Word origins french and anglo saxon

This list of English words with dual French and Old English variations lists various English words with redundant loanwords. After the Norman invasion of England in 1066 many of the more refined English (Old English) words describing finished products were replaced with words, borrowed from Anglo-Norman (such as «beef,» a prepared food). In contrast, common unfinished equivalents continued to use the native English term (such as «cow,» a living animal). This replacement can be explained by the fact that meat was an expensive product at the time and that the lord and nobleman of Norman origin were eating it more often than the commoners, who were raising the livestock. This duality is also mirrored in French, where «beef» is bœuf, but «cow» is vache. These dual words later formed the basis of the Middle English wordstock, and were eventually passed into the modern language.^[1]

In some cases, these dual variations are distant etymological twins, as in cow/beef, both from Proto-Indo-European *gʷōus, but in other cases, such as calf/veal, they come from distinct PIE roots.

Generally, words coming from French often retain a higher register than words of Old English origin, and they are considered by some to be more posh, elaborate, sophisticated, or pretentious. However, there are exceptions: weep, groom and stone (from Old English) occupy a slightly higher register than cry, brush and rock (from French). Words taken directly from Latin and Ancient Greek are generally perceived as colder, more technical, and more medical or scientific – compare life (Old English) with biology (classical compound – a modern coinage from Greek roots).

List of English words with dual Old English/Old French variationsEdit

Foods:

Old English origin words	Old French origin words	Notes
cow (OE cū) ox (OE oxa)	beef (AN beof; OF boef)	[2]
calf (OE cealf)	veal (AN vel; OF veel, veal)	[2]
swine (OE swīn) pig (OE picga)	pork (OF porc)	[2]
sheep (OE scēap)	mutton (OF moton)	[2]
hen (OE hen, henn) chicken (OE cicen)	poultry (OF pouletrie) pullet (OF poulet)	[2]
deer (OE dēor) hart (OE heorot)	venison (AN venesoun)	[2]
dove (OE dūfe)	pigeon (OF pijən)

Other words:

Old English origin words	Old French origin words	notes
thinking, mindful	pensive	[3]
kingly	royal	[3]
almighty	omnipotent
brotherly	fraternal	[3]
motherly	maternal
fatherly	paternal
sisterly	sororal
ask, beseech	enquire	[3]
lord	liege
lovesome	amorous
bring, bear	carry
amaze, stun	astonish
wordbook	dictionary
fair, fair-haired	blond(e)
ghost	phantom, spirit
uphold, undergird, upstay	support
smell, stench	odour
hue, blee	colour
blossom	flower
help, bestand, bestead	aid, abet, assist
buy	purchase
belief	faith
beget	engender
wonder	ponder
selfhood	identity
sake, ground	reason, cause
weep, sob	cry
knowledge	science
lawyer	attorney
to flee	to escape
thrall	serf, captive
hearty	cordial
deem	consider, judge
harbour, haven	port
sunder	sever
sunstead	solstice
answer	reply, response
follow	ensue
fall, harvest	autumn
leave	permission
seethe, plaw	boil
hunt	chase
wisdom	prudence, sagacity
weird, fremd	strange
behaviour	manner
uncouth	rude
owndom, belongings	property
folk, lede (leod)	people
forgive	pardon
darling	favourite
worthy	valuable
to forsake	to abandon
drought, dearth	famine
wish, will, yearning, longing, want (verb)	desire (verb and noun)
span	distance
tumble	somersault
drink (noun + verb)	beverage, imbibe
deal	amount
everlasting	eternal
freedom	liberty
brittle	frail, fragile
weak	feeble, faint
wild	savage
betrothal	proposal
kingship	monarchy
forebear, forefather	ancestor
reckless	intrepid
awesome, unbelievable	incredible
erstwhile	previous
tough	difficult
homesickness	nostalgia
hopelessness	despair
wholesome, healthy, healthful	salutary, salubrious
aching	painful
daring, boldness	audacity
midday	noon
to withstand	to resist
overlive	survive
hearsay	rumour
unwilling, loath	reluctant
wilful	deliberate
wont	accustomed
lovely, fair	beautiful
anger, wrath	ire, rage
angry, wrathful	irate
bloodthirsty	sanguinary
windpipe	trachea
woodwork	carpentry
beset	surround
warmongering	belligerent
deathly	lethal, mortal
forgiving	indulgent
forespeech	preface
abide, acknowledge	comply, obey, observe
stern	severe
foe	enemy
friendly	amicable
downtrodden	oppressed
inn	tavern
woodland, woods	forest
to rue	to lament, to regret
rueful	regretful
ruthless	remorseless
weapon	arm
lithe	gentle
grave	tomb
graveyard	cemetery
outspoken, straightforward	honest, frank
green	verdant
snake	serpent
fire	flame
clattering	noise
cook (noun)	chef
house	mansion
nought	zero
offspring	progeny
live, abide, dwell	reside
think	conceive
bookcraft	literature
twin	double
foretell	predict
foreshadow	presage
forechoice	preference
leave	egress, exit, depart
belly	stomach
upbringing	nurture
understand	comprehend
laughable	ridiculous
foreguess	assume
needs	requirements
adder	viper
behead	decapitate
forbid, ban	prohibit
forelook	preview
forbearance	patience
gift	present
thoughts	ideas
wed	marry
wedlock	marriage
withtake	receive
flawless	perfect
maim	mutilate
end	finish
room	chamber
stone	rock
smother	suffocate
mar	spoil
beam	ray
milt	spleen
heed	attention
groom	brush
hanging	pendant
bodily	corporal
handbook	manual
come	arrive
womb	uterus
dog	canine
maidenhood	virginity
win (noun)	victory
stronghold	fort, fortress
earl	count

Words now obsolete, archaic or dialectal:

