Word origin of philosophy

Philosophy (from Greek: φιλοσοφία, philosophia, ‘love of wisdom’)^[1][2] is the systematized study of general and fundamental questions, such as those about existence, reason, knowledge, values, mind, and language.^{[3][4][5][6][7]} Some sources claim the term was coined by Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BCE),^[8][9] although this theory is disputed by some.^[10][11][12] Philosophical methods include questioning, critical discussion, rational argument, and systematic presentation.^[13][14][i]

Historically, philosophy encompassed all bodies of knowledge and a practitioner was known as a philosopher.^[15] «Natural philosophy», which began as a discipline in ancient India and Ancient Greece, encompasses astronomy, medicine, and physics.^[16][17] For example, Isaac Newton’s 1687 Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy later became classified as a book of physics. In the 19th century, the growth of modern research universities led academic philosophy and other disciplines to professionalize and specialize.^[18][19] Since then, various areas of investigation that were traditionally part of philosophy have become separate academic disciplines, and namely the social sciences such as psychology, sociology, linguistics, and economics.

Today, major subfields of academic philosophy include metaphysics, which is concerned with the fundamental nature of existence and reality; epistemology, which studies the nature of knowledge and belief; ethics, which is concerned with moral value; and logic, which studies the rules of inference that allow one to derive conclusions from true premises.^[20][21] Other notable subfields include philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, political philosophy, aesthetics, philosophy of language, and philosophy of mind.

Definitions

There is wide agreement that philosophy (from the ancient Greek φίλος, phílos: «love»; and σοφία, sophía: «wisdom»)^[22] is characterized by various general features: it is a form of rational inquiry, it aims to be systematic, and it tends to critically reflect on its own methods and presuppositions.^[23][24][25] But approaches that go beyond such vague characterizations to give a more interesting or profound definition are usually controversial.^[24][25] Often, they are only accepted by theorists belonging to a certain philosophical movement and are revisionistic in that many presumed parts of philosophy would not deserve the title «philosophy» if they were true.^[26][27] Before the modern age, the term was used in a very wide sense, which included the individual sciences, like physics or mathematics, as its sub-disciplines, but the contemporary usage is more narrow.^[25][28][29]

Some approaches argue that there is a set of essential features shared by all parts of philosophy while others see only weaker family resemblances or contend that it is merely an empty blanket term.^[30][27][31] Some definitions characterize philosophy in relation to its method, like pure reasoning. Others focus more on its topic, for example, as the study of the biggest patterns of the world as a whole or as the attempt to answer the big questions.^[27][32][33] Both approaches have the problem that they are usually either too wide, by including non-philosophical disciplines, or too narrow, by excluding some philosophical sub-disciplines.^[27] Many definitions of philosophy emphasize its intimate relation to science.^[25] In this sense, philosophy is sometimes understood as a proper science in its own right. Some naturalist approaches, for example, see philosophy as an empirical yet very abstract science that is concerned with very wide-ranging empirical patterns instead of particular observations.^[27][34] Some phenomenologists, on the other hand, characterize philosophy as the science of essences.^[26][35][36] Science-based definitions usually face the problem of explaining why philosophy in its long history has not made the type of progress as seen in other sciences.^[27][37][38] This problem is avoided by seeing philosophy as an immature or provisional science whose subdisciplines cease to be philosophy once they have fully developed.^[25][30][35] In this sense, philosophy is the midwife of the sciences.^[25]

Other definitions focus more on the contrast between science and philosophy. A common theme among many such definitions is that philosophy is concerned with meaning, understanding, or the clarification of language.^[32][27] According to one view, philosophy is conceptual analysis, which involves finding the necessary and sufficient conditions for the application of concepts.^[33][27][39] Another defines philosophy as a linguistic therapy that aims at dispelling misunderstandings to which humans are susceptible due to the confusing structure of natural language.^[26][25][40] One more approach holds that the main task of philosophy is to articulate the pre-ontological understanding of the world, which acts as a condition of possibility of experience.^[27][41][42]

Many other definitions of philosophy do not clearly fall into any of the aforementioned categories. An early approach already found in ancient Greek and Roman philosophy is that philosophy is the spiritual practice of developing one’s reasoning ability.^[43][44] This practice is an expression of the philosopher’s love of wisdom and has the aim of improving one’s well-being by leading a reflective life.^[45] A closely related approach identifies the development and articulation of worldviews as the principal task of philosophy, i.e. to express how things on the grand scale hang together and which practical stance we should take towards them.^[27][23][46] Another definition characterizes philosophy as thinking about thinking in order to emphasize its reflective nature.^[27][33]

Historical overview

In one general sense, philosophy is associated with wisdom, intellectual culture, and a search for knowledge. In this sense, all cultures and literate societies ask philosophical questions, such as «how are we to live» and «what is the nature of reality». A broad and impartial conception of philosophy, then, finds a reasoned inquiry into such matters as reality, morality, and life in all world civilizations.^[47]

Western philosophy

Western philosophy is the philosophical tradition of the Western world, dating back to pre-Socratic thinkers who were active in 6th-century Greece (BCE), such as Thales (c. 624 – c. 545 BCE) and Pythagoras (c. 570 – c. 495 BCE) who practiced a «love of wisdom» (Latin: philosophia)^[48] and were also termed «students of nature» (physiologoi).

Western philosophy can be divided into three eras:

1. Ancient (Greco-Roman).
2. Medieval philosophy (referring to Christian European thought).
3. Modern philosophy (beginning in the 17th century).

Ancient era

While our knowledge of the ancient era begins with Thales in the 6th century BCE, little is known about the philosophers who came before Socrates (commonly known as the pre-Socratics). The ancient era was dominated by Greek philosophical schools. Most notable among the schools influenced by Socrates’ teachings were Plato, who founded the Platonic Academy, and his student Aristotle, who founded the Peripatetic school.^[49] Other ancient philosophical traditions influenced by Socrates included Cynicism, Cyrenaicism, Stoicism, and Academic Skepticism. Two other traditions were influenced by Socrates’ contemporary, Democritus: Pyrrhonism and Epicureanism. Important topics covered by the Greeks included metaphysics (with competing theories such as atomism and monism), cosmology, the nature of the well-lived life (eudaimonia), the possibility of knowledge, and the nature of reason (logos). With the rise of the Roman empire, Greek philosophy was increasingly discussed in Latin by Romans such as Cicero and Seneca (see Roman philosophy).^[50]

Medieval era

Medieval philosophy (5th–16th centuries) took place during the period following the fall of the Western Roman Empire and was dominated by the rise of Christianity; it hence reflects Judeo-Christian theological concerns while also retaining a continuity with Greco-Roman thought. Problems such as the existence and nature of God, the nature of faith and reason, metaphysics, and the problem of evil were discussed in this period. Some key medieval thinkers include Augustine, Thomas Aquinas, Boethius, Anselm and Roger Bacon. Philosophy for these thinkers was viewed as an aid to theology (ancilla theologiae), and hence they sought to align their philosophy with their interpretation of sacred scripture. This period saw the development of scholasticism, a text critical method developed in medieval universities based on close reading and disputation on key texts. The Renaissance period saw increasing focus on classic Greco-Roman thought and on a robust humanism.^[51]

Modern era

Early modern philosophy in the Western world begins with thinkers such as Thomas Hobbes and René Descartes (1596–1650).^[52] Following the rise of natural science, modern philosophy was concerned with developing a secular and rational foundation for knowledge and moved away from traditional structures of authority such as religion, scholastic thought and the Church. Major modern philosophers include Spinoza, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley, Hume, and Kant.

