulent home. In Latin, the Palatine Hill was called the “Palatium”, and the word “Palatine” came to refer to the Emperor’s residence, rather than the actual hill. The word has reached us via Old French, in which the word “palais” referred to the Palatine Hill. You can see the word “Palatine” more easily in the form “palatial”, meaning palace-like in size.

12. Genuine

The word “genuine” comes from the Latin word “genuinus”, meaning “innate”, “native” or “natural”, itself derived, somewhat surprisingly, from the Latin word “genu”, meaning “knee”. This unlikely origin arises from a Roman custom in which a father would place a newborn child on his knee in order to acknowledge his paternity of the child. This practice also gave rise to an association with the word “genus”, meaning “race” or “birth”. In the 16th century the word “genuine” meant “natural” or “proper”, and these days we use it to mean “authentic”.

13. Ketchup

It’s hard to believe that this British and American staple started life in 17th-century China as a sauce of pickled fish and spices. Known in the Chinese Amoy dialect as kôe-chiap or kê-chiap, its popularity spread to what is now Singapore and Malaysia in the early 18th century, where it was encountered by British explorers. In Indonesian-Malaysian the sauce was called “kecap”, the pronunciation of which, “kay-chap”, explains where we got the word “ketchup”. It wasn’t until the 19th century that tomato ketchup was invented, however; people used to think that tomatoes were poisonous, and the sauce didn’t catch on in America until later that century. One couldn’t imagine chips or burgers without it now!

14. Ostracise

The word “ostracise” and the concept of democracy were both born in Ancient Greece, where the practice of a democratic vote extended to citizens voting to decide whether there were any dangerous individuals who should be banished (because they were becoming too powerful, thus posing a threat to democracy). Those who were eligible to vote exercised this privilege by writing their vote on a sherd of broken pottery – an “ostrakon”. If the vote came back in favour of banishing the individual, they were “ostracised” (from the Ancient Greek verb “ostrakizein”, meaning “to ostracise”). The word has nothing to do with ostriches, the flightless birds – similar though the words are!

As we said at the start of this article, this selection of fascinating word origins barely even scratches the surface of the endlessly interesting world of etymology. Whether you’re a seasoned English speaker or trying to learn this challenging language for the first time, you’re bound to find out some useful facts to help you memorise new words simply by exploring their origins. What remarkable word histories will you discover the next time you find out what a word really means?

Image credits: banner; Duns; berserker; sandwich; dice game; Rome; ketchup.

1. The etymological composition of ME.

2. The native and borrowed elements of the EV.

3. Classification of borrowings according to the language.

4. Etymological doublets.

5. International words.

Etymology
(from Greek etymon
«truth»
+ logos
«learning»)
is a branch
of linguistics that studies the origin and history of words tracing
them to
their earliest determinable source.

The following list provides a sample set of words that have been
incorporated into English:

French:
cuisine,
army, elite, saute, cul-de-sac, raffle.

Latin:
cup,
fork, pound, vice versa.

Greek:
polysemy,
synonymy, chemistry, physics, phenomenon.

Native
American languages: caucus,
pecan, raccoon, pow-wow.

Spanish:
junta,
siesta, cigar.

German:
rucksack,
hamburger, frankfurter, seminar.

Scandinavian
languages: law,
saga, ski, them, they, their.

Italian: piano, soprano, confetti, spaghetti, vendetta.

South
Asian languages: bungalow,
jungle, sandal, thug.

Yiddish:
goy,
knish, schmuck.

Dutch:
cruise,
curl, dock, leak, pump, scum, yacht.

Chinese:
mandarin,
tea, serge.

Japanese:
bonsai,
hara-kiri, kimono, tycoon, karate, judo.

English is
generally regarded as the richest of the world’s languages. It owes
its exceptionally
large vocabulary to its ability to borrow and absorb words from
outside. Atomic,
cybernetics, jeans, khaki, sputnik, perestroika are
just
a few of the many words that have come into use during XX century.
They
have been taken from Italian, Hindi, Greek and Russian.