Old English origin words	Old French origin words	notes
eld	age
hosen, britches	pants
adder	venom, poison
athel	noble
atheling, drighten	prince
aset	appoint
bilewit	innocent
chevese	concubine
edder	vein,artery
stound	hour
wanderstar	planet
wort	plant
burn	broil
note	use, utility
bookstaff, bookstave	letter
steven, reard	voice
barrow	mountain
dwimmer	magic
thorp	village
ettin	giant
forhold	detain
forthgang	progress
forthfare	departure
frith	peace
gavel	rent
grith	asylum, sanctuary
glim	candle
handfast	contract, pledge
leech	physician
lich	corpse
liss	relief
reave	rob
rime	number
ruth	pity
arm, wantsome	poor
armth	poverty
ord	point
overgive	surrender
sooth	reality
norn	complain
firen	crime
mensk	honour
wield	control
eam	uncle
evennight	equinox
quethe	declare
roo	calmness, tranquility
sheen	beautiful
shild	fault
weasand	oesophagus
woning	residence
wight	creature
wayfare	journey
waterstuff	hydrogen
sourstuff	oxygen
umbe	around
yeartide	season

See alsoEdit

• Lists of English loanwords by country or language of origin
• List of English words of French origin
• Changes to Old English vocabulary
• List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English

ReferencesEdit

A great number of words of French origin have entered the English language to the extent that many Latin words have come to the English language. 45% of all English words have a French origin.^{[1][verification needed][better source needed]} This suggests that 80,000 words should appear in this list; this list, however, only includes words imported directly from French, such as both joy and joyous, and does not include derivatives formed in English of words borrowed from French, including joyful, joyfulness, partisanship, and parenthood. It also excludes both combinations of words of French origin with words whose origin is a language other than French — e.g., ice cream, sunray, jellyfish, killjoy, lifeguard, and passageway— and English-made combinations of words of French origin — e.g., grapefruit (grape + fruit), layperson (lay + person), mailorder, magpie, marketplace, surrender, petticoat, and straitjacket. This list also excludes words that come from French but were introduced into the English language via a language other than French, which include commodore, domineer, filibuster, ketone, loggia, lotto, mariachi, monsignor, oboe, paella, panzer, picayune, ranch, vendue, and veneer.

English words of French origin can also be distinguished from French words and expressions used by English speakers.

Although French is derived mainly from Latin (which accounts for about 60% of English vocabulary either directly or via a Romance language), it also includes words from Gaulish and Germanic languages (especially Old Frankish). Since English is of Germanic origin, words that have entered English from the Germanic elements in French might not strike the eye as distinctively from French. Conversely, as Latin gave many derivatives to both the English and the French languages, ascertaining that a given Latinate derivative did not come to the English language via French can be difficult in a few cases.

Historical context[edit]

Most of the French vocabulary now appearing in English was imported over the centuries following the Norman Conquest of 1066, when England came under the administration of Norman-speaking peoples. William the Conqueror invaded the British Isles, distributing lands and property to Norman, Breton, Flemish, and French soldiers. As a result, Old French became the language of culture and the administration, evolving into Anglo-Norman French. The majority of the population of England continued to use their Anglo-Saxon language, but it was influenced by the language of the ruling elite, resulting in doublets. Consider for example the words for the meats eaten by the Anglo-Norman nobility and the corresponding animals raised by the Anglo-Saxon peasants: beef/ox, mutton/sheep, veal/calf, pork/pig, or pairs of words pertaining to different registers of language: commence/start, commerce/trade, continue/go on, depart/leave, disengage/withdraw, encounter/meet, maintain/uphold, marry/wed, menace/threat, purchase/buy, revenue/income, vend/sell. Words of French origin often refer to more abstract or elaborate notions than their Anglo-Saxon equivalents (e.g. liberty/freedom, justice/fairness), and are therefore of less frequent use in everyday language. This may not, however, be the case for all English words of French origin. Consider, for example, some of the most common words in English: able, car, chair, city, country, different, fine, fruit, journey, juice, just, part, people, person, place, real, stay, table, travel, use, very, and wait.

After the rise of Henry Plantagenet to the throne of England, other forms of dialectal French may have gained in influence to the detriment of Anglo-Norman French (notably the variants of Anjou where the House of Plantagenet came from, and possibly Poitevin, the tongue of Eleanor of Aquitaine). With the English claim to the throne of France, the influence of the language in use at the royal court of France in Paris increased. The cultural influence of France remained strong in the following centuries and from the Renaissance onward borrowings were mainly made from Parisian French, which became the de facto standard language of France.

Notable fields of French influence[edit]

Feudalism[edit]

Norman rule of England had a lasting impact on British society. Words from Anglo-Norman or Old French include terms related to chivalry (homage, liege, peasant, seigniorage, suzerain, vassal, villain) and other institutions (bailiff, chancellor, council, government, mayor, minister, parliament), the organisation of religion (abbey, clergy, cloister, diocese, friar, mass, parish, prayer, preach, priest, sacristy, vestment, vestry, vicar), the nobility (baron, count, dame, duke, marquis, prince, sir), and the art of war (armour, baldric, dungeon, hauberk, mail, portcullis, rampart, surcoat). Many of these words related to the feudal system or medieval warfare have a Germanic origin (mainly through Old Frankish) (see also French words of Germanic origin).

The Norman origin of the British monarchy is still visible in expressions like Prince Regent, heir apparent, Princess Royal where the adjective is placed after the noun, like in French.

Heraldry[edit]

The vocabulary of heraldry has been heavily influenced by French (blazon, or, argent, sable, gules, passant), for more details see tinctures, attitudes, and charges of heraldry.