19th-century philosophy (sometimes called late modern philosophy) was influenced by the wider 18th-century movement termed «the Enlightenment», and includes figures such as Hegel, a key figure in German idealism; Kierkegaard, who developed the foundations for existentialism; Thomas Carlyle, representative of the great man theory; Nietzsche, a famed anti-Christian; John Stuart Mill, who promoted utilitarianism; Karl Marx, who developed the foundations for communism; and the American William James. The 20th century saw the split between analytic philosophy and continental philosophy, as well as philosophical trends such as phenomenology, existentialism, logical positivism, pragmatism and the linguistic turn (see Contemporary philosophy).^[53]

Middle Eastern philosophy

Pre-Islamic philosophy

The regions of the Fertile Crescent, Iran and Arabia are home to the earliest known philosophical wisdom literature.^{[citation needed]}

According to the assyriologist Marc Van de Mieroop, Babylonian philosophy was a highly developed system of thought with a unique approach to knowledge and a focus on writing, lexicography, divination, and law.^[54] It was also a bilingual intellectual culture, based on Sumerian and Akkadian.^[55]

Early Wisdom literature from the Fertile Crescent was a genre that sought to instruct people on ethical action, practical living, and virtue through stories and proverbs. In Ancient Egypt, these texts were known as sebayt (‘teachings’), and they are central to our understandings of Ancient Egyptian philosophy. The most well known of these texts is The Maxims of Ptahhotep.^[56] Theology and cosmology were central concerns in Egyptian thought. Perhaps the earliest form of a monotheistic theology also emerged in Egypt, with the rise of the Amarna theology (or Atenism) of Akhenaten (14th century BCE), which held that the solar creation deity Aten was the only god. This has been described as a «monotheistic revolution» by egyptologist Jan Assmann, though it also drew on previous developments in Egyptian thought, particularly the «New Solar Theology» based around Amun-Ra.^[57][58] These theological developments also influenced the post-Amarna Ramesside theology, which retained a focus on a single creative solar deity (though without outright rejection of other gods, which are now seen as manifestations of the main solar deity). This period also saw the development of the concept of the ba (soul) and its relation to god.^[58]

Jewish philosophy and Christian philosophy are religious-philosophical traditions that developed both in the Middle East and in Europe, which both share certain early Judaic texts (mainly the Tanakh) and monotheistic beliefs. Jewish thinkers such as the Geonim of the Talmudic Academies in Babylonia and Maimonides engaged with Greek and Islamic philosophy. Later Jewish philosophy came under strong Western intellectual influences and includes the works of Moses Mendelssohn who ushered in the Haskalah (the Jewish Enlightenment), Jewish existentialism, and Reform Judaism.^[59][60]

The various traditions of Gnosticism, which were influenced by both Greek and Abrahamic currents, originated around the first century and emphasized spiritual knowledge (gnosis).^[61]

Pre-Islamic Iranian philosophy begins with the work of Zoroaster, one of the first promoters of monotheism and of the dualism between good and evil.^[62] This dualistic cosmogony influenced later Iranian developments such as Manichaeism, Mazdakism, and Zurvanism.^[63][64]

Islamic philosophy

Islamic philosophy is the philosophical work originating in the Islamic tradition and is mostly done in Arabic. It draws from the religion of Islam as well as from Greco-Roman philosophy. After the Muslim conquests, the translation movement (mid-eighth to the late tenth century) resulted in the works of Greek philosophy becoming available in Arabic.^[65]

Early Islamic philosophy developed the Greek philosophical traditions in new innovative directions. This intellectual work inaugurated what is known as the Islamic Golden Age. The two main currents of early Islamic thought are Kalam, which focuses on Islamic theology, and Falsafa, which was based on Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism. The work of Aristotle was very influential among philosophers such as Al-Kindi (9th century), Avicenna (980 – June 1037), and Averroes (12th century). Others such as Al-Ghazali were highly critical of the methods of the Islamic Aristotelians and saw their metaphysical ideas as heretical. Islamic thinkers like Ibn al-Haytham and Al-Biruni also developed a scientific method, experimental medicine, a theory of optics, and a legal philosophy. Ibn Khaldun was an influential thinker in philosophy of history.

Islamic thought also deeply influenced European intellectual developments, especially through the commentaries of Averroes on Aristotle. The Mongol invasions and the destruction of Baghdad in 1258 are often seen as marking the end of the Golden Age.^[66] Several schools of Islamic philosophy continued to flourish after the Golden Age, however, and include currents such as Illuminationist philosophy, Sufi philosophy, and Transcendent theosophy.

The 19th- and 20th-century Arab world saw the Nahda movement (literally meaning ‘The Awakening’; also known as the ‘Arab Renaissance’), which had a considerable influence on contemporary Islamic philosophy.

Eastern philosophy

Indian philosophy

Indian philosophy (Sanskrit: darśana, lit. ‘point of view’, ‘perspective’)^[69] refers to the diverse philosophical traditions that emerged since the ancient times on the Indian subcontinent. Indian philosophy chiefly considers epistemology, theories of consciousness and theories of mind, and the physical properties of reality. ^{[70] [71] [72]} Indian philosophical traditions share various key concepts and ideas, which are defined in different ways and accepted or rejected by the different traditions. These include concepts such as dhárma, karma, pramāṇa, duḥkha, saṃsāra and mokṣa.^[73][74]

Some of the earliest surviving Indian philosophical texts are the Upanishads of the later Vedic period (1000–500 BCE), which are considered to preserve the ideas of Brahmanism. Indian philosophical traditions are commonly grouped according to their relationship to the Vedas and the ideas contained in them. Jainism and Buddhism originated at the end of the Vedic period, while the various traditions grouped under Hinduism mostly emerged after the Vedic period as independent traditions. Hindus generally classify Indian philosophical traditions as either orthodox (āstika) or heterodox (nāstika) depending on whether they accept the authority of the Vedas and the theories of brahman and ātman found therein.^[75][76]

The schools which align themselves with the thought of the Upanishads, the so-called «orthodox» or «Hindu» traditions, are often classified into six darśanas or philosophies:Sānkhya, Yoga, Nyāya, Vaisheshika, Mimāmsā and Vedānta.^[77]

The doctrines of the Vedas and Upanishads were interpreted differently by these six schools of Hindu philosophy, with varying degrees of overlap. They represent a «collection of philosophical views that share a textual connection», according to Chadha (2015).^[78] They also reflect a tolerance for a diversity of philosophical interpretations within Hinduism while sharing the same foundation.^[ii]

Hindu philosophers of the six orthodox schools developed systems of epistemology (pramana) and investigated topics such as metaphysics, ethics, psychology (guṇa), hermeneutics, and soteriology within the framework of the Vedic knowledge, while presenting a diverse collection of interpretations.^{[79][80][81][82]} The commonly named six orthodox schools were the competing philosophical traditions of what has been called the «Hindu synthesis» of classical Hinduism.^{[83][84]
[85]}

There are also other schools of thought which are often seen as «Hindu», though not necessarily orthodox (since they may accept different scriptures as normative, such as the Shaiva Agamas and Tantras), these include different schools of Shavism such as Pashupata, Shaiva Siddhanta, non-dual tantric Shavism (i.e. Trika, Kaula, etc.).^[86]

The «Hindu» and «Orthodox» traditions are often contrasted with the «unorthodox» traditions (nāstika, literally «those who reject»), though this is a label that is not used by the «unorthodox» schools themselves. These traditions reject the Vedas as authoritative and often reject major concepts and ideas that are widely accepted by the orthodox schools (such as Ātman, Brahman, and Īśvara).^[87] These unorthodox schools include Jainism (accepts ātman but rejects Īśvara, Vedas and Brahman), Buddhism (rejects all orthodox concepts except rebirth and karma), Cārvāka (materialists who reject even rebirth and karma) and Ājīvika (known for their doctrine of fate).^[87][88][89]<^{[90][91][iii][92][93]}

Jain philosophy is one of the only two surviving «unorthodox» traditions (along with Buddhism). It generally accepts the concept of a permanent soul (jiva) as one of the five astikayas (eternal, infinite categories that make up the substance of existence). The other four being dhárma, adharma, ākāśa (‘space’), and pudgala (‘matter’). Jain thought holds that all existence is cyclic, eternal and uncreated.^[94][95]

Some of the most important elements of Jain philosophy are the Jain theory of karma, the doctrine of nonviolence (ahiṃsā) and the theory of «many-sidedness» or Anēkāntavāda. The Tattvartha Sutra is the earliest known, most comprehensive and authoritative compilation of Jain philosophy.^[96][97]

Major European Quantum Physicists, including Erwin Schrödinger, Werner Heisenberg, Albert Einstein, & Niels Bohr credit the Vedas with giving them the ideas for their experiments. ^[98]

Buddhist philosophy

Buddhist philosophy begins with the thought of Gautama Buddha (fl. between 6th and 4th century BCE) and is preserved in the early Buddhist texts. It originated in the Indian region of Magadha and later spread to the rest of the Indian subcontinent, East Asia, Tibet, Central Asia, and Southeast Asia. In these regions, Buddhist thought developed into different philosophical traditions which used various languages (like Tibetan, Chinese and Pali). As such, Buddhist philosophy is a trans-cultural and international phenomenon.

The dominant Buddhist philosophical traditions in East Asian nations are mainly based on Indian Mahayana Buddhism. The philosophy of the Theravada school is dominant in Southeast Asian countries like Sri Lanka, Burma and Thailand.

