Word Order in Complex Sentences
There are five parts of a sentence: the subject, the predicate, the attribute, the object, and the adverbial modifier. Accordingly, there are five types of subordinate clauses: the subject clause, the predicative clause, the attributive clause, the object clause, and several types of adverbial clauses.
Subordinate clauses are also called dependent clauses because they can’t be used without the main clause. Word order in subordinate clauses is first the subject, then the verb. Compare these pairs of simple and complex sentences:
I bought a book on history.
I bought the book that you asked for.
I know the way to his house.
I know where he lives.
He went home after work.
He went home after he had finished work.
The subject clause
The subject clause functions as the subject of the sentence. Subject clauses are introduced by the words «who, what, how, when, where, that, whether».
Who brought the roses is a secret.
What you told me was interesting.
How it happened is not clear.
The subject clause is often placed after the predicate, and the formal subject «It» is used in such sentences.
It is not known who brought the roses.
It is not clear how it happened.
It is doubtful that he will come back today.
The predicative clause
The predicative clause functions as part of the predicate and usually stands after the linking verb BE.
The problem is that he is rude.
The question is where I can find enough money for my project.
This is what he said to her.
This is how it happened.
The attributive clause
The attributive clause performs the function of an attribute and stands after the noun that it modifies. Attributive clauses are introduced by the words «who, whom, whose, which, that, when, where, why».
The man who helped her was Dr. Lee.
The bag that he bought cost forty dollars.
Here’s the book that I am talking about.
The place where she lives is not far from here.
The time when they were friends is gone.
The object clause
Object clauses function as objects. (Object clauses are described more fully in Sequence of Tenses in the section Grammar.)
He told us that he had already bought a car.
I know where we can find him.
I asked how I could help him.
Types of adverbial clauses
Adverbial clauses function as adverbial modifiers. Adverbial clauses include several types of clauses that indicate time, place, purpose, cause, result, condition, concession, manner, comparison.
The adverbial clause of place
He went where I told him to go.
This cat sleeps wherever it wants.
Go down this street and stop where the road turns right.
The adverbial clause of time
When she arrived, they went home.
She left while he was sleeping.
He hasn’t called me since he arrived.
He left before I returned.
Call me as soon as you receive the report.
No future tense is used in subordinate clauses of time referring to the future (after the conjunctions «when, till, until, after, before, as soon as, as long as, by the time», and some others). The present tense, usually the Simple Present, is used instead of the future in clauses of time.
He will call you when he returns.
I’ll help you after I have dinner.
I will wait until he finishes his work.
I said that I would wait until he finished his work.
The adverbial clause of condition
We will go to the lake on Saturday if the weather is good.
If the plane left on time, they should be in New York now.
If he has already seen the report, he knows about our plans.
No future tense is used in subordinate clauses of condition referring to the future (after the conjunctions «if, unless, in case, on condition that», and some others).
If he calls, tell him the truth.
I will talk to him if I see him.
I won’t be able to go with you unless I finish this work soon enough.
The adverbial clause of purpose
He works hard so that he can buy a house for his family.
He gave her detailed directions so that she could find his house easily.
They should call her in advance so that she may prepare for their visit.
We left early in order that we might get there before the beginning of the wedding ceremony.
The adverbial clause of result
My car was repaired on Thursday so that on Friday I was able to leave.
I have so much work this week that I won’t be able to go to the concert.
It was so cold that I stayed home.
He was so tired that he fell asleep.
The adverbial clause of reason
I can’t come to the party because I have a cold.
I went home because I was tired.
I called you because I needed money.
Since she didn’t know anyone there, she stayed in her room most of the time.
As there are several possible answers to this question, let’s discuss all of them.
The adverbial clause of comparison
He works as quickly as he can.
Tom is older than I am.
It looks as if it is going to snow.
You sound as if you have a sore throat.
Note that after «as if; as though», the subjunctive mood is used in cases expressing unreality.
He looks as if he were old and sick.
She described it as if she had seen it all with her own eyes.
She loves them as though they were her children.
(See more examples with «as if, as though» at the end of Subjunctive Mood Summary in the section Grammar.)
The adverbial clause of concession
Though he was tired, he kept working.
Although it was already dark, he could still see the shapes of the trees.
He didn’t convince them, although he tried very hard.
No matter what she says, call me at nine o’clock.
Whatever happens, you must help each other.
Find him, whatever happens.
Note: Commas
A comma is generally not used between the main clause and the adverbial subordinate clause if the subordinate clause stands after the main clause. But a comma is used between them if the subordinate clause stands at the beginning of the sentence before the main clause. Compare:
She went for a walk in the park after she had finished her work on the report.
After she had finished her work on the report, she went for a walk in the park.
A comma is used before the adverbial subordinate clause if the subordinate clause refers to the whole main clause (not only to the verb in it). Such situations often occur in the case of the clauses beginning with «though, although, whatever, no matter what» and «because». Compare:
She was absent because she was ill.
They must have been sleeping, because there was no light in their windows.
Types of subordinate clauses in English sources
There are some differences in the way English and Russian linguistic sources describe subordinate clauses, which may present some difficulty for language learners.
In English grammar materials, subordinate clauses are divided into three main types: noun clauses, adjective clauses, and adverb clauses. Adjective clauses (attributive clauses) and adverb clauses (adverbial clauses) are described similarly in English and Russian materials.
Noun clauses are described differently in English materials. Noun clauses include three types of subordinate clauses described in Russian materials: the subject clause, the predicative clause, and the object clause.
Noun clauses
Noun clauses function as nouns. A noun clause can serve as the subject of the sentence, as a predicative noun, or as an object.
What he said was really funny. (Noun clause «What he said» is the subject.)
This is not what I meant. (Noun clause «what I meant» is in the function of predicative noun.)