Sometimes used in heraldry, some mythological beasts (cockatrice, dragon, griffin, hippogriff, phoenix) or exotic animals (lion, leopard, antelope, gazelle, giraffe, camel, zebu, elephant, baboon, macaque, mouflon, dolphin, ocelot, ostrich, chameleon) draw their name from French. It is also the case of some animals native of Europe (via Anglo-Norman: eagle, buzzard, falcon, squirrel, coney, rabbit, leveret, lizard, marten, ferret, salmon, viper).

Military[edit]

The vocabulary of warfare and the military include many words and expressions of French origin (accoutrements, aide-de-camp, army, artillery, battalion, bivouac, brigade, camouflage, carabineer, cavalry, cordon sanitaire, corps, corvette, dragoon, espionage, esprit de corps, état major, fusilier, grenadier, guard, hors-de-combat, infantry, latrine, legionnaire, logistics, matériel, marine, morale, musketeer, officer, pistol, platoon, reconnaissance/reconnoitre, regiment, rendezvous, siege, soldier, sortie, squad, squadron, surrender, surveillance, terrain, troop, volley). This includes military ranks: admiral, captain, colonel, corporal, general, lieutenant, sergeant. Many fencing terms are also from French.

Politics and economics[edit]

The political/economic lexicon include many words of French origin like money, treasury, exchequer, commerce, finance, tax, liberalism, capitalism, materialism, nationalism, plebiscite, coup d’état, regime, sovereignty, state, administration, federal, bureaucracy, constitution, jurisdiction, district.

Law[edit]

The judicial lexicon has also been heavily influenced by French (justice, judge, jury, attorney, court, case).

Diplomacy[edit]

attaché, chargé d’affaires, envoy, embassy, chancery, diplomacy, démarche, communiqué, aide-mémoire, détente, entente, rapprochement, accord, treaty, alliance, passport, protocol.

Arts[edit]

art, music, dance, theatre, author, stage, paint, canvas, perform, harmony, melody, rhythm, trumpet, note, director, gallery, portrait, brush, pallet, montage, surrealism, impressionism, fauvism, cubism, symbolism, art nouveau, gouache, aquarelle, collage, render, frieze, grisaille.

Architecture[edit]

aisle, arcade, arch, vault, voussoir, belfry, arc-boutant, buttress, bay, lintel, estrade, facade, balustrade, terrace, lunette, niche, pavilion, pilaster, porte cochère.

Aviation and automobile engineering[edit]

France played a pioneering role in the fields of aviation (nacelle, empennage, fuselage, aileron, altimeter, canard, decalage, monocoque, turbine) and automobile engineering or design (chassis, piston, arbor, grille, tonneau, berline, sedan, limousine, cabriolet, coupé, convertible).

Cuisine[edit]

baba au rhum, beef, beef bourguignon, boudin, caramel, casserole, cassoulet, clafoutis, confit, consommé, cream, croissant, custard, filet mignon, fillet, foie gras, flognarde, fondant, fondue, gateau, gratin, madeleine, marmalade, mayonnaise, meringue, mille-feuille, mustard, mutton, navarin, pâté, pastry, petit four, pork, porridge, potage, pudding, puree, ragout, ratatouille, roux, salad, sauce, sausage, soufflé, soup, stew, terrine, trifle, veal, vol-au-vent.

Colours and Other Influences[edit]

Other influences include the names of colours (ecru, mauve, beige, carmine, maroon, blue, orange, violet, vermilion, turquoise, lilac, perse, scarlet, cerise), vegetables or fruits (courgette, aubergine, cabbage, carrot, cherry, chestnut, cucumber, nutmeg, quince, spinach, lemon, orange, apricot), and months of the year (January, March, May, July, November, December).

Terms coined by French people[edit]

Some of the French words that made their way into the English language were coined by French speaking inventors, discoverers or pioneers, or scientists: cinema, television, helicopter, parachute, harmonium, bathyscaphe, lactose, lecithin, bacteriophage, chlorophyll, mastodon, pterodactyl, oxide, oxygen, hydrogen, carbon, photography, stethoscope, thermometer, stratosphere, troposphere.

Named after French people[edit]

Some French words were named after French people (from their family name), especially in the fields of science (ampere, appertisation, baud, becquerel, braille, coulomb, curie, daguerreotype, pascal, pasteurise, vernier), botany and mineralogy (begonia, bougainvillea, clementine, magnolia, dolomite, nicotine), fashion and style or any other cultural aspect (lavalier, leotard, recamier, mansard, chauvinism, kir, praline, saxophone, silhouette, guillotine).

Proper names[edit]

The names of certain cities in non-francophone regions/countries entered English with French spelling (Louisville, Constance, Ypres, Bruges, Louvain, Turin, Milan, Plaisance, Florence, Rome, Naples, Syracuse, Vienna, Prague, Munich, Cologne, Aix-la-Chapelle, Seville, Constantinople).

In North America, the names of some of the Native American peoples or First Nations the French came in contact with first are from French (Sioux, Saulteaux, Iroquois, Nez Perce, Huron, Cheyenne, Algonquin). It is also the case of some place names such as Canada, Arkansas, Illinois, Maine, Michigan, Vermont, Baton Rouge, Boise, Chicago, Des Moines, Detroit.

Main patterns of influence[edit]

Some words from Old French have been imported again from Middle French or Modern French, but have generally taken a more restrictive or specialised meaning the second time. Consider for instance these doublets : chair/chaise, chief/chef, luminary/luminaire, liquor/liqueur, castle/château, hostel/hotel, mask/masque, necessary/nécessaire, petty/petit, ticket/etiquette, troop/troupe, vanguard/avant-garde. Note that the word in French has kept the general meaning: e.g. château in French means «castle» and chef means «chief». Even when not imported several times in different forms, loanwords from French generally have a more restrictive or specialised meaning than in French: e.g. legume (in Fr. légume means «vegetable»), gateau (in Fr. gâteau means «cake»).