Because ignorance to the true nature of things is considered one of the roots of suffering (dukkha), Buddhist philosophy is concerned with epistemology, metaphysics, ethics and psychology. Buddhist philosophical texts must also be understood within the context of meditative practices which are supposed to bring about certain cognitive shifts.^[100] Key innovative concepts include the Four Noble Truths as an analysis of dukkha, anicca (impermanence), and anatta (non-self).^[iv][101]

After the death of the Buddha, various groups began to systematize his main teachings, eventually developing comprehensive philosophical systems termed Abhidharma.^[102] Following the Abhidharma schools, Indian Mahayana philosophers such as Nagarjuna and Vasubandhu developed the theories of śūnyatā (’emptiness of all phenomena’) and vijñapti-matra (‘appearance only’), a form of phenomenology or transcendental idealism. The Dignāga school of pramāṇa (‘means of knowledge’) promoted a sophisticated form of Buddhist epistemology.

There were numerous schools, sub-schools, and traditions of Buddhist philosophy in ancient and medieval India. According to Oxford professor of Buddhist philosophy Jan Westerhoff, the major Indian schools from 300 BCE to 1000 CE were:^[103] the Mahāsāṃghika tradition (now extinct), the Sthavira schools (such as Sarvāstivāda, Vibhajyavāda and Pudgalavāda) and the Mahayana schools. Many of these traditions were also studied in other regions, like Central Asia and China, having been brought there by Buddhist missionaries.

After the disappearance of Buddhism from India, some of these philosophical traditions continued to develop in the Tibetan Buddhist, East Asian Buddhist and Theravada Buddhist traditions.^[104][105]

East Asian philosophy

East Asian philosophical thought began in Ancient China, and Chinese philosophy begins during the Western Zhou Dynasty and the following periods after its fall when the «Hundred Schools of Thought» flourished (6th century to 221 BCE).^[106][107] This period was characterized by significant intellectual and cultural developments and saw the rise of the major philosophical schools of China such as Confucianism (also known as Ruism), Legalism, and Taoism as well as numerous other less influential schools like Mohism and Naturalism. These philosophical traditions developed metaphysical, political and ethical theories such Tao, Yin and yang, Ren and Li.

These schools of thought further developed during the Han (206 BCE – 220 CE) and Tang (618–907 CE) eras, forming new philosophical movements like Xuanxue (also called Neo-Taoism), and Neo-Confucianism. Neo-Confucianism was a syncretic philosophy, which incorporated the ideas of different Chinese philosophical traditions, including Buddhism and Taoism. Neo-Confucianism came to dominate the education system during the Song dynasty (960–1297), and its ideas served as the philosophical basis of the imperial exams for the scholar official class. Some of the most important Neo-Confucian thinkers are the Tang scholars Han Yu and Li Ao as well as the Song thinkers Zhou Dunyi (1017–1073) and Zhu Xi (1130–1200). Zhu Xi compiled the Confucian canon, which consists of the Four Books (the Great Learning, the Doctrine of the Mean, the Analects of Confucius, and the Mencius). The Ming scholar Wang Yangming (1472–1529) is a later but important philosopher of this tradition as well.

Buddhism began arriving in China during the Han Dynasty, through a gradual Silk road transmission,^[108] and through native influences developed distinct Chinese forms (such as Chan/Zen) which spread throughout the East Asian cultural sphere.

Chinese culture was highly influential on the traditions of other East Asian states, and its philosophy directly influenced Korean philosophy, Vietnamese philosophy and Japanese philosophy.^[109] During later Chinese dynasties like the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), as well as in the Korean Joseon dynasty (1392–1897), a resurgent Neo-Confucianism led by thinkers such as Wang Yangming (1472–1529) became the dominant school of thought and was promoted by the imperial state. In Japan, the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1867) was also strongly influenced by Confucian philosophy.^[110] Confucianism continues to influence the ideas and worldview of the nations of the Chinese cultural sphere today.

In the Modern era, Chinese thinkers incorporated ideas from Western philosophy. Chinese Marxist philosophy developed under the influence of Mao Zedong, while a Chinese pragmatism developed under Hu Shih. The old traditional philosophies also began to reassert themselves in the 20th century. For example, New Confucianism, led by figures such as Xiong Shili, has become quite influential. Likewise, Humanistic Buddhism is a recent modernist Buddhist movement.

Modern Japanese thought meanwhile developed under strong Western influences such as the study of Western Sciences (Rangaku) and the modernist Meirokusha intellectual society, which drew from European enlightenment thought and promoted liberal reforms as well as Western philosophies like Liberalism and Utilitarianism. Another trend in modern Japanese philosophy was the «National Studies» (Kokugaku) tradition. This intellectual trend sought to study and promote ancient Japanese thought and culture. Kokugaku thinkers such as Motoori Norinaga sought to return to a pure Japanese tradition which they called Shinto that they saw as untainted by foreign elements.

During the 20th century, the Kyoto School, an influential and unique Japanese philosophical school, developed from Western phenomenology and Medieval Japanese Buddhist philosophy such as that of Dogen.

African philosophy

African philosophy is philosophy produced by African people, philosophy that presents African worldviews, ideas and themes, or philosophy that uses distinct African philosophical methods. Modern African thought has been occupied with Ethnophilosophy, that is, defining the very meaning of African philosophy and its unique characteristics and what it means to be African.^[111]

During the 17th century, Ethiopian philosophy developed a robust literary tradition as exemplified by Zera Yacob. Another early African philosopher was Anton Wilhelm Amo (c. 1703–1759) who became a respected philosopher in Germany. Distinct African philosophical ideas include Ujamaa, the Bantu idea of ‘Force’, Négritude, Pan-Africanism and Ubuntu. Contemporary African thought has also seen the development of Professional philosophy and of Africana philosophy, the philosophical literature of the African diaspora which includes currents such as black existentialism by African-Americans. Some modern African thinkers have been influenced by Marxism, African-American literature, Critical theory, Critical race theory, Postcolonialism and Feminism.

Indigenous American philosophy

Indigenous-American philosophical thought consists of a wide variety of beliefs and traditions among different American cultures. Among some of U.S. Native American communities, there is a belief in a metaphysical principle called the ‘Great Spirit’ (Siouan: wakȟáŋ tȟáŋka; Algonquian: gitche manitou). Another widely shared concept was that of orenda (‘spiritual power’). According to Whiteley (1998), for the Native Americans, «mind is critically informed by transcendental experience (dreams, visions and so on) as well as by reason.»^[112] The practices to access these transcendental experiences are termed shamanism. Another feature of the indigenous American worldviews was their extension of ethics to non-human animals and plants.^[112][113]
In Mesoamerica, Nahua philosophy was an intellectual tradition developed by individuals called tlamatini (‘those who know something’)^[114] and its ideas are preserved in various Aztec codices and fragmentary texts. Some of these philosophers are known by name, such as Nezahualcoyotl, Aquiauhtzin, Xayacamach, Tochihuitzin coyolchiuhqui and Cuauhtencoztli.^[115][116] These authors were also poets and some of their work has survived in the original Nahuatl.^[115][116]

Aztec philosophers developed theories of metaphysics, epistemology, values, and aesthetics. Aztec ethics was focused on seeking tlamatiliztli (‘knowledge’, ‘wisdom’) which was based on moderation and balance in all actions as in the Nahua proverb «the middle good is necessary».^[117] The Nahua worldview posited the concept of an ultimate universal energy or force called Ōmeteōtl (‘Dual Cosmic Energy’) which sought a way to live in balance with a constantly changing, «slippery» world. The theory of Teotl can be seen as a form of Pantheism.^[117] According to James Maffie, Nahua metaphysics posited that teotl is «a single, vital, dynamic, vivifying, eternally self-generating and self-conceiving as well as self-regenerating and self-reconceiving sacred energy or force».^[116] This force was seen as the all-encompassing life force of the universe and as the universe itself.^[116]

The Inca civilization also had an elite class of philosopher-scholars termed the amawtakuna or amautas who were important in the Inca education system as teachers of philosophy, theology, astronomy, poetry, law, music, morality and history.^[118][119] Young Inca nobles were educated in these disciplines at the state college of Yacha-huasi in Cuzco, where they also learned the art of the quipu.^[118] Incan philosophy (as well as the broader category of Andean thought) held that the universe is animated by a single dynamic life force (sometimes termed camaquen or camac, as well as upani and amaya).^[120] This singular force also arises as a set of dual complementary yet opposite forces.^[120] These «complementary opposites» are called yanantin and masintin. They are expressed as various polarities or dualities (such as male–female, dark–light, life and death, above and below) which interdependently contribute to the harmonious whole that is the universe through the process of reciprocity and mutual exchange called ayni.^[121][120] The Inca worldview also included the belief in a creator God (Viracocha) and reincarnation.^[119]

Branches of philosophy

Philosophical questions can be grouped into various branches. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions.