She says that he will come back tomorrow. (Noun clause «that he will come back tomorrow» is a direct object.)
He is not interested in what she is doing. (Noun clause «what she is doing» is a prepositional object.)
Relative clauses
The term «relative clauses» in English materials refers to noun clauses and adjective clauses introduced by the relative pronouns «who (whom, whose), which, that, what».
Relative clauses in the form of noun clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns «who (whom, whose), which, what».
Who will be able to do it is still a question.
I don’t know which of these bags belongs to her.
I didn’t hear what he said.
Relative clauses in the form of adjective clauses are introduced by the relative pronouns «who (whom, whose), which, that». «Who» refers to persons; «which» refers to things»; «that» refers to things or persons. To avoid possible mistakes, language learners should use «who» (not «that») when referring to people.
The boy who is standing by the door is her nephew. Or: The boy standing by the door is her nephew.
The man to whom she is speaking is her doctor. Or: The man she is speaking to is her doctor.
The house in which he lived was too far from the center of the city. Or: The house he lived in was too far from the city center.
The people whose house he bought moved to Boston.
I lost the pen that you gave me. Or: I lost the pen which you gave me. Or: I lost the pen you gave me.
She likes the stories that he writes. Or: She likes the stories which he writes. Or: She likes the stories he writes.
Relative clauses that have parenthetical character (i.e., nonrestrictive clauses) are separated by commas. Such clauses are usually introduced by the relative pronouns «which» and «who» (whom, whose), but not by «that».
She lost his book, which made him angry.
She doesn’t study hard, which worries her parents.
My brother, who now lives in Greece, invited us to spend next summer at his place.
The war, which lasted nearly ten years, brought devastation and suffering to both countries.
Порядок слов в сложноподчиненных предложениях
Есть пять членов предложения: подлежащее, сказуемое, определение, дополнение, обстоятельство. Соответственно, есть пять типов придаточных предложений: придаточное подлежащее, придаточное сказуемое, придаточное определительное, придаточное дополнительное и несколько типов обстоятельственных придаточных.
Придаточные предложения также называют зависимыми предложениями, т.к. они не могут употребляться без главного предложения. Порядок слов в придаточных – сначала подлежащее, затем глагол. Сравните эти пары простых и сложноподчиненных предложений:
Я купил книгу по истории.
Я купил книгу, которую вы просили.
Я знаю дорогу к его дому.
Я знаю, где он живет.
Он пошел домой после работы.
Он пошел домой после того, как закончил работу.
Придаточное предложение подлежащее
Придаточное предложение подлежащее выполняет функцию подлежащего в предложении. Придаточные подлежащие вводятся словами «who, what, how, when, where, that, whether».
Кто принес розы, секрет.
Что вы мне рассказали, было интересно.
Как это случилось, неясно.
Придаточное подлежащее часто ставится после сказуемого, и в таких предложениях употребляется формальное подлежащее «It».
Неизвестно, кто принес розы.
Неясно, как это случилось.
Сомнительно, что он вернется сегодня.
Придаточное предложение сказуемое
Придаточное предложение сказуемое выполняет функцию именной части составного сказуемого и обычно стоит после глагола-связки BE.
Проблема в том, что он груб.
Вопрос в том, где я могу найти достаточно денег для моего проекта.
Это то, что он ей сказал.
Вот как это случилось.
Определительное придаточное предложение
Определительное придаточное предложение выполняет функцию определения и стоит после существительного, которое оно определяет. Определительные придаточные предложения вводятся словами «who, whom, whose, which, that, when, where, why».
Человек, который помог ей, был доктор Ли.
Сумка, которую он купил, стоила сорок долларов.
Вот книга, о которой я говорю.
Место, где она живет, недалеко отсюда.
Время, когда они были друзьями, ушло.
Дополнительное придаточное предложение
Дополнительные придаточные предложения выполняют функцию дополнения. (Дополнительные придаточные предложения описаны более полно в статье Sequence of Tenses в разделе Grammar.)
Он сказал нам, что уже купил машину.
Я знаю, где мы можем его найти.
Я спросил, как я могу помочь ему.
Типы обстоятельственных придаточных предложений
Обстоятельственные придаточные предложения выполняют функцию обстоятельства. Они включают в себя несколько типов придаточных предложений, которые указывают время, место, цель, причину, результат, условие, уступку, образ действия, сравнение.
Придаточное предложение места
Он пошел (туда), куда я ему сказал.
Этот кот спит (там), где захочет.
Идите по этой улице и остановитесь (там), где дорога поворачивает направо.
Придаточное предложение времени
Когда она приехала, они пошли домой.
Она ушла, когда он спал.
Он не звонил мне с тех пор, как приехал.
Он ушел до того, как я вернулся.
Позвоните мне, как только получите доклад.
Не употребляется будущее время в придаточных предложениях времени, относящихся к будущему (после союзов «when, till, until, after, before, as soon as, as long as, by the time» и некоторых других). Настоящее время, обычно Simple Present (Простое настоящее), употребляется вместо будущего в придаточных предложениях времени.
Он позвонит вам, когда вернется.
Я помогу вам после того, как пообедаю.
Я подожду, пока он не закончит свою работу.
Я сказал, что подожду, пока он не закончит свою работу.
Придаточное предложение условия
Мы поедем к озеру в субботу, если погода будет хорошая.
Если самолет вылетел вовремя, они должны быть в Нью-Йорке сейчас.
Если он уже видел доклад, (то) он знает о наших планах.
Не употребляется будущее время в придаточных предложениях условия, относящихся к будущему времени (после союзов «if, unless, in case, on condition that» и некоторых других).
Если он позвонит, скажите ему правду.
Я поговорю с ним, если увижу его.
Я не смогу пойти с вами, если только не закончу эту работу достаточно скоро.
Придаточное предложение цели
Он много работает, чтобы он мог купить дом для своей семьи.