In some cases, the English language has been more conservative than the French one with Old French words, at least in spelling if not in pronunciation: e.g. apostle (O.Fr. apostle / M.Fr. apôtre), castle (O.Fr. castel or chastel / M.Fr. château), forest (O.Fr. forest / M.Fr. forêt), vessel (O.Fr. vaissel / M.Fr. vaisseau). Other Old French words have even disappeared from Modern French: dandelion.

On the other hand, a move to restore the classical roots (Latin or Ancient Greek) occurred in the 16th and 17th centuries. Thus words from Old French saw their spelling re-Latinized. Although in most cases this did not affect their pronunciation (e.g. debt, doubt, indict, mayor), in some cases it did (e.g. abnormal, adventure, benefit). The ph transcription of words of Greek etymology was restored instead of the f. Thus fantosme became phantom, fesan became pheasant. This move occurred also in French, although less systematically: Old French farmacie became pharmacie («pharmacy»), fenix became phénix («phoenix»), but fantosme became fantôme («phantom, ghost») and fesan became faisan («pheasant»).

Beside re-Latinization that blurred the French origin of some words (e.g. peradventure), other modifications in spelling have included folk etymology alterations (e.g. andiron, belfry, crayfish, female, gillyflower, gingerbread, penthouse, pickaxe, pulley).

Furthermore, the spelling of some words was changed to keep the pronunciation as close to the original as possible (e.g. leaven), whereas in other cases the French spelling was kept and resulted in totally different pronunciation than French (e.g. leopard, levee).^[2] Terms that most recently entered the English language have kept French pronunciation and spelling (ambiance, aplomb, arbitrage, armoire, atelier, barrage, bonhomie, bourgeoisie, brochure, bureau, café, camaraderie, catalogue, chandelier, chauffeur, coiffure, collage, cortège, crèche, critique, debris, décor, dénouement, depot, dossier, élite, entourage, ennui, entrepreneur, espionage, expertise, exposé, financier, garage, genre, glacier, intrigue, liaison, lingerie, machine, massage, millionaire, mirage, montage, panache, penchant, personnel, plaque, promenade, rapport, repertoire, reservoir, routine, sabotage, sachet, souvenir, tableau, terrain, tranche), though this may change with time (e.g. the initial h in hotel is not silent anymore, consider also the evolving pronunciation of herb, or garage). Expressions like femme fatale, faux pas, haute couture, bête noire and enfant terrible are still recognisably French.

Borrowings are not a one-way process (See Reborrowing), some words of French origin ultimately come from Old English (Anglo-Saxon words): e.g. bateau, chiffon, gourmet. While conversely English words of French origin made their way «back» into Modern French: budget, challenge, design, discount, establishment, express, fuel, gay, gin, humour, interview, jury, management, mess, pedigree, rave, record, reporter, spleen, sport, squat, standard, suspense, tennis, ticket, toast, toboggan, tunnel, vintage.

A–C[edit]

D–I[edit]

J–R[edit]

S–Z[edit]

See also[edit]

• Influence of French on English
• Glossary of French words and expressions in English
• Law French
• Glossary of fencing (predominantly from French)
• Glossary of ballet (predominantly from French)
• Lists of English loanwords by country or language of origin
• List of English words of Gaulish origin
• List of English words of Latin origin
• List of English Latinates of Germanic origin
• Latin influence in English
• List of French words of Germanic origin
• List of French words of Gaulish origin
• List of French words of Arabic origin
• List of French words of English origin
• List of German words of French origin

References[edit]

External links[edit]

• Online Etymology Dictionary
• Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales (in French)

When it comes to writing, are you the Anglo-Saxon type, or do you go for French flair? You probably realize that Modern English derives from a wide variety of sources, and perhaps are aware that words derived from French are just as common in our language as those that are descended directly from Old English, otherwise known as Anglo-Saxon.

But did you know that one of the features of English that make it such a rich language is a prevalence, unusual among the world’s languages, of synonyms, thanks to the fact that we have retained words from both Anglo-Saxon and French (and often other languages) that have the same meaning?

And have you considered that whether you choose a word derived from Anglo-Saxon or one borrowed from French or one of its Latinate relatives has a significant bearing on your writing voice?

Thanks to the Norman Conquest, for example, the Anglo-Saxon language became a second-class (or lower-class) tongue in England, supplanted in political and social contexts by Norman French, and therefore many cognates reflect the differences in relations to things between the two classes (who though their languages differed were closely related ethnically).

For example, Anglo-Saxon words for animals raised for food often reflect the role of Anglo-Saxons as keepers of livestock (cow, calf, sheep, pig), whereas the words obtained from French describe the food itself as it appeared on the table after cultivation and preparation by Anglo-Saxon farmers and servants (beef, veal, mutton, pork).

By the same token, many Anglo-Saxon words seem, by comparison with French, more plainspoken — more earthy (or earthly, rather than terrestrial, just as Anglo-Saxon heaven is more basic than the French-based equivalent, celestial). Other cognates that point out the differing perspectives are pairs like the humble home and the magnificent mansion, though often, for every master (French) there is a lord (Anglo-Saxon).

Of course, Anglo-Saxon acquired many words from Latin and its descendants before the Conquest, such as the introduction of many religious terms during the spread of Christianity and the expansion of the language due to trade with other European countries.

Likewise, the Germanic tribes that coalesced into the people of Anglo-Saxon England adopted many Latin and Greek terms before their arrival in Britain. And even after the largely Norman aristocracy abandoned their form of French in favor of Middle English, the latter language acquired many words from the influence of the Renaissance, and early Modern English was likewise enriched by the Enlightenment.