«The
English
language», observed Ralph Waldo Emerson, «is the sea which
receives
tributaries from every region under heaven.» (в
презентацию)

The English
vocabulary has been enriched throughout its history by
borrowings from foreign languages. A
borrowing
(a
loan word) is a word
taken over from another language and modified in phonemic shape,
spelling, paradigm or meaning according to the standards of the
English language.

The process
of borrowing words from other languages has been going on for more
than 1,000 years. The fact that up
to 80 per cent of the English vocabulary consists of borrowed words
is due to the specific conditions of the English language
development.

When the Normans crossed over from France to
conquer England in 1066, most of the English people spoke Old
English, or Anglo-Saxon — a language of about 30,000 words. The
Normans spoke a language that was a mixture of Latin and French. It
took about three centuries for the languages to blend into one that
is the ancestor of the English spoken today. The
Normans bestowed on English words such us duchess,
city, mansion, and
palace. The
Anglo-Saxon gave English ring
and town.

Latin and Greek have been a
fruitful source of vocabulary since the 16^th
century. The Latin word mini,
its converse maxi
and the Greek word micro
have become popular adjectives to
describe everything from bikes to fashion. Perhaps the most important
influence in terms of vocabulary comes from what are called Latinate
words,
that is, words that are originally Latin. Latinate words are common
in English: distinct,
describe, transport, evidence, animal, create, act, generation,
recollection, confluence, etc.

There are practically no limits to the kinds of
words that are borrowed. Words are employed as symbols for every part
of culture. When cultural elements are borrowed from one culture by
another, the words for such cultural features often accompany the
feature. Also, when a cultural feature of one society is like that of
another, the word of a foreign language may be used to designate this
feature in the borrowing society. In
English, a material culture word rouge
was
borrowed from French, a social culture word republic
from
Latin, and a religious culture word baptize
from
Greek.

Such words become completely absorbed into the
system, so that they are not recognized by speakers of the language
as foreign. Few people realize that garage
is borrowed from French, that thug
comes from Hindustani, and that tomato
is of Aztec origin.

However, some words and phrases have retained
their original
spelling, pronunciation and foreign identity, for example:
rendezvous,
coup, gourmet, detente (French);
status quo,
ego, curriculum vitae, bona fide (Latin);
patio,
macho (Spanish);
kindergarten,
blitz (German);
kowtow, tea
Chinese,);
incognito,
bravo (Italian).

We may distinguish different types of borrowing
from one foreign language by another:

(1) when the two languages
represent different social,
economic, and political units and

(2)
when the two languages are
spoken by those within the same social, economic, and political unit.
the
borrowing of linguistic forms by one language or dialect from another
when both occupy a single geographical or cultural community.

The
first of these types has been usually called «cultural
borrowing»
while the second type has been termed «intimate
borrowing«.

Another
principal type is between dialects of the same language. This is
called «dialect
borrowing»
(в
презентацию).

Sometimes the
idea of a word rather than the word is borrowed. When
we talk about life
science instead
of
biology, it
is a type of borrowing the
meaning of the Greek derivative, but not the actual morpheme. This
type of borrowing is rather extensive, particularly in scientific
vocabulary
and trade languages as, for example, in Pidgin English in the South
Pacific.

A
number of words in English have originated from the names of people:
boycott,
braille, hooligan, mentor, saxophone, watt. Quite
a few names
of types of clothing originate from the people who invented them:
bowler,
cardigan, Wellingtons, mackintosh. A
number of names of different
kinds of cloth originate from place names: angora,
denim, satin, tweed,
suede. A
number of other words in English come from place names:
bedlam,
spartan, gypsy.

There are
many words that have changed their meaning in English, e.g.
mind
originally
meant «memory», and this meaning survives in the
phrases «to keep in mind», «time out of mind»,
etc. The word brown
preserves
its old meaning of «gloomy» in the phrase «in a brown
study».
There are instances when a word acquires a meaning opposite to
its original one, e.g. nice
meant
«silly» some hundreds of years ago.

Thus, there
are two main problems connected with the vocabulary of a language:
(1) the
origin of
the words, (2) their
development
in the language.

The
etymological structure of the English vocabulary consists of the
native element (Indo-European and Germanic) and the borrowed
elements.