Он дал ей детальные указания (пути), чтобы она могла легко найти его дом.
Им следует позвонить ей заранее, чтобы она могла подготовиться к их визиту.
Мы выехали пораньше, чтобы мы могли приехать туда до начала свадебной церемонии.
Придаточное предложение результата
Мою машину починили в четверг, так что в пятницу я смог уехать.
У меня столько работы на этой неделе, что я не смогу пойти на концерт.
Было так холодно, что я остался дома.
Он так устал, что заснул.
Придаточное предложение причины
Я не могу прийти на вечеринку, потому что у меня простуда.
Я пошел домой, потому что устал.
Я позвонил вам, так как мне были нужны деньги.
Поскольку она никого там не знала, она оставалась в своей комнате большую часть времени.
Поскольку есть несколько возможных ответов на этот вопрос, давайте обсудим их все.
Придаточное предложение сравнения
Он работает так быстро, как может.
Том старше, чем я.
Выглядит так, как будто пойдет снег.
Вы звучите так, как будто у вас больное горло.
Обратите внимание, что после «as if; as though» употребляется сослагательное наклонение в случаях, выражающих нереальность.
Он выглядит так, как будто он старый и больной.
Она описала это так, как если бы она видела все это своими собственными глазами.
Она любит их так, как будто они ее дети.
(Посмотрите еще примеры с союзами «as if, as though» в конце статьи Subjunctive Mood Summary в разделе Grammar.)
Уступительное придаточное предложение
Хотя он устал, он продолжал работать.
Хотя было уже темно, он все еще мог видеть очертания деревьев.
Он не убедил их, хотя он очень старался.
Что бы она ни говорила, позвоните мне в девять часов.
Что бы ни случилось, вы должны помогать друг другу.
Найди его, что бы ни случилось.
Примечание: Запятые
Запятая обычно не ставится между главным предложением и обстоятельственным придаточным предложением, если придаточное предложение стоит после главного предложения. Но запятая ставится между ними, если придаточное предложение стоит в начале предложения перед главным предложением. Сравните:
Она пошла на прогулку в парк после того, как закончила свою работу над докладом.
После того, как она закончила свою работу над докладом, она пошла на прогулку в парк.
Запятая ставится перед обстоятельственным придаточным предложением, если придаточное предложение относится ко всему главному предложению (а не только к глаголу в нем). Такие ситуации часто возникают в случае придаточных предложений, начинающихся с «though, although, whatever, no matter what» и «because». Сравните:
Она отсутствовала, потому что она была больна.
Они, должно быть, спали, потому что в их окнах не было света.
Типы придаточных предложений в английских источниках
Есть некоторые различия в том, как английские и русские лингвистические источники описывают придаточные предложения, что может представлять трудность для изучающих язык.
В английских материалах по грамматике, придаточные предложения делятся на три основных типа: noun clauses, adjective clauses и adverb clauses. Adjective clauses (attributive clauses) и adverb clauses (adverbial clauses) описываются похожим образом в английских и русских материалах.
Noun clauses описываются по-другому в английских материалах. Noun clauses включают в себя три типа придаточных предложений, описываемых в русских материалах: придаточное предложение подлежащее, придаточное предложение сказуемое и дополнительное придаточное предложение.
Придаточные предложения существительные
Noun clauses выполняют функцию существительных. Noun clause может служить как подлежащее, как именная часть составного сказуемого или как дополнение.
Что он сказал, было действительно смешно. (Noun clause «What he said» – подлежащее.)
Это не то, что я имел в виду. (Noun clause «what I meant» выполняет функцию именной части составного сказуемого.)
Она говорит, что он вернется завтра. (Noun clause «that he will come back tomorrow» – прямое дополнение.)
У него нет интереса к тому, что она делает. (Noun clause «what she is doing» – предложное дополнение.)
Относительные придаточные предложения
Термин «relative clauses» в английских материалах имеет в виду noun clauses и adjective clauses, вводимые относительными местоимениями «who (whom, whose), which, that, what».
Относительные придаточные предложения в виде noun clauses вводятся относительными местоимениями «who (whom, whose), which, what».
Кто сможет это сделать, по-прежнему вопрос.
Я не знаю, которая из этих сумок принадлежит ей.
Я не слышал, что он сказал.
Относительные придаточные предложения в виде adjective clauses вводятся относительными местоимениями «who (whom, whose), which, that». «Who» относится к людям; «which» относится к вещам; «that» относится к вещам или людям. Во избежание возможных ошибок, изучающим язык следует употреблять «who» (а не «that») в отношении людей.
Мальчик, который стоит у двери, ее племянник. Или: Мальчик, стоящий у двери, ее племянник.
Мужчина, с которым она разговаривает, ее врач.
Дом, в котором он жил, был слишком далеко от центра города.
Люди, чей дом он купил, переехали в Бостон.
Я потерял ручку, которую вы мне дали.
Ей нравятся рассказы, которые он пишет.
Относительные придаточные предложения, имеющие характер вводного элемента (т.е. не ограничительные), отделяются запятыми. Такие придаточные предложения обычно вводятся относительными местоимениями «which, who (whom, whose)», но не «that».
Она потеряла его книгу, что разозлило его.
Она мало занимается, что беспокоит ее родителей.
Мой брат, который теперь живет в Греции, пригласил нас провести следующее лето у него.
Война, которая длилась почти десять лет, принесла разорение и страдания обеим странам.
Когда речь заходит о вставных элементах, с помощью которых от простых предложений образуются осложненные, встает вопрос о месте, занимаемом ими в простом предложении.
Какова аранжировка слов в осложненных предложениях? Различна ли она в разных видах осложненного предложения? Если да, то какова ее роль в смысловой и конструктивной организации предложения?