These divisions are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. (A philosopher might specialize in Kantian epistemology, or Platonic aesthetics, or modern political philosophy). Furthermore, these philosophical inquiries sometimes overlap with each other and with other inquiries such as science, religion or mathematics.^[122]

Aesthetics

Aesthetics is the «critical reflection on art, culture and nature».^[123][124] It addresses the nature of art, beauty and taste, enjoyment, emotional values, perception and the creation and appreciation of beauty.^[125] It is more precisely defined as the study of sensory or sensori-emotional values, sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste.^[126] Its major divisions are art theory, literary theory, film theory and music theory. An example from art theory is to discern the set of principles underlying the work of a particular artist or artistic movement such as the Cubist aesthetic.^[127]

Ethics

Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, studies what constitutes good and bad conduct, right and wrong values, and good and evil. Its primary investigations include exploring how to live a good life and identifying standards of morality. It also includes investigating whether there is a best way to live or a universal moral standard, and if so, how we come to learn about it. The main branches of ethics are normative ethics, meta-ethics and applied ethics.^[129]

The three main views in ethics about what constitute moral actions are:^[129]

• Consequentialism, which judges actions based on their consequences.^[130] One such view is utilitarianism, which judges actions based on the net happiness (or pleasure) and/or lack of suffering (or pain) that they produce.
• Deontology, which judges actions based on whether they are in accordance with one’s moral duty.^[130] In the standard form defended by Immanuel Kant, deontology is concerned with whether a choice respects the moral agency of other people, regardless of its consequences.^[130]
• Virtue ethics, which judges actions based on the moral character of the agent who performs them and whether they conform to what an ideally virtuous agent would do.^[130]

Epistemology

Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge.^[131] Epistemologists examine putative sources of knowledge, including perceptual experience, reason, memory, and testimony. They also investigate questions about the nature of truth, belief, justification, and rationality.^[132]

Philosophical skepticism, which raises doubts about some or all claims to knowledge, has been a topic of interest throughout the history of philosophy. It arose early in Pre-Socratic philosophy and became formalized with Pyrrho, the founder of the earliest Western school of philosophical skepticism. It features prominently in the works of modern philosophers René Descartes and David Hume and has remained a central topic in contemporary epistemological debates.^[132]

One of the most notable epistemological debates is between empiricism and rationalism.^[133] Empiricism places emphasis on observational evidence via sensory experience as the source of knowledge.^[133] Empiricism is associated with a posteriori knowledge, which is obtained through experience (such as scientific knowledge).^[133] Rationalism places emphasis on reason as a source of knowledge.^[133] Rationalism is associated with a priori knowledge, which is independent of experience (such as logic and mathematics).

One central debate in contemporary epistemology is about the conditions required for a belief to constitute knowledge, which might include truth and justification. This debate was largely the result of attempts to solve the Gettier problem.^[132] Another common subject of contemporary debates is the regress problem, which occurs when trying to offer proof or justification for any belief, statement, or proposition. The problem is that whatever the source of justification may be, that source must either be without justification (in which case it must be treated as an arbitrary foundation for belief), or it must have some further justification (in which case justification must either be the result of circular reasoning, as in coherentism, or the result of an infinite regress, as in infinitism).^[132]

Metaphysics

Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of reality, such as existence, time, objects and their properties, wholes and their parts, events, processes and causation and the relationship between mind and body.^[134] Metaphysics includes cosmology, the study of the world in its entirety and ontology, the study of being, along with the philosophy of space and time.

A major point of debate is between realism, which holds that there are entities that exist independently of their mental perception, and idealism, which holds that reality is mentally constructed or otherwise immaterial. Metaphysics deals with the topic of identity. Essence is the set of attributes that make an object what it fundamentally is and without which it loses its identity, while accident is a property that the object has, without which the object can still retain its identity. Particulars are objects that are said to exist in space and time, as opposed to abstract objects, such as numbers, and universals, which are properties held by multiple particulars, such as redness or a gender. The type of existence, if any, of universals and abstract objects is an issue of debate.

Logic

Logic is the study of reasoning and argument.

Deductive reasoning is when, given certain premises, conclusions are unavoidably implied.^[135] Rules of inference are used to infer conclusions such as, modus ponens, where given «A» and «If A then B», then «B» must be concluded.

Because sound reasoning is an essential element of all sciences,^[136] social sciences and humanities disciplines, logic became a formal science. Sub-fields include mathematical logic, philosophical logic, modal logic, computational logic and non-classical logics. A major question in the philosophy of mathematics is whether mathematical entities are objective and discovered, called mathematical realism, or invented, called mathematical antirealism.

Mind and language

Philosophy of language explores the nature, origins, and use of language. Philosophy of mind explores the nature of the mind and its relationship to the body, as typified by disputes between materialism and dualism. In recent years, this branch has become related to cognitive science.

Philosophy of science

The philosophy of science explores the foundations, methods, history, implications and purpose of science. Many of its subdivisions correspond to specific branches of science. For example, philosophy of biology deals specifically with the metaphysical, epistemological and ethical issues in the biomedical and life sciences.

Political philosophy

Political philosophy is the study of government and the relationship of individuals (or families and clans) to communities including the state. It includes questions about justice, law, property and the rights and obligations of the citizen. Political philosophy, ethics, and aesthetics are traditionally linked subjects, under the general heading of value theory as they involve a normative or evaluative aspect.^[137]

Philosophy of religion

Philosophy of religion deals with questions that involve religion and religious ideas from a philosophically neutral perspective (as opposed to theology which begins from religious convictions).^[138] Traditionally, religious questions were not seen as a separate field from philosophy proper, and the idea of a separate field only arose in the 19th century.^[v]

Issues include the existence of God, the relationship between reason and faith, questions of religious epistemology, the relationship between religion and science, how to interpret religious experiences, questions about the possibility of an afterlife, the problem of religious language and the existence of souls and responses to religious pluralism and diversity.

Metaphilosophy

Metaphilosophy explores the aims, boundaries and methods of philosophy. It is debated as to whether metaphilosophy is a subject that comes prior to philosophy^[139] or whether it is inherently part of philosophy.^[140]

Other subdivisions

In section thirteen of his Lives and Opinions of the Eminent Philosophers, the oldest surviving history of philosophy (3rd century), Diogenes Laërtius presents a three-part division of ancient Greek philosophical inquiry:^[141]

• Natural philosophy (i.e. physics, from Greek: ta physika, lit. ‘things having to do with physis [nature]’) was the study of the constitution and processes of transformation in the physical world.^[142]
• Moral philosophy (i.e. ethics, from êthika, ‘having to do with character, disposition, manners’) was the study of goodness, right and wrong, justice and virtue.^[143]
• Metaphysical philosophy (i.e. logic, from logikós, ‘of or pertaining to reason or speech’) was the study of existence, causation, God, logic, forms, and other abstract objects. (meta ta physika, ‘after the Physics‘)

In Against the Logicians the Pyrrhonist philosopher Sextus Empiricus detailed the variety of ways in which the ancient Greek philosophers had divided philosophy, noting that this three-part division was agreed to by Plato, Aristotle, Xenocrates, and the Stoics.^[144] The Academic Skeptic philosopher Cicero also followed this three-part division.^[145]

This division is not obsolete, but has changed: natural philosophy has split into the various natural sciences, especially physics, astronomy, chemistry, biology, and cosmology; moral philosophy has birthed the social sciences, while still including value theory (e.g. ethics, aesthetics, political philosophy, etc.); and metaphysical philosophy has given way to formal sciences such as logic, mathematics and philosophy of science, while still including epistemology, cosmology, etc. For example, Newton’s Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy (1687), since classified as a book of physics, uses the term natural philosophy as it was understood at the time, encompassing disciplines such as astronomy, medicine and physics that later became associated with the sciences.^[16]

Methods of philosophy

Methods of philosophy are ways of conducting philosophical inquiry. They include techniques for arriving at philosophical knowledge and justifying philosophical claims as well as principles used for choosing between competing theories.^{[146][147][148]} A great variety of methods has been employed throughout the history of philosophy. Many of them differ significantly from the methods used in the natural sciences in that they do not use experimental data obtained through measuring equipment.^{[149][150][151]} The choice of one’s method usually has important implications both for how philosophical theories are constructed and for the arguments cited for or against them.^{[147][152][153]} This choice is often guided by epistemological considerations about what constitutes philosophical evidence, how much support it offers, and how to acquire it.^{[149][147][154]} Various disagreements on the level of philosophical theories have their source in methodological disagreements and the discovery of new methods has often had important consequences both for how philosophers conduct their research and for what claims they defend.^{[155][148][147]} Some philosophers engage in most of their theorizing using one particular method while others employ a wider range of methods based on which one fits the specific problem investigated best.^[150][156]