Notice, in your writing, whether you have an affinity with Anglo-Saxon or a French fetish, or whether you are bilingual: Do you give, or present? Do you describe someone as misleading, or deceptive? Do you refer to fatherly, motherly, or brotherly bonds or affection, or paternal, maternal, or fraternal feelings?

Though the number of English words derived from each language is about the same, the ones most essential for basic communication are of Anglo-Saxon origin, and many people correlate heavy use of Latin-derived words with verbosity and overblown language.

What’s your style? Do you worship words from Anglo-Saxon, or do you favor French forms?

This List of English words with dual French and Anglo-Saxon variations describes various English words generally describing the same person, place or thing with two or more different words. After the Norman invasion of England in 1066 many of the more refined English (Anglo-Saxon) words describing finished products were replaced by words imported from Anglo-Norman (such as «beef,» a prepared food). In contrast, common unfinished equivalents continued to use the native English term (such as «cow,» a living animal). This replacement can be explained by the fact that meat was an expensive product at the time and that the lord and nobleman of Norman origin were eating it more often than the commoners, who were raising the livestock. This duality is also mirrored in French, where «beef» is boeuf, but «cow» is vache. These dual version words later formed the basis of the Middle English wordstock, and were eventually passed into the modern language.^[1]

In some cases, these dual variations are distant etymological twins, as in cow/beef, both from Proto-Indo-European *gʷōus, but in other cases, such as calf/veal, they come from distinct PIE roots.

Generally, words coming from French often retain a higher register than words of Anglo-Saxon origin, and are considered by some to be more elaborate, sophisticated, or pretentious. Compare drink (Anglo-Saxon) and beverage (French). However, this is not always the case: weep, groom and stone (from Anglo-Saxon) occupy a slightly higher register than cry, brush and rock (from French). Words taken directly from Latin and Ancient Greek are generally perceived as colder, more technical, and more medical or scientific – compare life (Anglo-Saxon) with biology (classical compound – a modern coinage created from Greek roots).

List of English words with dual Old English/Old French variations

Foods

Anglo-Saxon origin words	Old French origin words	Notes
Cow (Old English Cū)	Beef (Anglo-Norman Beof; Old French Boef)	[2]
Calf (Old English Cealf)	Veal (Anglo-Norman Vel; Old French Veel, Veal)	[2]
Swine (Old English Swīn), or Pig (Old English Picga)	Pork (Old French Porc)	[2]
Sheep (Old English Scēap)	Mutton (Old French Moton)	[2]
Hen (Old English Hen, Henn) / Chicken (Old English Cicen)	Poultry (Old French Pouletrie)	[2]
Deer (Old English Dēor)	Venison (Old Norman Venesoun)	[2]
Snail (Old English Snægl)	Escargot (Old Norman Escargot)
Dove (Old English Dūfe)	Pigeon (Old French Pijon)

Other words

Anglo-Saxon origin words	Old French origin words	Notes
Thinking, Mindful	Pensive	[3]
Kingly	Royal	[3]
Brotherly	Fraternal	[3]
Ask, Beseech	Enquire	[3]
Lord	Liege
Bring, Bear	Carry
Amaze, Stun	Astound
Fair, Fair-haired	Blond/Blonde
Ghost	Phantom
Uphold, Undergird, Upstay	Support
Smell, Stench	Odor
Hue, Blee	Colour
Blossom	Flower
Help, Bestand, Bestead	Aid, Abet, Assist
Buy	Purchase
Eld	Age
Belief	Faith
Wonder	Ponder
Selfhood	Identity
Sake	Reason, Cause
Weep, Sob	Cry
Knowledge	Science
Lawyer (A.S. lagu < O.N. lag)	Attorney
Shirt	Blouse
Deem	Consider, Judge
Harbour	Port
Hosen, Britches	Pants
Sunder	Sever
Answer	Reply, Response
Follow	Ensue
Athel	Noble
Atheling, Drighten	Prince
Fall, Harvest	Autumn
Stound	Hour
Burn	Broil
Leave	Permission
Note	Use, Utility
Seethe, Plaw	Boil
Hunt	Chase
Bookstaf, Bookstave	Letter
Wisdom	Prudence / Sagacity
Weird, Fremd	Strange
Behaviour	Manner
Uncouth	Rude
Owndom, Belongings	Property
Steven, Reard	Voice
Folk, Lede (Leod)	People
Forgive	Pardon
Darling	Favourite
Worthy	Valuable
Drought, Dearth	Famine
Wish, Will, Yearning, Longing	Desire
Span	Distance
Tumble	Somersault
Drink (noun + verb)	Beverage, Imbibe
Deal	Amount
Freedom	Liberty
Arm	Poor
Haven	Port
Brittle	Frail, fragile
Weak	Feeble, faint
Almighty	Omnipotent
Maidenhead, maidenhood	Virginity
Wild	Savage
Betrothal	Proposal
Kingship	Monarchy
Thorough, thoroughgoing	Exhaustive
Reckless	Intrepid
Awesome	Incredible
Tough	Difficult
Barrow	Mountain
Homesick	Nostalgia
Hopelessness	Despair
Wholesome, healthy, healthful	Salutary, salubrious
Aching	Painful
Daring, boldness	Audacity
Unwilling, loath	Reluctant
Wilful	Deliberate
Wont	Accustomed
Lovely, fair	Beautiful
Anger, wrath	Ire
Angry, wrathful	Ireful
Bloodthirsty	Sanguinary
Woodwork	Carpintery
Frith	Peace
Frithful	Peaceful
Warmongering	Belligerent
Deathly	Lethal, mortal
Forgiving	Indulgent
Ruth	Piety
Weird	Strange
Stern	Severe
Foe	Enemy
Friendly	Amicable
Inn	Tavern
Woodland	Forest
To rue	To lament, to regret
Rueful	Regretful
Ruthless	Remorseless
Weapon	Arm
Grave	Tomb
Graveyard	Cemetery
Hue	Colour
Outspoken, straighforward	Honest, frank

See also

• Lists of English loanwords by country or language of origin
• List of English words of French origin
• List of Germanic and Latinate equivalents in English

References

We tend to take the words we speak for granted. In the same way that the branch of a tree divides into smaller and smaller branches, so words that we use today have derived from other earlier words. There is a whole science out there of how language developed and of the influence of early languages – such as Germanic languages, the languages spoken by the Vikings, the Saxons and the French. In addition, don’t forget that many words also have Latin roots. While the information that follows is by no means exhaustive, it will help to provide a few ideas about how place names in London came about.