Ответ на эти и многие другие вопросы поможет дать характер осложняющих элементов, тип предложения, коммуникативная установка говорящего и др.
Говоря о роли порядка слов в осложненных предложениях, целесообразно остановиться отдельно на всех его разновидностях: предложение, осложненное различного рода обособлениями, однородными членами, вводными конструкциями, обращением.
Обособленные члены получают в предложении синтаксическую самостоятельность. Они уточняют и конкретизируют какой-либо член, характеризуют его по какому-либо признаку или дают определенную оценку мысли всего предложения (подтверждают или отвергают ее), подчеркивают отношение субъекта к ней и т.д.
Неся в себе значение конкретизации и уточнения высказанной мысли, обособленные члены не образуют словосочетаний с определяемыми словами. Между ними устанавливаются полупредикативные отношения.
Обособление находится в неразрывной связи с порядком следования слов и синтаксических единиц в предложении.
Обособленные члены бывают двоякого рода: обособленные второстепенные члены (определение, обстоятельства), слова и выражения, грамматически не связанные с предложением. Таким образом, обособление подразумевает обособленные второстепенные члены предложения и слова или сочетания слов, не являющиеся членами предложения. В первую группу входят обособленные определения и обстоятельства (времени, места и образа действия). Во вторую группу входят приложение, обращение, вводные слова и словосочетания, междометия, утвердительные и отрицательные частицы.
Наличие или отсутствие обособленных слов или словосочетаний, независимо от того, являются ли они второстепенными членами или нет, не меняет тип предложения. В этом выражается особенность обособления.
Одним из основных условий обособления второстепенных членов является их расположение в предложении. Определения обособляются в позиции после определяемого слова: Шыр, езы шум хуэдэу хахуэр, тепыIэртэкъым (причастный оборот) — «Конь, как сам всадник отважный, был нетерпелив». ШыпхъуитI, зыр къикIыжауэ, зыр дэсу, иIэщи, гъэр зи кIыхьагъым хъэщIапIэ къуажэ-къуажэхэр къызэхакIухъ (Къ. Хь.) (деепричастный оборот) — «Две сестры у него, одна разведенная, другая не замужем, которые целый год в гости по селам разъезжают». Си анэ, схуэщI гъуэмылэ, ари мащIэу, ари псынщIэу, ари куэдрэ схурикъуну (Н.) (адъективный оборот) — «Моя мать, приготовь мне еду, да мало, да быстро, да чтобы долго мне хватило». Уэ, ди тхъэмадэшхуэм, абы къыхэкIкIэ фIыщIэ пхузощI (приложение) — «Вам, нашему тамаде, за это благодарен я».
При перенесении обособленных членов в препозицию нарушается условие обособления и получается простое, не осложненное предложение: Шыр, езы шум хуэдэу хахуэр, тепыIэртэкъым — «Конь, как сам всадник отважный, был нетерпелив»; Езы шум хуэдэу хахуэ шыр тепыIэртэкъым — «Как сам всадник, отважный конь был нетерпелив».
Полупредикативность обособленных обстоятельств выражается сильнее. Вследствие смысловой нагрузки и интонационного оформления обособленные обстоятельства, особенно когда ими являются причастные обороты со своими субъектами, приближаются к придаточным предложениям.
Подобно придаточным предложениям, содержащим различные обстоятельственные значения — причины, условия и так далее, причастный и деепричастный обороты в роли обстоятельства могут быть расположены как в начале, так и в конце предложения: Шу гупыр ежъащ, шы лъэмакъ ирамыгъэщIу (К1. Т.) — «Всадников группа тронулась, топота копыт не издавая». Фызьм зэрыжI1ам хуэдэу, псори гъэзэщIа хъуащ (Ш. Т.) — «Женщина сказала как, так все исполнилось».
Обособляется распространенный деепричастный оборот как перед сказуемым, так и после него. Мурат куэдрэ щысащ, гупсысэу — «Мурат долго сидел, думая». И щхьэр ехьэхауэ гупсысэу, Мурат куэдрэ щысащ — «Голову опустив думая, Мурат долго сидел».
Порядок слов не играет большой роли в обособлении сравнительного оборота. В кабардино-черкесском языке часто используются послелоги (хуэдэу ~ «словно», ещхъу — «подобно»). Их употребление делает возможным обособление сравнительного оборота независимо от его расположения в предложении: Псори къеувэкIат, сэлэт строим ещхьу — «Все выстроились, подобно солдатскому строю».
В осложненных предложениях мы наблюдаем, как порядок слов служит то средством конструктивной организации предложения, то средством разделения смысловой нагрузки между словами в предложении. Значимость обособляемого члена подчеркивается наряду с порядком слов интонацией и фразовым ударением. Это значит, что от порядка слов зависит содержание высказывания.
В иной роли выступает порядок слов в предложениях, осложненных однородными членами. Независимо от порядка следования слов в подобных предложениях однородными будут все члены предложения, отвечающие на один и тот же вопрос и выполняющие одинаковую синтаксическую функцию. Ввиду того что однородными могут быть как главные, так и второстепенные члены, место однородных членов будет определяться их синтаксической ролью в предложении. Однородные сказуемые, как и одиночные, располагаются в конце предложения. Перед сказуемым располагаются однородные подлежащие. Однородные определения (в зависимости от их морфологической природы) могут быть сосредоточены как после определяемого слова, так и перед ним. Однородные косвенные дополнения — перед сказуемым.
Но в потоке свободной, непринужденной речи невозможно строгое следование такому порядку. Однородные члены могут иногда строго следовать друг за другом, иногда, в целях решения коммуникативной задачи, допускается их дистантное расположение: однородные члены при одном слове могут быть препозиционные и постпозиционные.
Каждое из этих возможных отступлений имеет свое значение: стилистическое, эмоционально-экспрессивное, коммуникативное.