Methodological skepticism is a prominent method of philosophy. It aims to arrive at absolutely certain first principles by using systematic doubt to determine which principles of philosophy are indubitable.^[157] The geometrical method tries to build a comprehensive philosophical system based on a small set of such axioms. It does so with the help of deductive reasoning to expand the certainty of its axioms to the system as a whole.^[158][159] Phenomenologists seek certain knowledge about the realm of appearances. They do so by suspending their judgments about the external world in order to focus on how things appear independent of their underlying reality, a technique known as epoché.^[160][148] Conceptual analysis is a well-known method in analytic philosophy. It aims to clarify the meaning of concepts by analyzing them into their fundamental constituents.^{[161][39][23]} Another method often employed in analytic philosophy is based on common sense. It starts with commonly accepted beliefs and tries to draw interesting conclusions from them, which it often employs in a negative sense to criticize philosophical theories that are too far removed from how the average person sees the issue.^{[151][162][163]} It is very similar to how ordinary language philosophy tackles philosophical questions by investigating how ordinary language is used.^{[148][164][165]}

Various methods in philosophy give particular importance to intuitions, i.e. non-inferential impressions about the correctness of specific claims or general principles.^[155][166] For example, they play an important role in thought experiments, which employ counterfactual thinking to evaluate the possible consequences of an imagined situation. These anticipated consequences can then be used to confirm or refute philosophical theories.^{[167][168][161]} The method of reflective equilibrium also employs intuitions. It seeks to form a coherent position on a certain issue by examining all the relevant beliefs and intuitions, some of which often have to be deemphasized or reformulated in order to arrive at a coherent perspective.^{[155][169][170]} Pragmatists stress the significance of concrete practical consequences for assessing whether a philosophical theory is true or false.^[171][172] Experimental philosophy is of rather recent origin. Its methods differ from most other methods of philosophy in that it tries to answer philosophical questions by gathering empirical data in ways similar to social psychology and the cognitive sciences.^[173][174]

Philosophical progress

Many philosophical debates that began in ancient times are still debated today. British philosopher Colin McGinn claims that no philosophical progress has occurred during that interval.^[175] Australian philosopher David Chalmers, by contrast, sees progress in philosophy similar to that in science.^[176] Meanwhile, Talbot Brewer, professor of philosophy at University of Virginia, argues that «progress» is the wrong standard by which to judge philosophical activity.^[177]

Applied and professional philosophy

Some of those who study philosophy become professional philosophers, typically by working as professors who teach, research and write in academic institutions.^[178] However, most students of academic philosophy later contribute to law, journalism, religion, sciences, politics, business, or various arts.^[179][180] For example, public figures who have degrees in philosophy include comedians Steve Martin and Ricky Gervais, filmmaker Terrence Malick, Pope John Paul II, Wikipedia co-founder Larry Sanger, technology entrepreneur Peter Thiel, U.S. Supreme Court Justice Stephen Breyer, Jeopardy! host Alex Trebek, and US vice presidential candidate Carly Fiorina.^[181][182] Curtis White has argued that philosophical tools are essential to humanities, sciences and social sciences.^[183]

Recent efforts to avail the general public to the work and relevance of philosophers include the million-dollar Berggruen Prize, first awarded to Charles Taylor in 2016.^[184] Some philosophers argue that this professionalization has negatively affected the discipline.^[185]

Women in philosophy

Although men have generally dominated philosophical discourse, women philosophers have engaged in the discipline throughout history. The list of female philosophers throughout history is vast. Ancient examples include Hipparchia of Maroneia (active c. 325 BCE) and Arete of Cyrene (active 5th–4th centuries BCE). Some women philosophers were accepted during the medieval and modern eras, but none became part of the Western canon until the 20th and 21st century, when many suggest that G.E.M. Anscombe, Hannah Arendt, bell hooks, Simone de Beauvoir, Simone Weil and Susanne Langer entered the canon.^{[186][187][188]}

In the early 1800s, some colleges and universities in the UK and the US began admitting women, producing more female academics. Nevertheless, U.S. Department of Education reports from the 1990s indicate that few women ended up in philosophy and that philosophy is one of the least gender-proportionate fields in the humanities, with women making up somewhere between 17% and 30% of philosophy faculty according to some studies.^[189]

Prominent 21st century philosophers include: Judith Butler, Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak, Martha Nussbaum, Onora O’Neill, and Nancy Fraser.^{[190] [191]}

See also

References

Notes

Citations

Bibliography

Further reading

General introduction

Topical introductions

Historical introductions

Reference works

External links

• Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project
• PhilPapers – a comprehensive directory of online philosophical articles and books by academic philosophers
• Philosophy at Curlie
• Philosophy (review)
• Philosophy Documentation Center
• Popular Philosophy

Asked by: Prof. Jacey Orn

Score: 4.6/5
(44 votes)

The original meaning of the word philosophy comes from the Greek roots philo- meaning «love» and -sophos, or «wisdom.» When someone studies philosophy they want to understand how and why people do certain things and how to live a good life.

What is EtymologicAl philosophy?

Philosophia means ‘love of knowledge‘, ‘pursuit of wisdom’, ‘systematic investigation. … English word ‘Philosophy’ comes from a combination of two Greek word, which are ‘Philo’ and ‘Sophia’.

What is philosophy and its EtymologicAl definition?

EtymologicAl mEAning of philosophy • The word philosophy is derived from Greek words – Pholos and Sophia. Philos means love and Sophia means wisdom. • Thus philosophy means love of wisdom. In this way search of wisdom or truth is called philosophy, and the man who engages himself in this search is called a philosopher.

What is the real definition of philosophy?

Quite literally, the term «philosophy» means, «love of wisdom.» In a broad sense, philosophy is an activity people undertake when they seek to understand fundamental truths about themselves, the world in which they live, and their relationships to the world and to each other.

What is philosophy in simple words?

Philosophy is the study or creation of theories about basic things such as the nature of existence, knowledge, and thought, or about how people should live. … A philosophy is a particular set of ideas that a philosopher has.

33 related questions found

What is the origin of Philosophy? What were the civilizing landmarks that made this new way of thinking and trying to understand the world possible? Who were the first philosophers? What were your questions, your intentions and your motives? Are you curious? See the answers to these questions below.

what is philosophy

The word Philosophy means love of wisdom. The creation of the term is traditionally attributed to Pythagoras of Samos and, in Greek, philosophia is the combination of two words: philos (friendship, love, respect between equals) and sophia (wisdom, knowledge). In addition to etymology, what is Philosophy?

First, it is necessary to understand that Philosophy is a typically Greek phenomenon, and then to understand it as a way of thinking and critically and rationally disposing thought to know the world. Philosophy is contemplating, observing, questioning and arguing following a certain method, that is, each philosopher will have a way of exposing his thoughts and questions.

Historical context of the origin of philosophy

Philosophy emerged in Greece at a very favorable time. According to historians, it was created at the end of the 7th century BC. C and beginning of the sixth century BC. C in Ionia (region of the Greek colonies in Asia Minor, present-day Turkey), in the city of Miletus. The first philosopher in history was Thales of Miletus (who remembers him in math?). At this time, known as the Archaic Period, the Greeks prospered in trade and colonization in the basins of the Mediterranean Sea and the Black Sea.

Such cultural exchange provided, therefore, Philosophy. It is noteworthy that, although they were influenced by different peoples (and their respective knowledge developed until then), it was up to the Greeks to creation of Philosophy as an expression of thought, as they were able to make qualitative changes in the ways of knowing possible until the time. According to Marilena Chauí, these changes were:

1. mythical thought: Hesiod and Homer had the important function of humanizing the gods and deifying men. Both explain the origin of worldly things (men, laws, things) in a rational way.
2. In relation to knowledge: the Greeks were able to transform everyday knowledge and common sense into universal and abstract knowledge, that is, science. For example, the Egyptians had excellent tools for measuring and calculating. The Greeks managed to transform this practical knowledge into theoretical, thus creating arithmetic and geometry (or simply Mathematics).
3. In relation to society: it was the Greeks who invented politics. All societies had a form of social organization. It was the Greeks, however, who created the idea of ​​politics, a way of organizing in the polis (city governed by laws and institutions) in which there were public debates to think about the political decisions that should be sockets. In addition, the creation of the policy provided the division of the public sphere from the others (family and religious).
4. in relation to thinking: the Greeks were responsible for inventing the Western idea of ​​reason. That is, a systematized thought, governed by universal and constant laws. A mathematical principle, for example: 1+1 will always equal 2, because the Greeks were able to create concepts.