By
the
Native
Element we
understand words that are not borrowed from
other languages. A
native word is a word that belongs to the Old English word-stock. The
Native Element constitutes
only up to 20-25% of the English vocabulary.

Old English,
or Anglo-Saxon, is the earliest recorded form of the English
language. It was spoken from about a.d.
600
until about a.d.
1100,
and most of its words had been part of a still earlier form of the
language.
Many
of the common words of modern English, like home,
stone,
and
meat
are
native,
or Old English, words. Most of the irregular verbs
in English derive from Old English (speak,
swim, drive, ride, sing), as
do most of the English shorter numerals (two,
three, six, ten) and
most of
the pronouns (I,
you, we, who).

Many Old
English words can be traced back to Indo-European, a prehistoric
language that was the common ancestor of many languages.
Others came into Old English as it was becoming a separate language.

(a)
Indo-European
Element:
since English belongs to the Germanic branch
of the Indo-European group of languages, the oldest words in English
are of Indo-European origin. They form part of the basic word stock
of all Indo-European languages. There are several semantic groups:

• words
  expressing family relations: brother,
  daughter, father, mother,
  son;

• names
  of parts of the human body: foot,
  eye, ear, nose, tongue;

• names
  of trees, birds, animals: tree,
  birch, cow, wolf, cat;

• names
  expressing basic actions: to
  come, to know, to sit, to work;

• words
  expressing qualities: red,
  quick, right, glad, sad;

• numerals:
  one,
  two, three, ten, hundred, etc.

There are many more words of
Indo-European origin in the basic stock of the English
vocabulary.

(b) Common
Germanic
words are not to be found in other Indo-European languages but the
Germanic. They constitute a very large layer
of the vocabulary:

• nouns:
  hand,
  life, sea, ship, meal, winter, ground, coal, goat;

• adjectives:
  heavy,
  deep, free, broad, sharp, grey;

• verbs:
  to
  buy, to drink, to find, to forget, to go, to have, to live, to make;

• pronouns: all,
  each, he, self, such;

• adverbs:
  again,
  forward, near; ‘

• prepositions:
  after,
  at, by, over, under, from, for.

The rest of the English vocabulary are borrowed
words, or loan
words.

Some scientists point out three periods of Latin borrowings in old
English:

1. Latin-Continental borrowings,

2. Latin-Celtic borrowings,

3. Latin borrowings connected with the Adoption of Christianity.

To the first period belong
military terms (wall,
street, etc.),
trade terms (pound,
inch), names
of containers (cup,
dish), names
of food (butter,
cheese), words
connected with building (chalk,
pitch), etc.
These were
concrete words that were adopted in purely oral manner, and they were
fully assimilated in the language. Roman influence was felt in the
names
of towns, e.g. Manchester,
Lancaster, etc.
from the Latin word caster
— лагерь.

Such
words as
port, fountain and
mountain
were
borrowed from Latin through
Celtic.

With
the Adoption of Christianity mostly religious or clerical terms were
borrowed: dean,
cross, alter, abbot (Latin); church, devil, priest, anthem,
school, martyr (Greek).

Latin and Greek borrowings of
the Middle English period are connected
with the Great Revival of Learning and are mostly scientific words:
formula,
inertia, maximum, memorandum, veto, superior, etc.
They
were
not fully assimilated, they retained their grammar forms.

Many words from Greek, the other major source of
English words, came
into English by way of French and Latin. Others were borrowed in
the sixteenth century when interest in classic culture was at its
height. Directly
or indirectly, Greek contributed athlete,
acrobat, elastic, magic, rhythm,
and many
others.

There are some classical
borrowings in Modern English as well: anaemia,
aspirin, iodin, atom, calorie, acid, valency, etc.
There are words formed
with the help of Latin and Greek morphemes (roots or affixes): tele,
auto, etc.

Latin and Greek words are
used to denote names of sciences, political and philosophic trends;
these borrowings usually have academic or literary associations (per
capita, dogma, drama, theory, and
pseudonym).

Many other
Latin words came into English through French.
French
is the
language that had most influence on the vocabulary of English; it
also influenced its spelling.