Следование однородных членов строго друг за другом в постпозиции управляющего слова свойственно книжному и научному стилю. При построении различных классификаций, выявлении некоторых особенностей авторы научной речи стремятся к исчерпывающему перечислению признаков, действий, свойственных описываемому предмету или явлению. Перечисление передается обычно длинной цепочкой однородных членов. Здесь не уместен ее разрыв, использование союзов и т.д., т.е. строгое следование однородных членов друг за другом служит одним из средств оформления научного стиля: Мы хущхъуэм щхьэ, тэмакъ, тхьэкIумэ узхэр егъэхъуж — «Это лекарство головы, горла, уха болезни лечит».
Однородные определения могут быть как постпозиционными, так и препозиционными. В препозицию выносятся однородные определения, выраженные числительными: Ди къуажэм и япэ, етIуанэ курыт еджапIэхэм ремонтыр зэфIагъэкIащ — «В нашем селе первая, вторая средние школы ремонт завершили». Однородные определения, выраженные качественными прилагательными, обычно идут за определяемым словом: унэ хужъ — «дом белый». Однородные определения, выраженные относительными прилагательными, как правило, располагаются перед определяемым словом: Дыгъуасэрей, нобэрей газетхэм сриплъащ — «Вчерашние, сегодняшние газеты я просмотрел». В приведенных примерах за однородными членами указанные места обычно сохраняются.
В речи возможно и дистантное расположение однородных членов: Къабзэщ уафэр, лъагэщ икIи зэIухащ — «Чисто небо, высоко и ясно». Разрыв ряда однородных определений определяемым словом служит передаче эмоционально-экспрессивной окраски. Подобное расположение однородных членов распространено обычно в стихотворной речи, где наряду с передачей эмоциональных оттенков значения, порядок слов служит усилению значимости первых и вторых определений. Кроме этого, подобный порядок следования однородных членов служит линейной организации главной ритмической единицы стихотворной речи — стихотворной строки.
Однородные дополнения располагаются друг за другом перед членом предложения, к которому они относятся: ЩIакхъуэри, лэкъумри хъэзыртэкъым — «И хлеб, и лакумы не были готовы». Возможен в речи и обратный порядок, когда однородные дополнения следуют за сказуемым. Вынесение сказуемого в препозицию связано с желанием говорящего акцентировать внимание на его значении: ФымыщIэ хуэдэщ хабзэ, цIыхугъэ — «Не знаете, похоже, обычаев, человечности».
Из приведенных выше примеров видим, что для однородных членов характерен последовательный порядок расположения в позиции, определенной их синтаксической ролью в предложении.
Иную аранжировку предполагают предложения, осложненные конструкциями и отдельными словами, синтаксически не связанными с предложением. Это вводные слова, водные конструкции и обращения. Не будучи синтаксически связанными с предложением, они располагаются в нем относительно свободно. Однако вводные слова, по смыслу связанные с определенным членом предложения, ставятся рядом с ним: Сэ куэдрэ абдеж сытетащ, насып сиIэти, щIыIэтэкъым — «Я долго там простоял, к счастью моему, не было холодно». Не во всех предложениях возможна постановка вводного сочетания перед любым словом. Это привело бы к искажению смысла предложения. Место вводных слов и конструкций во многом зависит от содержания предложения. Если эмоционально-оценочное значение, содержащееся во вводных словах, относится ко всему предложению в целом, они выносятся в начало предложения и, реже, в конец: КъызэрыджаIэжащи, заседанэр пщэдей ягъIэпхъуащ — «Как нам передали, заседание на завтра перенесли».
Для смыслового выделения вводного слова не безразлично место, которое оно занимает в предложении. Коммуникативная значимость вводных слов в начале предложения значительно сильнее. В такой позиции вводное слово по значению приближается к предикативной части сложного предложения: Си гугъэмкIэ, уэ ущыуакъым — «По-моему, ты не ошибся».
Роль вводного слова в середине предложения значительно ослаблена: Уэ, си гугъэмкIэ, ущыуакъым — «Ты, по-моему, не ошибся».
Большое значение имеет и характер вводных слов и конструкций. Большинство из них располагаются в начале предложения исходя из своей семантики, например вводные слова, обращенные к собеседнику: плъагъурэ — «видите ли», пщIэркъэ — «знаете ли» и так далее.
Употребляя в речи вводные слова и вводные конструкции, важно умело вписать их в предложение. Точным должен быть выбор слова и его места в предложении. Лишь в этом случае вводные слова и конструкции сделают содержание предложения насыщенным.
Место обращения в предложении не закреплено. Его свободное расположение не может исказить семантику предложения. Но от места обращения в предложении может зависеть: логическое ударение, коммуникативная установка, цель высказывания и т.д.
Обращение, стоящее в начале или в конце предложения, логически подчеркивается: Си анэ, куэдрэ узэзгъэжьа? — «Моя мать, долго я тебя заставил ждать себя?»; Куэдрэ узэзгъэжьа, си анэ? — «Долго я тебя заставил ждать себя, моя мать?»
Роль обращения, как и вводного слова, в середине предложения ослаблена: Сыт, Мурат, укъыщIызэджар? — «Почему, Мурат, ты меня звал?». Постановка обращения в середине предложения характерна для спокойной доверительной речи.
Не будучи связанным с предложением ни синтаксически, ни семантически, а лишь указывая на лицо, к которому направлено содержание высказывания, обращение располагается в предложении свободно. Варьирование его местоположения имеет лишь коммуникативную значимость. В эту же группу обособленных слов входят междометия, утвердительные и отрицательные частицы, обычно располагающиеся в абсолютной препозиции предложения: Хьэуэ, сэ нобэ сынэкIуэфынукъым — «Нет, я сегодня не смогу прийти». Хъунщ, пщэдджыжь зэгъусэу дыкIуэнщ — «Да (хорошо), завтра утром вместе пойдем».