Other important points that enabled the emergence of Philosophy were the invention of currency and calendar and the emergence of urban life. Currency made the exchange of goods to be done in an abstract way, improving the trade relationship. The calendar generated a new perception and mastery of time. These two factors helped to develop urban life. A new way of living requires a new way of thinking – in this case, Philosophy.

the first philosophers

The first philosophers are the pre-Socratics. They shared the principle that there is no creation of the world, that is, there was no “nothing” for something to be created afterwards. This implies that the world is eternal and constantly changing. Another principle is the arche, which understands that everything that exists in the world has a single element in common. These philosophers understood that there was an eternal bottom from which everything was born, called the physis.

The physis, which is imperishable, gives rise to all beings in the world, which in turn are perishable. The physis is Nature, while the arché is the principle from which that Nature is constituted. Another shared principle was that of becoming. Becoming is the idea of ​​change and transformation; the idea that everything passes from its state to the opposite state, without chaos, since the world is ordered by physis. Let’s look at the main philosophers of the pre-Socratic period:

Ionic School

1. Tales of Mileto (624-546 a. Ç)

For Thales, the primary element was the Water or the wet. Noting that plants dried, bodies dehydrated, and food contained sap, Thales attributed the beginning of everything to water. Water, for Thales, is the arche and is in all things in different states. The state of water is what shapes how everything in the world is.

2. Anaximander of Miletus (611-547 a. Ç)

For Anaximander, unlike Thales, the primordial element could not be something limited, that’s why he understood that the arché was the apeiron (Greek: infinite or unlimited). The apeiron is present in everything, however it is invisible. One of the main arguments, especially against Thales, to defend that the arché could not be a The only visible element was to observe that water is wet, however fire is hot – they are elements opposites. In this way, Anaximander understood that the primordial element needed to be neutral.

3. Anaximens of Miletus (588-524 a. Ç)

Starting from Anaximander, Anaximenes understood that the arché was the air. Air, therefore, would be the origin of all things, depending on its state of condensation or rarefaction. Condensed air would give rise to earth and rarefied air to fire, for example.

Eleatic School

4. Elea’s Parmenides (530-460 a. Ç)

“The being is, the non-being is not”. Parmenides did not work with the notion of arché, but focused his philosophy on the To be. For him, Being was one, indivisible, infinite and immutable. Reality, in Parmenides, is one, infinite, immobile and immutable. For him, transformations were illusions and contrary ideas were just appearances. So, the opposite is just absence: what exists is light, because the dark is actually non-light (lack of light).

Ephesian school

5. Heraclitus of Ephesus (40-470 a. Ç)

For Heraclitus, the arché was the fire and things originate according to the movement of the fire of kindling and quenching. Unlike Parmenides (who said that nothing changed), Heraclitus, based on fire, defended that reality was in constant movement and, therefore, he is considered the father of dialectics. Things always change from one state to another opposite state, from immobile to mobile, from hot to cold, and so on. This change of state generates a unity, as it is movement and contradiction that give rise to things in the world.

italian school

6. Pythagoras of Samos (570-495 a. Ç)

For Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans, the primordial element was the number. The number was harmony, understood as the essence of things, composed of the sum of opposites (odd and even numbers). The odd and even numbers represent a mutating relationship, so it can be said that the Pythagoreans also thought that reality had movement.

For them, the universe was governed by mathematical relationships (expressed by number). Unlike other philosophers who presented a physical element such as the arché, the Pythagoreans understood that there were four elements (air, water, fire and earth), but the principle of everything, which ordered and gave form, was the number.

Pluralist School

7. Empedocles of Agrigento (490-430 a. Ç)

Empedocles tried to solve the problem posed by Heraclitus and Parmenides in relation to the movement. For Heraclitus, everything flowed; for Parmenides, nothing changed. Empedocles was the one who managed to find a way out of this problem, attributing the arché to the roots or to four elements: earth, fire, water and air.

For him, these four elements combine, then separate and then combine again and thus give rise to things. The principles responsible for combining and separating the elements are love and hate, respectively. Principles are eternal and unchanging, whereas substances created by such procedures are finite and changeable. In this way, Empedocles managed to bring together the theory of Heraclitus and Parmenides to explain the origin of things in the world.

8. Democritus of Abdera

Democritus centered the arche on the atom. For him, the atom was an extremely small particle, invisible, infinite, immutable and indivisible. These atoms were different from each other and, when they came together, they formed the substance. When this substance broke apart, the atoms that made it up could rearrange themselves and form another substance.

These are the main philosophers who composed the first moment of Greek philosophy. Called pre-Socratics because they predate Socrates, a philosopher who also revolutionized Greek philosophical thought. But that’s discussion for another time.

See more details about the origin of Philosophy

In the selected videos below, you will be able to better follow how Philosophy came about. Check out:

Why was Philosophy born?

In this video, we have brushstrokes of where Philosophy was born. One sees mainly the dilemma of its emergence: those who argue that she was born in other regions of the world, such as China, and those who attribute her birthplace to Greece. We also see the influences of other peoples’ thoughts on Greek philosophy.

How was philosophy born?

This video deals with the three pillars on which Philosophy was founded: art, religiosity and historical conditions. It’s cool because, here, each pillar is detailed. In art, the contributions of Homer and Hesiod. In religion, the difference between public religion (mythology) and the Orphic mysteries (related to Orpheus). In social conditions, the entire context that made the existence of Philosophy possible.

What is the history of philosophy?

In this video, the story of the rise of Philosophy in Greece is more precisely presented, about the first philosopher, about the word and the great philosophical questions. In addition, the phases of ancient Philosophy are also exposed.

Animation with the first philosophers

This video from the Animated Abstracts channel, in addition to the history of Philosophy, tells a little about the first philosophers. The summary made is very interesting, it’s a good summary video!

Did you like to know the origin of Philosophy? How about meeting the watershed philosopher in Ancient Greece as well? Socrates!

References

What are originating words of philosophy?

The word philosophy comes from the Greek philo (love) and sophia (wisdom) and so is literally defined as “the love of wisdom”. More broadly understood, it is the study of the most basic and profound matters of human existence.

What is the origin of the word philosopher?

A philosopher is someone who practices philosophy. The term philosopher comes from the Ancient Greek: φιλόσοφος, romanized: philosophos, meaning ‘lover of wisdom’.

What is the Latin root for philosophy?

1300, philosophie, “knowledge, learning, scholarship, scholarly works, body of knowledge,” from Old French filosofie “philosophy, knowledge” (12c., Modern French philosophie) and directly from Latin philosophia, from Greek philosophia “love of knowledge, pursuit of wisdom; systematic investigation,” from philo- “loving …

What is the Greek origin of the word philosophy?

Philosophy is a combination of two Greek words, philein sophia, meaning lover of wisdom. In ancient times a lover of wisdom could be related to any area where intelligence was expressed. This could be in business, politics, human relations, or carpentry and other skills.

What is the first philosophy?

Aristotle. In Aristotle: Physics and metaphysics. … metaphysics: he calls it “first philosophy” and defines it as the discipline that studies “being as being.”

Where do I start in philosophy?

10 Books For Beginners to Start With

• Plato, The Last Days of Socrates — this includes four dialogues: the Euthyphro , the Apology , the Crito , and the Phaedo.
• Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics.
• Epictetus, Discourses, Fragments, Handbook.
• Augustine of Hippo, Confessions.
• Boethius, Consolation of Philosophy.

Which philosopher should I read first?

If you are just starting out, then your first step should be to read some dialogues of Socrates. That’s where Western Philosophy begins, 2,400 years ago. Your next step would be to read Aristotle’s, Nicomachean Ethics (2,300 BC).

Who are the best philosophers?

Here are 10 Greatest Philosophers who ever lived

• Aristotle. The list of the greatest philosophers is incomplete without Aristotle.
• Immanuel Kant. After Aristotle, Immanuel Kant comes at number #2 in the list of the greatest philosopher who ever lived.
• John Locke.
• Epicurus.
• Zeno of Citium.
• Plato.
• Confucius.
• David Hume.

How can I learn philosophy on my own?

6 tips for teaching yourself philosophy

1. Start from a position of ignorance.
2. Expect to go slowly.
3. Read when you are most alert.
4. Pick whatever interests you the most.
5. Get a philosophical dictionary.
6. Familiarize yourself with the history of Western Thought.

What is the best way to study philosophy?