After the Norman invasion in 1066, English was
neglected by the Latin-writing and French-speaking authorities.
Northern French became the official language in England. And for the
next three hundred years, French was the language of the ruling
classes in England. During this period, thousands of new words came
into English, many of them relating to upper class pursuits: baron,
attorney, luxury.

There are several semantic groups of French borrowings:

• government terms: to
  govern, to administer, assembly, record, parliament;

• words connected with
  feudalism: peasant,
  servant, control, money, rent, subsidy;

• military terms: assault,
  battle, soldier, army, siege, defence, lieutenant;

• words
  connected with jury: bill,
  defendant, plaintiff, judge, fine;

• words connected with art,
  amusement, fashion, food: dance,
  pleasure,
  lace, pleat, supper, appetite, beauty, figure, etc.

During the seventeenth
century there was a change in the character of the borrowed words.
From French, English has taken lots of words to do with cooking, the
arts, and a more sophisticated lifestyle in general (chic,
prestige, leisure,
repertoire, resume, cartoon, critique, cuisine, chauffeur,
questionnaire,
coup, elite, avant-garde, bidet, detente, entourage).

In addition to independent words, English borrowed
from Greek, Latin, and French a number of word parts for use as
affixes and roots, for example prefixes like поп-,
de-, anti— that
may appear in hundreds of different words.

English has continued to borrow words from French
right down to the present, with the result that over
a third of modern English vocabulary derives from French.

Scandinavian Borrowings
are connected with the Scandinavian
Conquest of the British Isles, which took place at the end of the 8^th
century. Scandinavians belonged to
the same group of peoples as Englishmen and the two languages were
similar.

The impact of Old Norwegian on the English
language is hard to evaluate.
Nine hundred words — for example, take,
leg, hit, skin, same —
are of Scandinavian origin. There
are probably hundreds more we cannot account for definitely, and in
the old territory of the Danelaw in
Northern England words like beck
(stream)
and garth
(yard)
survive in regional use. Words
beginning with sk
like sky
are Norse (the Danes — also called
Norsemen — conquered northern France, and finally England).

In many cases Scandinavian borrowings stood
alongside their English
equivalents. The Scandinavian skirt
originally
meant the same as the English shirt.
The Norse deyja
(to die) joined its Anglo-Saxon
synonym,
the English steorfa
(which
ends up as starve).
Other
synonyms include:
wish
and
want,
craft and
skill,
rear and
raise.

However,
many words were borrowed into English, e.g. cake,
egg, kid,
window, ill, happy, ugly, to call, to give, to get, etc.
Pronouns and pronominal forms were also borrowed from Scandinavian:
same,
both, though,
they, them, their.

In the modern period, English has borrowed from every important
language in the world

Over 120 languages are on
record as sources of the English vocabulary. From Japanese
come
karate,
judo, hara-kiri, kimono,
and tycoon; from
Arabic,
algebra,
algorithm, fakir, giraffe, sultan,
harem, mattress; from
Turkish,
yogurt,
kiosk, tulip; from
Farsi,
caravan,
shawl, bazaar, sherbet; from
Eskimo,
kayak,
igloo, anorak; from
Yiddish,
goy,
knish, latke, schmuck; from
Hindi,
thug,
punch, shampoo;
from
Amerindian
languages,
toboggan,
wigwam, Chicago, Missouri,
opossum. From
Italian
come words
connected with music and
the plastic arts, such as
piano, alto, incognito, bravo, ballerina, as
well as
motto,
casino, mafia, artichoke, etc.
German
expressions
in English have been coined either by tourists bringing back words
for new things they saw or by philosophers or historians describing
German concepts or experiences (kindergarten,
blitz, hamburger, pretzel, delicatessen, poodle, waltz, seminar). The
borrowings from other languages usually relate to things, which
English speakers experienced
for the first time abroad (Portuguese:
marmalade,
cobra; Spanish:
junta,
siesta, patio, mosquito, comrade, tornado, banana, guitar, marijuana,
vigilante; Dutch:
dock,
leak, pump, yacht, easel, cruise,
cole slaw, smuggle, gin, cookie, boom; Finnish:
sauna;
Russian:
bistro,
szar, balalaika, tundra, robot).