In the alphabetical list of words below, examples of place names in London follow the explanation. In several cases, there are only examples that are ‘Not in London’ and some examples are provided in square brackets to complete the picture.

burh (Old English) – fortified town (modern word – borough). Hence – Borough (which is part of Southwark).

burn (Old English) – stream (also spelt ‘bourne’ today). Hence – Marylebone.

bury (Anglo Saxon) – fortified place. Not in London – Bury St Edmunds.

by (Danish) – village. These ‘by’ endings are generally places where the Vikings settled first. The ending ‘by’ has passed into English as ‘by-law’ meaning the local law of the town or village. [Not in London – Derby, Enderby, Grimsby].

caster (Saxon ‘coaster’) – original from Latin ‘castra’ meaning a camp. It came to mean a Roman fort or town. [Not in London – Chichester, Rochester, Chester, Colchester].

clop – a short hill. Hence – Clapham, Clapton.

combe (Old English) – small valley. Hence – Westcombe. [Not in London – Babbacombe].

den / dean / dene – pasture, usually for pigs. [Not in London – Tenterden].

dun (Old English) – hill (hence the modern word ‘dune’).

ey / ea (Saxon ‘eg’ – island or promontory. (It could also mean an area of dry land surrounded by marshy land).

ford (Old English) – shallow river crossing. Hence – Deptford.

ham (Old English) – village. Hence – Eltham, Hampstead.

hamm – enclosure within the bend of a river. Hence – Hammersmith.

holt (Old English) – wood.

hurst – wooded hill.

leigh / lee / ley – clearing in a wood or forest. Hence – Lee.

mer / mar / mere – lake. [Not in London – Windermere].

pen (Usually in Cornish names) – headland.

stoc / stoke (Old English) – a hamlet or little settlement which depended on a larger settlement nearby / outlying farm. The Danish word ‘thorpe’ meant the same thing.

stoc (Saxon) – a wood. Hence – Stoke Newington.

strand (Old English, originally Danish) – path beside water. Hence – Strand (a road in Westminster).

thorpe (Old Norse) – village / farmstead. Place names ending in ‘thorpe’ are connected with secondary settlement in England by the Vikings. They were settlements on the margins of a town or on poor lands. [Not in London – Scunthorpe].

thwaite – derived from a Scandinavian word, which meant clearing.

ton / tun – enclosed village / farmstead / manor. Hence – Islington.

wick / wich (Old English – originally ‘wic’) – relates to a farm / enclosure / farmstead / village. Hence – Greenwich, Woolwich, Hackney Wick.

worth (Old English) – fenced land / enclosed settlement (by a wall or wooden stakes). Hence – Walworth.

Everyday Words Derived from Old English

While on the subject of Anglo-Saxon names, here are a list of everyday words that are in common use which all owe their origins to Old English words. Old English developed into Middle English, then Early Modern English and then into the Modern English we speak today. English words from Anglo-Saxon tend to be short (either one or two syllables).
They relate to topics such as the human body, animals, farming, the weather, family relationships, colours, landscape features, and human activities such as cooking, eating, sewing, hunting and carpentry. A typical list is given below.

A – abide, above, ale, alive, apple, awake, axe

B – back, bath, bed, bird, blood, body, brother

C – can, carve, chicken, child, clean, cold, cup

D – daft, daughter, dead, deer, door, drink, dusk

E – each, ear, elbow, end, evening, evil, eye

F – fair, fall, feather, find, fish, fox, friend

G – game, gate, god, gold, good, ground, green

H – hammer, harbour, hand, high, honey, house, husband

I – I, ice, if, in, island, it, itch

K – keen, keep, kind, king, kiss, knife, knot

L – ladle, land, laugh, lip, listen, long, love

M – make, man, marsh, meadow, milk, moon, mouth

N – nail, name, needle, nest, night, now, nut

O – oak, of, on, old, open, orchard, owl

P – path, pin, pipe, plant, plough, poppy, pretty

Q – queen, quick

R – rag, rain, rat, read, ride, right, rock

S – say, see, send, shadow, sheep, sister, sword

T – take, thank, thimble, thirst, thumb, today, tomorrow

U – udder, under, up, us

V – vat

W – wag, wake, walk, west, winter, woman, wrong

Y – yard, yarn, yawn, year, yes, yolk, you, young

-ENDS-

When you’re writing, you might not give much conscious thought to your word choice—but maybe you should. In linguistics, the fancy term for word choice is “diction,” and it can make a world of difference in your writing. If you read and write a lot, you likely have an innate sense of how diction affects the tone of a piece. However, paying closer attention to word choice can help you fine tune your writing, especially as you’re revising. An important aspect of diction to remember is, surprisingly, etymology—specifically, is the word Latinate or Anglo Saxon (Germanic) in origin?

A Brief History of the English Language

Before looking at how diction affects the quality of your writing, you should understand how the English language developed. English is famous for its seemingly illogical idiosyncrasies—there often seems to be no rhyme or reason behind English spelling and grammar rules.  