Here are a few suggestions:

1. Do the assigned reading. The philosophical texts simply are the content of the course; if you do not read, you will not learn.
2. Consider the context.
3. Take your time.
4. Spot crucial passages.
5. Identify central theses.
6. Locate supportive arguments.
7. Assess the arguments.
8. Look for connections.

Can you be a philosopher without a degree?

There are no official philosophers. A degree in philosophy does not transform a person into a philosopher, nor does the absence of a degree ensure that the person is not.

What are the 4 things to be considered in studying philosophy?

Philosophy – the love of wisdom – is an activity of attempting to understand the world, in all its aspects. There are four pillars of philosophy: theoretical philosophy (metaphysics and epistemology), practical philosophy (ethics, social and political philosophy, aesthetics), logic, and history of philosophy.

What comes in your mind when you hear the word philosophy?

Answer. Answer: Thoughts, possibilities, plans, theories constructed to explore obscurities. Philosophy is a way to connect the known in ways to better understand and (maybe) find a path to solutions.

What are the 5 types of philosophy?

Introduction to the Five Branches of Philosophy

Metaphysics	Study of Existence	What’s out there?
Epistemology	Study of Knowledge	How do I know about it?
Ethics	Study of Action	What should I do?
Politics	Study of Force	What actions are permissible?
Esthetics	Study of Art	What can life be like?

What are the important requirements in doing philosophy?

Students must take at least one course in each of three areas: Contemporary Metaphysics and Epistemology [M&E], Contemporary Value Theory [V], and History [H]. In addition at least one of the electives must be a tutorial.

Who are the major philosophers?

• Saint Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274)
• Aristotle (384–322 BCE)
• Confucius (551–479 BCE)
• René Descartes (1596–1650)
• Ralph Waldo Emerson (1803 82)
• Michel Foucault (1926-1984)
• David Hume (1711–77)
• Immanuel Kant (1724–1804)

What jobs do philosophers have?

Careers in Philosophy

• Law. Philosophy is one of the best, if not the best major to prepare you for law school.
• Architecture and Art.
• Teaching.
• Publishing.
• Public Relations.
• Politics and Public Policy.
• Religion and Ministry.
• Business and Management.

What classes do you take for philosophy?

What classes do philosophy majors actually take? It depends on your college’s program, but some basic classes involve logic, ethics, metaphysics, political theory, sociology and anthropology.

Is philosophy a hard degree?

Readings for philosophy courses are generally not long, but they are difficult and challenging. You cannot expect to go through an assigned reading once and have an adequate grasp of it. Some students seem to thrive on the painstaking study required, while others simply don’t have the patience for it.

Is philosophy an easy class?

While some branches of philosophy are relatively easy, like ethics, some are complicated. This is where a good professor will shine as he/she will be able to turn even the most complicated in to something understandable. I really think that this is the most factor in whether or not the course is hard.

What are the hardest majors?

CollegeVine’s Top 10 Hardest Majors

1. Chemistry. Average GPA: 2.9.
2. Chemical Engineering. Average GPA: 3.2.
3. Electrical Engineering. Average GPA: 3.3.
4. Physics. Average GPA: 3.1.
5. Architecture. Average GPA: 3.3.
6. Nursing. Average GPA: 3.2.
7. Accounting. Average GPA: 3.2.
8. Cellular and Molecular Biology. Average GPA: 3.2.

What is the easiest major?

The 14 Easiest Majors to Study in College

• #1: Psychology. Psychology majors study the inner workings of the human psyche.
• #2: Criminal Justice.
• #3: English.
• #4: Education.
• #5: Social Work.
• #6: Sociology.
• #7: Communications.
• #8: History.

What are easy majors that pay well?

The Top 10 Quick and Easy Degrees that Pay Well

• Business Administration.
• Communications.
• Healthcare Administration.
• Information Technology.
• Supply Chain Management.

What is the hardest bachelor’s degree to get?

Recap: What Is the Hardest Major in College?

College Major	Time Spent Preparing for Class per Week
1. Architecture	22.20 hrs
2. Chemical Engineering	19.66 hrs
3. Aero and Astronautical Engineering	19.24 hrs
4. Biomedical Engineering	18.82 hrs

What is the most stressful degree?

10 Most Stressful College Majors

1. Fine Arts. Average studying time per week: 12-17h.
2. Nursing. Average studying time per week: 14-17h.
3. Theoretical & Experimental Physics. Average studying time per week: 15-17h.
4. Philosophy.
5. Architecture.
6. Molecular Biology.
7. Electrical Engineering.
8. Chemical Engineering.

What is the toughest degree in the world?

Given below is the list of toughest courses in the world that can boost your career:

• Engineering.
• Chartered Accountancy.
• Medicine.
• Pharmacy.
• Architecture.
• Law.
• Psychology.
• Aeronautics.

Origins[edit | edit source]

Etymology[edit | edit source]

The term philosophy is derived from the Greek words phylos meaning «to love» and sophie meaning «wisdom».

Introduction to Philosophy[edit | edit source]

In the Phaedo, Socrates says that philosophy is a preparation for the death that awaits us all. When the mind is engaged in philosophy it is free of concerns and dwells in the domain of ideas. Our minds enter a spiritual region transcending the death of our corporeal experience. Another, better known, view of Socrates is that of philosophy as ‘the love of wisdom’. This love discovers truth, and we become wise by practical application in our daily lives of what has been discovered.

These definitions highlight the nature of philosophical inquiry. Philosophers ask questions. These questions try to understand the metaphysical and physical universe including humans and their world

Pre-Socratics[edit | edit source]

The history of philosophy in the west begins with the Greeks, and particularly with a group of philosophers commonly called the pre-Socratics. This is not to deny the occurrence of other pre-philosophical rumblings in Egyptian and Babylonian cultures. Certainly great thinkers and writers existed in each of these cultures, and we have evidence that some of the earliest Greek philosophers may have had contact with at least some of the products of Egyptian and Babylonian thought. However, the early Greek thinkers added at least one element which differentiates their thoughts from all those who came before them. For the first time in history, we discover in their writings something more than dogmatic assertions about the ordering of the world — we find reasoned arguments for various beliefs about the world.

Thales[edit | edit source]

Thales (in Greek: Θαλης) of Miletus (circa 624 BC — 546 BC), also known as Thales the Milesian, was a pre-Socratic Greek philosopher. Many regard him as the first philosopher in the Greek tradition. He has also been traditionally considered the father of science, although it is also contended that the beginnings of science may be traced to Ancient Egypt.

Life[edit | edit source]

Thales lived in the city of Miletus, in Ionia, now western Turkey. According to Herodotus, he was of Phoenician descent.

The well-traveled Ionians had many dealings with Egypt and Babylon; Thales may have studied in Egypt as a young man. In any event, Thales almost certainly had exposure to Egyptian mythology, astronomy, and mathematics, as well as to other traditions alien to the Homeric traditions of Greece. Perhaps because of this, his inquiries into the nature of things extends beyond traditional mythology.

Several anecdotes suggest that Thales was not solely a thinker; he was involved in business and politics. One story recounts that he bought all the olive presses in Miletus after predicting the weather and a good harvest for a particular year. Another version of this same story states that he bought the presses to demonstrate to his fellow Milesians that he could use his intelligence to enrich himself. Herodotus recorded that Thales advised the city-states of Ionia to form a federation.

Thales is said to have died in his seat, while watching an athletic contest.

Theories and influence[edit | edit source]

Before Thales, the Greeks explained the origin and nature of the world through myths of anthropomorphic gods and heroes. Phenomena like lightning or earthquakes were attributed to the actions of the gods.

By contrast, Thales attempted to find naturalistic explanations of the world, without reference to the supernatural. He explained earthquakes by imagining that the Earth floats on water and that earthquakes occur when the Earth is rocked by waves. Herodotus cites him as having predicted the solar eclipse of 585 BC that put an end to the fighting between the Lydians and the Medes.

Thales’s most famous belief was his cosmological doctrine, which held that the world originated from water. It is sometimes assumed that Thales considered everything to be made from water. According to others, however, it’s likely that while Thales saw water as an origin, he never pondered whether water continued to be the substance of the world.

Many philosophers followed Thales’s lead in searching for explanations in nature rather than in the supernatural; others returned to supernatural explanations, but couched them in the language of philosophy rather than myth or religion.

Thales is credited for having first popularized Geometry to ancient Greek culture, mainly that of spatial relationships.

The best explanation of Thales’s view is the following passage from Aristotle’s Metaphysics (983 BC). The passage is given in translation with key phrases transliterated from the Greek for the reader’s benefit. The reader will see in the transliteration words from the theory of matter and form that were adopted by science with quite different meanings. The translation is somewhat literal, for purposes of accuracy.