Although borrowing has been a very rich source of new words in
English, it is noteworthy that loan words are least common among the
most frequently used vocabulary items.

Most of the
borrowed words at once undergo the process of assimilation.
Assimilation of borrowed words is their adaptation to the system
of the receiving language in pronunciation, in grammar and in
spelling.
There are completely assimilated borrowings that correspond to
all the standards of the language (travel,
sport, street), partially
assimilated
words (taiga,
phenomena, police) and
unassimilated words (coup d’état,
tête-à-tête, ennui, éclat).

Borrowed words can be classified according to
the aspect which is borrowed. We can subdivide all borrowings into
the following groups:

• phonetic
  borrowings (table,
  chair, people);

• translation
  loans (Gospel,
  pipe of peace, masterpiece);

• semantic
  borrowings (pioneer);

• morphemic
  borrowings (beautiful,
  uncomfortable).

Language is a universal tool for every person in this world. It is the connecting link between nations, ethnicities, and people sharing a common background. The world of language is colorful and diverse and provides a glimpse into the very origins of humanity and civilizations. But languages from across the globe are all unique and mutually unintelligible. That’s why a lingua franca is necessary, a common language that all can learn and understand, and use across the planet. In modern times, that language is English. People everywhere can understand it and speak it, even if just a little. But do we ever stop to think about the origins of the English language? Where did it begin, how did it develop, and what makes it so universal to most of the people living on the planet today?

The first folio of the heroic epic poem Beowulf, written primarily in the West Saxon dialect of the Old English language by an anonymous early English poet. ( Public domain )

The Historic Root of the English Language: Anglo-Saxon

When we begin the story of the English language and its source, we need to reflect upon the history of England, i.e., Britain. Because it was the many turbulent episodes of the nation of England that have shaped the language that we know today. Different peoples coming in contact with Britain have all left their mark on the English language. For language is like a sponge: it soaks in all the foreign additions that suit it, which makes it better and easier to use.

Of course, English gets its name from the Germanic Anglo-Saxons that settled in England in mid-5th century AD and shaped the very future of what we know as English today. Around 410 AD, the Romans withdrew from Britain , leaving the area open for settlement by new peoples, in this case, the Germanic Anglo-Saxon tribes.

However, the land of Britain was not empty of language. The remaining Romano-British (Brythonic) Celtic peoples still lived there, but they were now largely influenced by the Romans. It is proposed by scholars that they spoke British Latin at this point, a vulgar Latin dialect that formed through contact with the Celts. To the north, in modern-day Scotland, were the Picts and the Scots, both speaking their own distinct insular Celtic languages.

When the Anglo-Saxon tribes arrived from northern Europe, however, they came by invitation. Ancient chronicles state that Vortigern, King of the Britons, invited these Germanic tribes in 449 AD, in order to repel the Picts who were invading from the north. But the land was too good for the Angles and the Saxons, and they chose to stay for good. From then on, their Germanic language became rooted in Britain, and gradually became the chief language used on the island, which is the English language.

The Anglo Saxons, pictured, brought a new language to Britain. Source: Archivist / Adobe Stock

The Anglo-Saxons Built the Foundations of the English Language

Still, the original or earlier languages of a conquered nation can never fully be eradicated. Even with the Anglo-Saxons firmly rooted in Britain, there were still plenty of words in use that were of Celtic or Latin origin. Many words, like street, wine, mile, kitchen, have their origins in Latin. Both the Brythonic Celts and the Germanic tribes were in contact with the Romans for centuries, and thus these words found their way into the English language from both sides.

However, we can also observe the Celtic words in England, mostly in place names. Places like Kent, Dover, Avon, and hundreds of others retained their original Celtic names over the centuries. Still, commonly used words such as loch, crumpet, gull, lawn, penguin, coombe, all have their roots in the Celtic languages of Britain.