You can find the explanation for these oddities in English’s unique history. Despite all those Spanish, French, or Latin cognates you learned in high school, English is a Germanic language. However, Old English has more in common with modern German than with modern English, thanks to the Norman invasion of England.

Norman (French) Influence

In 1066, at the Battle of Hastings, WIlliam the Conqueror secured a crucial victory over the Anglo Saxons. As a result, the Norman invaders became the new ruling class in England. With this shift in power, the Norman language, an early version of French, became the language of the upper classes. The lower classes, however, continued to speak their native Old English.

Over hundreds of years, the Norman French of the upper classes and the Old English of the lower classes merged to create Middle English. English suddenly had many words with French (and therefore also Latin) origins that shared similar meanings to words with Anglo Saxon origins. Here are some examples:

Anglo Saxon	Latinate
Cow	Beef
Sheep	Mutton
Freedom	Liberty

Renaissance Influence

Later, during the Renaissance, the highly educated preferred Latin to English. As a result, many Latin words and grammar rules bled into English. Did your teachers tell you to never end a sentence with a preposition? Or to never split an infinitive? These “rules” are examples of Latin grammar rules being applied to English.

Impact on Modern English

How does all this linguistic history affect modern English? The educated and the upper class used French and Latin, so intellectuals and those in higher social classes were more likely to understand French and Latin borrowings. As a result, Latinate words took on more high-brow, abstract, intellectual meanings.

The lower classes had little education and low social standing and were more likely to use words with Anglo Saxon origins. Consequently, people associated English’s native Anglo Saxon vocabulary with more concrete, down-to-earth ideas. In many cases, Old English came to be seen as crude or socially inappropriate. For example, most words people consider curse words in modern English have Anglo Saxon origins.

How Does English’s History Affect Writing?

Modern English has borrowed extensively from many languages. Consequently, good, natural-sounding writing should use words with a variety of etymological origins. In fact, roughly 60% of modern English vocabulary comes from Latin or French, and only around 25% retains a Germanic origin. However, you can significantly change the tone and readability of a piece of writing simply by altering the ratio of Latinate words to Germanic words.

When to Use Latinate or Germanic Vocabulary

Writing that’s too heavy on Latinate vocabulary can be hard to follow, and it’s often described with adjectives like “stuffy” and “dense”—just think about the language typically used in law textbooks. On the other end of the spectrum, writing that sticks to mostly Germanic vocabulary sounds very basic and plain, and it can easily become choppy—think about children’s books like Fun With Dick and Jane.

It’s also important to keep your audience in mind. Do you write to an educated audience or about scientific topics? If so, use more Latin vocabulary. Your audience will expect it (and will judge your writing negatively without it). And most scientific vocabulary was, in fact, drawn exclusively from Latin, so there often aren’t Germanic equivalents for many scientific terms.

But if you write to a general audience, children, or less educated adults, your readers will benefit from Germanic words. Readers will find the simpler, more concrete meanings of Germanic words easier to understand, which will make your writing clearer and more relatable.

Consider the following sentence, which uses almost exclusively Latinate diction:

“The infant observed the immature canine consuming its repast.”

You’ll likely agree that this (admittedly extreme) example is more difficult to understand than the same sentence using words with Anglo Saxon origins:

“The baby watched the young dog eating its meal.”

If you’re ever in doubt, choosing Anglo Saxon words over Latinate words will usually help readers better understand your message. However, appropriately using Latinate words can help you subtly, or not-so-subtly, alter the connotation and tone of a piece. For instance, “eat” tends to have a more neutral definition, while “consume” generally implies that larger quantities of food are being eaten, or that the food is being eaten quickly. Appropriately adjusting your diction will allow you to paint a clearer picture for your audience.

How to Determine Word Origin

If you’re not sure how to identify the origins of a particular word, you can, of course, consult a dictionary. But there are also a few tricks you can use to guess the origins of a word on your own. Latinate words usually have multiple syllables, and their meanings tend to be more broad, abstract, or scientific. In contrast, words with Germanic origins are often monosyllabic, and their meanings are far more concrete, limited, and blunt. As an example, compare a word like “communicate,” which comes from the Latin communicatus, to the word “tell”, which comes from the Old English tellan. You’ll likely agree that the two can be synonymous, but not always, because “tell” has a far narrower, more direct definition than “communicate.”  

You probably won’t think about all of this when you’re drafting your next piece—and that’s totally fine! But the next time you’re working on revising a piece, pay a little more attention to your word choice. Is there a section that is overly complex, vague, or difficult to follow? Try replacing some Latinate words with Germanic synonyms. Is a particular section too simplistic, or is the flow a bit choppy? Use a few more Latinate words.

Diction is just one of many small adjustments that turn good writing into great writing. Unfortunately, it often doesn’t get the attention that it deserves. As you write and revise, keep this information in mind—you may be surprised at the polishing effect it has on your final piece!

Статья со списком Википедии

Этот список английских слов с двойным французским и англосаксонским вариантами перечисляет различные английские слова с повторяющимися заимствованиями. После норманского вторжения в Англию в 1066 году многие из более изысканных английских (англосаксонских ) слов, описывающих готовую продукцию, были заменены словами, заимствованными из Англо-нормандский (например, «говядина», готовая еда). Напротив, обычные незаконченные эквиваленты продолжали использовать родной английский термин (например, «корова», живое животное). Эту замену можно объяснить тем фактом, что в то время мясо было дорогим продуктом и что лорд и дворянин нормандского происхождения ели его чаще, чем простолюдины, которые разводили скот. Эта двойственность также отражена во французском языке, где «говядина» — это bœuf, а «корова» — это vache. Эти двойные слова позже легли в основу среднеанглийского словарного запаса и в конечном итоге были переданы в современный язык.