«That from which is everything that exists (ta onta) and from which it first becomes (ex hou gignetai protou) and into which it is rendered at last (eis ho phtheiretai teleutaion), its substance remaining under it (tes men ousias hypomenouses), but transforming in qualities (pathesi metaballouses), that they say is the element (stoicheion) and principle (archen) of things that are (ton onton).»

And again:

«For it is necessary (dei) that there be some nature (physin), either one or more than one, from which become (gignetai) the other things (t’alla) of the object being preserved (sozomenes ekeines)… Thales says that it is water (hydor).»

Aristotle’s depiction of the change problem and the definition of substance could not be more clear. If an object changes, is it the same or different? In either case how can there be a change (metabollein) from one to the other? The answer is the substance (ousia or physis), which «is saved», but acquires or loses different qualities (pathe, the things you «experience»).

A deeper dip into the waters of the theory of matter and form is properly reserved to other articles. The question for this article is, how far does Aristotle reflect Thales? He was probably not far off, and Thales was probably an incipient matter-and-formist.

The essentially non-philosophic DL states that Thales taught as follows:

«Water constituted (hypestesato, «stood under») the principle of all things.»

Heraclitus Homericus (Quaes. Hom. 22, not the same as Heraclitus of Ephesus) states that Thales drew his conclusion from seeing moist substance (hygra physis) turn into air, slime and earth. It seems clear that Thales viewed the Earth as solidifying from the water on which it floated and which surrounded it as Ocean.

Thales applied his method to objects that changed to become other objects, such as water into earth (he thought). But what about the changing itself? Thales did address the topic, approaching it through magnets and amber—which, when electrified by rubbing, attracts in the same way.

How was the power to move other things without the mover’s changing to be explained? Thales saw a commonality with the powers of living things to act. The magnet and the amber must be alive, and if that were so, there could be no difference between the living and the dead. When asked why he didn’t die if there was no difference, he replied “because there is no difference.”

Aristotle defined the soul as the principle of life, that which permeates the matter and makes it live, giving it the animation, or power to act. The idea did not originate with him, as the Greeks in general believed in the distinction between mind and matter, which was ultimately to lead to a distinction not only between body and soul but also between matter and energy.

If things were alive, they must have souls. This belief was no innovation, as the ordinary ancient populations of the Mediterranean did believe that natural actions were caused by divinities. Accordingly, the sources say that Thales believed all things possessed divinities. In their zeal to make him the first in everything they said he was the first to hold the belief, which even they must have known was not true.

However, Thales was looking for something more general, a universal substance of mind. That also was true to the polytheism of the times. Zeus was the very personification of supreme mind, dominating all the subordinate manifestations. From Thales on, however, philosophers had a tendency to depersonify or objectify mind, as though it were the substance of animation per se and not actually a god like the other gods. The end result was a total removal of mind from substance, opening the door to a non-divine principle of action. This tradition persisted until Einstein, whose cosmology is quite a different one and does not distinguish between matter and energy.

Classical thought, however, had proceded only a little way along that path. Instead of referring to the person, Zeus, they talked about the great mind:

«Thales», says Cicero, «assures that water is the principle of all things; and that God is that Mind which shaped and created all things from water.» (Cicero:»De Nat.Deorum,»i.,10.)

The universal mind appears as a Roman belief in Vergil as well:

«In the beginning, SPIRIT within strengthens Heaven and Earth,

The watery fields, and the lucid globe of Lina, and then —

Titan stars; and mind infused through the limbs

Agitates the whole mass, and mixes itself with GREAT MATTER»

(Virgil: «Aeneid,» vi., 724 ff.)

Socrates[edit | edit source]

Socrates (c.470 – 399 BC) (Greek Σωκράτης Sōkrátēs) was a Greek (Athenian) philosopher.

Like Thales and the other pre-Socratics, Socrates too had the ambition to ask questions of life. However, where the pre-Socratics were more concerned with the cosmological questions, Socrates was concerned with questions of the following nature: What is piety? What kind of life is worthwhile for a human to live? Can virtue be taught? What is justice? Is there more than one’s virtue? What is human excellence?

Socrates did not actually write any of these ideas down. The only written information about his philosophy can be found in the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon. These dialogues deal mostly with questions of the good life, human excellence, and the cultivation of knowledge. One of Plato’s most important and best known works is «The Republic» in which we find the allegory of The Cave that explains the difference between perceived reality and «real» reality which, according to Plato, can only be found in the realm of ideas.
More: Greek Philosophy: Socrates

Long before the origin of philosophy, our ancestors used to turn to myths and magic (pre-rational knowledge) to find the answers to the disturbing questions of the time. Nevertheless, in the Ancient Greece the way of thinking and seeing the world changed thanks to a group of sages, or rather, philosophers, who were dissatisfied with mythical explanations. For instance, they did not believe that seasons were a consequence of gods’ will. This first group of philosophers, called “Presocratic philosophers”, thought that the explanations had to be found in nature, by watching and developing rational theories. They were the first ones to show that critical and systematic attitude defining philosophy.

So, in the sixth century BC, in Miletus or Asia Minor (Greece), the concept of rational thought was developed. The Greeks were the first civilization in the Western culture to come into contact with new cultures, new ways of thinking and understanding the world, which ultimately causes a crisis of values. This culture is the first to ponder the question of “what is the meaning of life?”, the concept of “right thought” and how to explain reality. Influenced by other possibilities of life, Greece begins to consider new challenges, new ways of viewing life and explaining it. This period is known as “the transition from myth to logos” which we are going to explain in more detail.

WHAT IS A MYTH?

A myth is any traditional story consisting of events that are ostensibly historical, though often supernatural, explaining the origins of a cultural practice or natural phenomenon. Myths are often stories that are currently understood as being exaggerated or fictitious.[4] It is derived from the Greek word mythos (μῦθος), which simply means “story”. Mythology can refer either to the study of myths, or to a body or collection of myths. A myth also can be a story to explain why something exists.

Human cultures usually include a cosmogonical or creation myth, concerning the origins of the world, or how the world came to exist. The active beings in myths are generally gods and goddesses, heroes and heroines, or animals and plants. Most myths are set in a timeless past before recorded time or beginning of the critical history. A myth can be a story involving symbols that are capable of multiple meanings.

A myth is a sacred narrative because it holds religious or spiritual significance for those who tell it. Myths also contribute to and express a culture’s systems of thought and values.[1]

A myth is a traditional or legendary story, usually concerning some being or hero or event, with or without a determinable basis of fact or a natural explanation, especially one that is concerned with deities or demigods and explains some practice, rite, or phenomenon of nature.

 

CHARACTERISTICS OF MYTHS: What is the difference between “mythos” and “logos”?

MYTHOS	LOGOS
Mythical thought is an anthropomorphic way of thinking. The main characters are men or figures with human shape, like gods or heroes.	Rational thought is not anthropomorphic. Rational explanations search the natural causes of phenomena.
Mythical thought is arbitrary. Facts in this world happen because of deities’ will. [Things happen using unlimited personal power without considering other people’s wishes.]“Arbitrary” is what someone wants to happen: e.g. “It was God’s will.”	Rational thought is not arbitrary because it looks for explanatory laws and theories in order to understand the universe.
Mythical thought is traditional. Mythical beliefs pass down from parents to children.	Rational thought is innovative and critical. It is continuously discovering new laws about the universe and it casts doubt on old beliefs and convictions.
Mythical thought is collective. Myths are usually anonymous and shared by a community who feel identified with them.	Rational thought is individual. Theories are not anonymous because they are defended by someone (a philosopher, a thinker…).
Mythical thought is fantastic. Imagination is the main source of explanation.	Rational thought is logical. Its main source is observation, experience and critical rationality.

TYPES/KINDS OF MYTHS

 

• Cosmogonic myth: describes the creation of the world.
• Etiological myth: explains an origin, particularly how an object or custom came into existence.
• Eschatological myth: is concerned with the future or the end of the world or of humankind.
• Moral myth: is concerned with behavioural patterns.

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HOMEWORK

Answer these questions:

• What are myths?
• What are myths for?

Choose one of the following myths. Then, answer these questions:

• Write a summary of this myth (10-15 lines).
• What does this myth explain?
• What kind of myth is it? Why?
• What are the characteristics of myths in this story?

PRACTICAL ACTIVITIES

1/ Do you think that mythical thought is still present in our society nowadays? Use an example in order to justify your answer.

2/ Create a short story using the mythical thought. You must explain a natural phenomenon such as the eruption of a volcano, an earthquake or a hurricane.

3/ Explain a situtation in which imagination and logos are used together.

[1] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myth