The English language was also heavily influenced by old medieval Latin, especially via Christianity. Shown here is an ancient Catholic Latin inscription. ( alehnia / Adobe Stock)

As the Anglo-Saxons solidified their rule in Britain, forming their kingdoms, the so-called “ Old English ” language developed across England. Today, we know it as the earliest recorded form of the English language. It was divided into closely-related dialects: Mercian, Kentish, Northumbrian, and West Saxon , all of which were named for the separate kingdoms they established. The Anglo-Saxons grew powerful, and their language quickly overshadowed the Celtic and Latin that was spoken before. The Celtic speakers were pushed to the margins of the island, and their languages, such as Welsh and Cornish, are still confined to these areas of Britain today.

Although the earliest form of the English language, Old English sounds almost totally alien to what we know and use today. Here’s a snippet of a text written in Old English during the Anglo-Saxon period, with a modern translation. The differences are immense.

“Ac hē hit on him swīþe wræc, ond hīe him swā lāðe wǣron þæt hē oft wȳscte þæt ealle Rōmāne hæfden ǣnne swēoran, þæt hē hine raþost forceorfan meahte. Ond mid ungemete mǣnde þæt þǣr þā næs swelc sacu swelc þǣr oft ǣr wæs; ond hē self fōr oft on ōþra lond ond wolde gewin findan, ac hē ne meahte būton sibbe.”

Translation: “But he took severe revenge upon them, and they were hateful that he often wished that all Romans possessed a single neck so that he could most quickly cut through it. And with lack of moderation complained that there was no strife as there often formerly was; and he would often go into another land and would find battle, but he would not accept peace.”

The language of the Vikings and their rune letters gave English its grammatical basis. ( Pshenichka / Adobe Stock)

English Language Development: from 450 AD to the Present Day

On the whole, the English language is separated into following stages of development:

Old English: 450-1150 AD

Middle English : 1150-1500 AD

Early Modern English: 1500-1700 AD

Modern English: 1700 AD-present day

By the 6th century AD, Christianity had spread to Britain, and new, ecclesiastical words from Latin became an inseparable part of the English language. These included hymn, abbot, altar, priest, paper, school, bishop , and many other words. In the end, more than 400 such words were introduced. And that was just the beginning!

Just a couple of centuries later a new period of English history began with the arrival of the Vikings. Scandinavian seafarers raided Anglo-Saxon kingdoms from the 8th to 10th centuries AD, establishing many settlements in the process. Over time, the contact between them and the English left the most important and longest-lasting changes on the English language.

The Vikings introduced crucial new words into English , such as egg, call, crave, bask, keel, ill, fellow, leg, screech, odd, thrive, slaughter, berserk, ransack, husband, steak, skill, bug, wings, muck, myre anger, bag, sky, and hundreds of other commonly used words.

Changes to the language itself also appear during this period. The Old English word endings disappear, and a switch to a stricter word order appears, all under the influence of the Old Norse grammar. All of this points to the close contact between the Vikings and the English, and the fact that a language can never truly stop developing and accepting new features that make it better.

The Norman French language became the spoken language of the British elites who then added many French words to the everyday common people’s English vocabulary. ( Serge Aubert / Adobe Stock)

The French Normans Also Influenced The English Language

The next major change in the English language came with the Normans . In 1066 AD, the Norman leader William the Bastard won the critical Battle of Hastings, ushering in the era of Norman rule in Britain. Norman French became the main language of the nobility from that point onward and many French words were tightly woven into the English language as we know it. During this time, English was the language of the common folk, while the elites spoke the Anglo-Norman language. Norman itself had roots in Old Norse and introduced words that were both French and Norse in origin. Many of the Norman words that ended up as English words are connected to law or the military. Examples include archer, bailiff, chivalry, curfew, crime, judge, government, felony, fraud, injury, grief, dungeon, custard, baron, servant, messenger, story, and many more.

Borrowings from French occurred in two phases. The first one, as we said, was during the Norman period, mainly from 1066 to 1250. Then, from 1250 to 1500, the second phase took place. Only this time, it was the French speakers that started speaking English!

The reason for this historic conundrum is simple: the ruling French-speaking elite of Britain was finding it difficult to preserve the Anglo-Norman language over the centuries. So, the elites also gradually shifted to speaking English, the language of everyone else in the country. This is a simple process of assimilation.