В некоторых случаях эти двойные варианты являются далекими этимологическими близнецами, как и корова / говядина, оба от протоиндоевропейского * gʷōus, но в других случаях, например, теленок / телятина, они происходят от разных корней ПИРОГ.

Как правило, слова французского происхождения часто сохраняют более высокий регистр , чем слова англосаксонского происхождения, и некоторые считают их более шикарными, замысловатыми, изощренными или претенциозными. Однако есть исключения: рыдание, жених и камень (от англосаксонского) занимают несколько более высокий регистр, чем крик, кисть и камень (от французского). Слова, взятые непосредственно из латыни и древнегреческого языка, обычно воспринимаются как более холодные, более технические и медицинские или научные — сравните жизнь (англосаксонский) с биологией (классическое соединение — современная чеканка греческих корней).

Список английских слов с двойными вариантами староанглийского / старофранцузского

Еда:

слова англосаксонского происхождения	слова древнефранцузского происхождения	Примечания
корова (OE cū). вол (OE oxa)	говядина (AN beof; OF boef)
теленок (OE cealf)	телятина (AN vel; OF телятина, телятина)
свинья (OE swīn). свинья (OE picga)	свинина (OF porc)
овца (OE scēap)	баранина (OF moton)
курица (OE henn, henn). курица (OE cicen)	домашняя птица (OF pouletrie)
олень (OE dēor). hart (OE heorot)	оленина (AN venesoun)
улитка (OE snægl)	улитка (AN escargot)
голубь (OE dūfe)	голубь (OF pijon)

Другие слова:

слова англосаксонского происхождения	слова древнефранцузского происхождения	примечания
мыслящий, внимательный	задумчивый
царственный	царственный
всемогущий	всемогущий
братский	братский
мес. далее	по материнской линии
по отцовской	по отцовской
сестринской	сороральной
спроси, умоляй	спроси
господин	сеньор
принести, медведь	неси
поразить, оглушить	удивить
словарик	словарь
светлый, светловолосый	блондин (e)
призрак	фантом, дух
опора, подпоясник, апстэй	опора
запах, зловоние	запах
оттенок, кровотечение	цвет
цветок	цветок
помогите, лучше и лучше	помогите, помогите, помогите
купите	приобрести
вера	вера
чудо	задуматься
самость	личность
ради, основание	причина, причина
рыдать, рыдать	плакать
знание	наука
юрист	адвокат
раб	крепостной, пленник
сердечный	сердечный
считайте	рассмотрите, судите
гавань, гавань	порт
сандер	север
ответ	ответ, ответ
следовать	следовать
осень, урожай	осень
отпуск	разрешение
se ethe, plaw	boil
hunt	chase
мудрость	рассудительность, сообразительность
странно, fremd	странно
поведение	манера
неотесанный	грубый
владение, имущество	имущество
народ, леде (леод)	люди
прости	прости
любимый	любимый
достойный	ценный
засуха, голод	голод
желание, воля, тоска, тоска, желание (глагол)	желание (глагол и существительное)
промежуток	расстояние
падение	сальто
пить (существительное + глагол)	пить, впитывать
сделка	количество
свобода	свобода
хрупкий	хрупкий, хрупкий
слабый	слабый, слабый
дикий	дикарь
обручение	предложение
царство	монархия
предок, праотец	предок
безрассудный	бесстрашный
потрясающий, невероятный	невероятный
жесткий	сложный
тоска по дому	ностальгия
безнадежность	отчаяние
здоровый, здоровый, исцеляющий thful	целительный, целительный
больной	болезненный
дерзость, смелость	дерзость
нежелание, ненависть	упорство
умышленный	умышленный
привычный	привык
прекрасный, прекрасный	красивый
гнев, гнев	ярость, ярость
злой, гневный	гневный
кровожадный	кровавый
изделия из дерева	столярное дело
поджигание войны	воинственный
смертоносный	смертельный, смертный
прощающий	снисходительный
соблюдайте, признавайте	подчиняйтесь, подчиняйтесь, наблюдайте
суровый	суровый
враг	враг
дружественный	дружелюбный
трактир	таверна
лес, лес	лес
на рю	оплакивать, сожалеть
горестный	сожалеть
безжалостный	безжалостный
оружие	рука
могила	могила
кладбище	кладбище
откровенный, прямой	честный, откровенный
зеленый	зеленый
змея	змей
огонь	пламя
повар (существительное)	повар
дом	особняк
потомство	потомство
жить, жить, жить	проживать
думать	зачать
книжное дело	литература
близнец	двойной
предсказать	предсказать
оставить	выход, выход, уход
живот	желудок
понять	понять
смехотворно	смешно
потребности	требования
обезглавить	обезглавить
запретить, запретить	запретить
подарок	представить
мысли	идеи
жениться	жениться
конец	отделка
комната	камера
камень	рок
жених	кисть
висит	кулон
телесный	капрал
пришел	прибыл
собака	собачий
девственность	девственность
победа (существительное)	победа
цитадель	форт, крепость
граф	граф

Слова, ныне устаревшие, архаичные или диалектные:

слова англосаксонского происхождения	слова древнефранцузского происхождения	примечания
eld	age
hosen, britches	pant s
athel	благородный
atheling, друйт	принц
стоунд	час
ожог	жарить
примечание	использование, полезность
книжный посох, книжный посох	буква
стивен, верд	голос
курган	гора
фрит	мир
рут	жалость
рука, бесполезность	бедняк
армт	бедность
огонь	преступление
eam	дядя

См. также

• Списки английских заимствованных слов по стране или языку происхождения
• Список английских слов французского происхождения
• Изменения в староанглийском словаре
• Список Германские и латинские эквиваленты на английском языке

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