Рецензенты:
Таов Х.Т., д.фил.н., профессор кафедры кабардинского языка ФГБОУ ВПО «Кабардино-Балкарский государственный университет им. Х.М. Бербекова», г. Нальчик;
Бижева З.Х., д.фил.н., профессор кафедры русского языка и общего языкознания ФГБОУ ВПО «Кабардино-Балкарский государственный университет им. Х.М. Бербекова», г. Нальчик.
A complex sentence
consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
Subordinate clauses function as different parts of the sentence
(subject, predicative, object, attribute, apposition, adverbial
modifier).
Clauses in a complex sentence
may be joined in two ways:
1.
Syndetically, i.e. by means of subordinating
conjunctions or connectives. There
is a difference between a conjunction and a connective. A
conjunction serves
as a formal element connecting separate clauses and expressing the
relation between them. They usually stand at the beginning of a
joined clause. A
connective serves
as a connecting link and has at the same time a syntactic function in
the subordinate clause it introduces.
She
became convinced that
some misfortune had overtaken Paul (conjunction).
All
that he
had prepared was of no use any more (connective).
2. Asyndetically, i.e. without
a conjunction or connective.
The book you gave me is very
interesting.
He said he would come in the
evening.
A complex sentence may consist
of more than two clauses. It may form a hierarchy of clauses.
I
see that you
have lost the key which I gave you.
|
Subordinate clause |
Subordinate clause |
||
The principal clause may have
several subordinate clauses of equal rank.
I
know that you
are afraid of me and that
you suspect me of
something.
|
Subordinate clause |
||
|
and |
||
Subordinate clause |
The
principal clause may have several subordinate clauses with different
functions.
All
she saw was that
she might go to prison for a robbery she had committed years ago.
Principal |
Predicative |
|||
|
clause |
|||
|
… that she might go to |
|||
Attributive |
Attributive |
|||
Clause |
clause |
|||
… she saw … |
… she had committed |
Subject
clauses
perform the
function of a subject to a predicate of the principal clause. In this
case the principal clause has no subject, the subordinate clause
serving as such. Subject clauses answer the questions What?
and Who?
What you say |
is interesting. |
What
is interesting?
Complex sentences with a
subject clause may be of two types:
1. With a subject clause
preceding the predicate of the principal clause.
What
I need is a piece
of good advice.
Because
I ask too many questions
does not mean I am curious.
How
the book will be sold
depends on its plot and the author.
2. With a subject clause in
the final position, the usual place of the subject being occupied by
formal it.
It
is strange that he
has made a mistake.
It
is uncertain when we
shall start.
It
is not known yet whether
they will come today.
Subject clauses are connected
with the principal clause in the following way:
-
by
means of conjunctions that,
if, whether.
It
is understood that
modern science allows such experiments.
b)
by means of the connectives who,
which, what, whoever, whatever, where, when,
how, why.
What
was done cannot be
undone.
Whatever
I can do for
you is paying a
debt.
c) asyndedically.
It
is a pity her
brother should be quite a stranger to her.
Predicative
clauses perform
the function of a predicative. The peculiarity of complex sentences
with a predicative clause is that in the principal clause we find
only part of the predicate –– a link verb, which together with
the predicative clause forms a compound nominal predicate.
Predicative clauses answer the questions What
is the subject? What is the subject like?
-
The trouble is
that I have lost his
address.
What
is the trouble?
Complex sentences with a predicative clause may be of two types:
-
The predicative clause may
follow the principal clause in which the subject is a notional word,
although it usually has a very general meaning.
The
problem is not who
will go, but who will say.
The
question is whether
they are able to help us.
-
The
predicative clause may follow the principal clause in which the
subject is expressed by the impersonal pronoun it.
In this case the predicative clause describes the situation, either
directly or by means of comparison.
It
appears he hasn’t
been here.
It
sounded as if it
were here.
This
type of sentences shouldn’t be confused with complex sentences with
a subject clause, which also begins with it.
In sentences with a subject clause the predicate of the principal
clause is complete, whereas in the case of a predicative clause it
consists only of the link verb. Compare:
It
seems that there is
no care (a
predicative clause).
It
seems evident that
there is no care (a
subject clause).
Predicative clauses are
connected with the principal clause in the following ways:
-
by
means of the conjunctions that,
if, whether, as if.
Our
attitude is that
facts are facts.
I
felt as if death had
laid a hand on me.
-
by
means of the connectives who,
which, what, where, when, how, why.
The
weather is not what
it was yesterday.
The
question was how was
the matter to be kept quiet.
-
asyndetically.
Another
thing was they made
him stay for one more week.
In the case when a complex
sentence consists of a subject clause and a predicative clause the
principal clause is represented only by the link verb.
-
What
he saysis
that he goes away.
a subject clause
a predicative clause
What we want to know |
is |
what the French are going |
a subject clause |
a predicative clause |
Object
clauses perform
the function of an object to the predicate-verb of the principal
clause. They answer the questions What?
About what? For what? etc.
He |
what he had seen there |
What |
An object clause may also
refer to a non-finite from of the verb, to an adjective, or to a word
denoting state.
I
left her to do
whatever she
liked.
He
has just gone away saying
that he will
return in an hour.
He
was glad that
no one was at home.
Complex sentences with an
object clause may be of two types:
-
A direct object clause, which
follows directly the word it refers to. A particular case of this
type of object clauses is indirect speech following verbs of saying.
I
know when I am
wasting time.
He
asked me if I wanted
to stay.
An
object clause may refer to formal it
followed by the objective predicative.
He
made it
clear that his
intentions were honest
I
think it necessary
that you should go
there at once.
I
like it when people
are nice to me.
-
A
prepositional object clause, when an object clause is introduced by
the prepositions after,
about, before, beyond, for, near, of, as, to, etc.