As the elites shifted to English, they introduced further French words into the common, day-to-day vocabulary. And in the process they expanded and enriched the English language even more. Some words from this period are scandal, tavern, coward, vision, damage, aim, apply, serve, prefer, refuse, common, firm, sudden .

Scan of the Canterbury Tales Ellesmere manuscript from the 14th century AD show the first page of the Knight’s Tale, written in an English few can understand today. (Geoffrey Chaucer / Public domain )

The English Language as a Sponge

Still, even though the English language shifted from Anglo-Saxon Old English to the much different Middle English, it would nonetheless appear quite odd to the speakers of modern English. One great example surviving from this period is the work of Chaucer, a celebrated English poet. Here’s a snippet — written in Middle English from his 14th-century work, the “ Canterbury Tales .”

“Whan that aprill with his shoures soote

The droghte of march hath perced to the roote,

And bathed every veyne in swich licour

Of which vertu engendred is the flour;

Whan zephirus eek with his sweete breeth

Inspired hath in every holt and heeth

Tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne

Hath in the ram his halve cours yronne,

And smale foweles maken melodye,

That slepen al the nyght with open ye

(so priketh hem nature in hir corages);

Thanne longen folk to goon on pilgrimages,

And palmeres for to seken straunge strondes,

To ferne halwes, kowthe in sondry londes;”

During the Early Modern Period of the English language, which is dated from the 1500s onwards, the Renaissance period begins to establish itself in Britain. Scholars and other learned men started a great influx of foreign words into English, many of them scholarly Greek and Latin terms. But that was not all.

England began its colonial expansions in this era, which resulted in lasting relationships with other European nations. Thus, more foreign words root entered the English language vocabulary. From Latin and Greek, we have words such as abdomen, anatomy, agile, atmosphere, catastrophe, ecstasy, history, critic, janitor, meditate, ultimate, and so on. However, words such as alcove, algebra, zenith, algorithm, amber, orange, admiral, azimuth, alchemy, and others, all come from Arabic, borrowed from Spanish and other Romance languages.

The British Empire covered 25% of the world, as shown in this 1898 Canadian stamp, and this also gave English lots of new words over the centuries. ( Spiroview Inc. / Adobe Stock)

Britain’s Global Colonial Era Introduced More New Words

The expansion of the English language continued steadily from the 1700s as English developed into its modern form. The English language was influenced by major colonial expansions across the globe, by the industrial revolution, literature, and mass immigration to America and elsewhere.

French continued to be a major influence on English, introducing new words associated with the latest trends of the era. Ballet, champagne, chic, salon, bastion, brigade, infantry, grenade, grotesque, shock, niche and other words we use today were introduced during this time.

From Spanish we have armada, canyon, barricade, guitar, mosquito, vigilante; from Italian broccoli, balcony, arsenal, fresco, cupola, piano, opera, viola, umbrella, macaroni, pantaloons.

As the English settled in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, and elsewhere, they introduced many new words adopted from the local inhabitants. Most of these were words for things the English never had: tattoo, pajamas, didgeridoo, boomerang, kangaroo, taboo, bamboo, tsunami, cacao, cannibal, chipmunk, hammock, skunk, squash, tomato, and hundreds of other words.

Today, the English language is the lingua franca of the modern world, spoken by roughly 1.35 billion people! ( nito / Adobe Stock)

The Universal Language of the World!

So, as we can see, the English language was constantly changing as it developed. Its origins lie in the migrations of ancient cultures to the British Isles. As they met, clashed, and lived together, their languages melted into one unified, diverse form of speech that is known as English today.

When it comes to its immense popularity across the world, the English language undoubtedly owes a lot to the British Empire period, which in 1924 covered almost 25% of planet Earth. During the colonial period, Englishmen spread to many corners of the world. And this is how the English language established itself as a global lingua franca , a common tongue that all can use, no matter where they are!

Top image: Monk chronicler writes an ancient manuscript. Source:  Nejron Photo / Adobe Stock

By Aleksa Vučković