I
am not certain of what
he did.
I
want to be paid for what
I do.
Object clauses are connected
with the principal clause in the following way:
-
by
means of the conjunctions that,
if, whether.
Time
will show whether I
am right or wrong.
b)
by means of the connectives who,
which, what, whatever, whoever, where, when,
how, why.
I’ll
do just what I say.
He
wondered why he
should look back.
I
don’t know where I
have lost it.
c) asyndetically.
I
know he has
returned.
Attributive
clauses serve
as an attribute to a noun or a pronoun in the principal clause. This
pronoun or noun is called the
antecedent of the
clause. Usually the attributive clause immediately follows its
antecedent, they answer the questions What?
Which?
|
||
The man |
who was here yesterday |
is a painter. |
An
attributive clause may be introduced by connectives: relative
pronouns (who,
whose, whom, what, which, that, as) or
relative adverbs (when,
where).
The choice of relative word depends on the meaning of the antecedent.
-
If
the antecedent denotes a living being, the relative word who,
whom, whose or
that is used.
A
man whose voice
seemed familiar to me
gave commands.
-
If
the antecedent denotes a thing or notion the relative word which,
whose or
that is used.
He
went to the next house
which stood in a
small garden.
-
If
the antecedent is expressed by all
denoting a living
being the pronoun who
or that
is used; if it denotes a thing or notion the pronoun that
is generally used.
All
that
remained was to
thank them and say “good-bye”.
-
If
the antecedent is expressed by everything,
something, anything or
nothing
the relative pronoun that
is generally used
or the clause is joined asyndetically.
There
was nothing in his face that
spoke of his character.
Everything
you may want
is in the wardrobe.
-
If
the antecedent is modified by the adjective only,
the pronoun any or
by an adjective in the superlative degree, the attributive clause is
introduced by the pronoun that
or asyndetically.
There
is the only chance (that)
we have.
-
Attributive
clauses joined by the relative adverbs when,
where refer to
antecedents denoting space or time.
It
is the hour when we
asleep.
-
The
relative adverb why
refers to
antecedents denoting cause or reason.
They
see no reason why
they should do it.
Depending
on the degree of connection attributive clauses fall into two types:
attributive
restrictive clauses and
attributive
descriptive clauses.
-
Attributive restrictive
clauses are very closely connected with the antecedent and cannot be
removed from the sentence because the information contained in the
attributive clause determines or particularizes the person, thing,
idea expressed by the antecedent. Therefore the meaning of the
principal clause is not complete or even changed without the
subordinate clause.
A
library is a place where
they keep books.
This
is the kind of job I’d
like.
I
used to learn by heart the things they
had written.
-
Attributive
descriptive clauses are characterized by a looser connection with
the principal clause. Usually it contains additional information
about the antecedent and may be left out without any serious change
in the meaning of the principal clause. They are joined by the same
connectives as restrictive clauses, although the relative pronoun
that
and asyndetic connection are not possible.
I
returned to London, where
I remained for a week.
I
consulted my father who
promised to help me.
All
that could be done
had been done.
An
attributive descriptive clause referring to a whole clause, sentence,
series of sentences or even a whole story is called continuative
attributive clause.
He
was not indoors, which
was a relief to her.
She
lived in two rooms over a teashop, which
was convenient,
since she could send down for cakes if she had visitors.
Attributive
appositive clauses.
Unlike an apposition in a simple sentence, which usually gives
another name to the person or thing disignated by the antecedent, an
appositive clause discloses the meaning of the antecedent, which is
expressed by an abstract noun. Appositive clauses are chiefly
introduced by the conjunction that,
occasionally by the
conjunction whether
or by the
connectives how
and why.
They are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically, e.g.
He
stopped in the hope that
she would speak.
The
question whether it
was he or was hotly
discussed.
The
matter how and why
those people got the information
still
worried him.
Adverbial
clauses perform the
function of an adverbial modifier. They can modify a verb, an
adjective or an adverb in the principal clause. They answer the
questions of adverbial modifiers.
I saw him |
when I was at the club |
When |
Adverbial clauses are joined
to the principal clause by means of subordinating conjunctions; they
are not joined to the principal clause asyndetically except sometimes
adverbial clauses of condition. According to their meaning we
distinguish adverbial clauses of time, place, cause (reason),
purpose, condition, concession, result, manner and comparison.
Adverbial
clauses of time
show the time of the action expressed in the principal clause. They
are introduced by the following conjunctions: when,
while, whenever, as, till, until, as soon as, since, after, before,
now, that.
My
sister was born when
I was eight
years old.
I
stopped as soon as I
saw Susan.
Whenever
there was a pause, he gently asked again.
After
the agreement had been signed, the delegation left
Moscow.
We
have not had any news from him since he left Moscow.
The conjunctions
till and until introduce clause which fix the end of
the action in the principal clause if the latter contains no
negation.
She resolved to
wait till Clym came to look for her.
If the time
reference in the subordinate clause with till or until
is to a commencement point, the main clause is always negative.
He did not say a
word till he was asked.
They did not marry
until she was forty.
The boy did not
start to read until he went to school.
The conjunction
since may introduce a clause which indicates the beginning of
a period of time continuing until now or until some time in the past.
In the first case the
Present Perfect is used in the principal clause, in the second
–– the Past Perfect. In the temporal clause the Past
Indefinite is used in both cases.
I have only seen
him once since I left school.
Adverbial clauses in
sentences of the following type are also clauses of time.
Scarcely had
his hands touched her head, when she sighed deeply.
Hardly
had they entered the house, when a violent
thunderstorm broke out.
No sooner had
I wiped one drop from my cheek, than another
followed.
The conjunctions
when and than introducing adverbial clauses of time are
correlated with the adverbs scarcely, hardly and no sooner
in the principal clause.
Adverbial
clauses of place show the place or the direction of
the action in the principal clause. They are introduced by the
conjunctions where and whenever.
I like to spend my
leave where I can shoot.
He went where
the doctor sent him.
Whenever he
went, he was welcome.
Adverbial
clauses of cause (reason) show the cause or motivation
of the action expressed in the principal clause. They are introduced
by the conjunctions as, because, since, for fear (that); in
official style they may also be introduced by the conjunctions on
the ground that, for the reason that, in view of the fact that, in so
far as, etc.
I went away
because there was no one there.
He walked quickly
for he was in a great hurry.
Since you
have finished your work, you may go home.
Now that he
is here, he can help you.
Each of the
conjunctions expresses a certain shade of causative meaning, and so
they are not always interchangeable. Because usually
introduces clauses with the meaning of real cause. This can be
illustrated by the ability of because-clauses (but not others)
to be included in questions. Thus it is correct to say:
Did you ask him
because he was famous?
But it is wrong to
say:
Did you ask him since he was famous?
Unlike because the conjunctions since and as
introduce clauses with an explanatory meaning or that of
motivation.
Since you
are here, we may begin our talk.
The other reason why
causal conjunctions are not always interchangeable with because,
is that some of them are polyfunctional: as and since may
be conjunctions of time, as well as of cause.
We
had to carry the luggage ourselves as there were no
porters (causal relation).
His
mood changed as they marched down to the clocks
(temporal relation).
Adverbial
clauses of purpose generally contain a planned action, which
is to be achieved by the action expressed by the predicate or any
verbal part in the principal clause. The predicate in the subordinate
clause is in the Subjunctive mood. Adverbial clauses of purpose are
introduced by conjunctions that, so that, lest, so as, so, in
order that, for fear that.
The teacher speaks
slowly so that his pupils may understand him.
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A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought and contains a subject and a predicate. The most basic sentence structure consists of only one clause. However, many sentences have one main clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
The standard order of words in an English sentence is subject + verb + object. While this sounds simple, it may be difficult to identify the subject(s), verb(s), and object(s), depending on the structure and complexity of the sentence. There are four types of sentence structure: (1) simple, (2) compound, (3) complex, and (4) compound-complex.
Types of sentence structures
Sentence structure type | Sentence parts | Example |
---|---|---|
Simple Sentence |
Independent clause |
I like animals. |
Compound Sentence |
Independent clause + coordinating |
I like animals, |
Complex Sentence |
Independent clause + |
I like animals |
Compound-Complex Sentence |
Independent clause + |
I like animals |
Sentence Structures in Academic Writing
Simple Sentence Structure
A simple sentence is the most basic sentence structure and consists of a single independent clause.
Types of clauses
An independent clause expresses a full thought. Only independent clauses can function as complete sentences.
- Example
- The proposed system has the advantage of a wide scope.
I went shopping last weekend.
The cat is sleeping by the window.
In contrast, a dependent clause does not express a full thought and cannot function as a complete sentence.
- Example
- which was developed over three months
even though I was tired
because the weather is sunny
A dependent clause starts with either a relative pronoun or subordinating conjunction.
Common subordinating conjunctions
because, since, once, although, if, until, unless, why, while, whether, than, that, in order to
Common relative pronouns
that, which, who, whom, whoever, whomever
Subject of a sentence
The subject is whatever is performing the action of the sentence. This is the first of the two basic components of a sentence.
- Example
- This study investigated the relationship between the personal traits and clinical parameters.
- Example
- Dolly made a cake for the party.
Predicate of a sentence
The predicate contains the verb (the action) and can include further clarifying information.
- Example
- This study investigated the relationship between the personal traits and clinical parameters.
- Example
- Mary gave her sheep a bath.
Direct and Indirect Objects
The direct object is the person, thing, or idea that receives an action.
- Example
- This study investigated the relationship between the personal traits and clinical parameters.
- Example
- Dolly made a cake.
The indirect object is the person, thing, or idea for which an action is being done.
- Example
- The national lab offered us an opportunity to work on an exciting new project.
- Example
- Mary gave her sheep a bath.
Transitive vs. Intransitive Verbs
A transitive verb is the action the subject takes on a direct object.
- Example
- We fabricated a composite.
Here, “we” is the subject, “fabricated” is the transitive verb, and “a composite” is the direct object.
An intransitive verb is a verb that does not have to be followed by an object. Intransitive verbs can function as predicates all on their own.
- Example
- We arrived.
We arrived early.
- Example
- I always eat.
I always eat before work.
“We” and “I” are the subjects; “arrived” and “eat” are intransitive verbs.
Subject Complement
A subject complement complements the subject by renaming or describing it. Subject complements always follow a linking verb, which is often a form of the verb “to be.”
- Example
- The material is a gold composite.
“Gold composite” renames the subject “the material.”
- Example
- Charlotte is very pretty.
“Pretty” describes the subject “Charlotte.”
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Compound Sentence Structure
A compound sentence is composed of two or more independent clauses connected by a coordinating conjunction or semicolon. Note that US English conventions dictate that coordinating conjunctions must be used with a comma when joining independent clauses.
Structure of a Compound Sentence: Independent clause + coordinating conjunction (or semicolon) + independent clause
List of coordinating conjunctions: and, but, yet, or, nor, for, so
- Example
- The material is a gold composite, and it was fabricated in clean room no. 45.
- Example
- Glenda usually eats before work, but today she could not.
- Example
- The proposed system has the advantage of a wide scope; it uses a novel algorithm that expands the range by a factor of ten.
Complex Sentence Structure
A complex sentence is composed of an independent clause and a dependent clause.
Structure of a Complex Sentence: Independent clause + subordinating conjunction (or relative pronoun) + dependent clause
- Example
- We built a new system because the previous model had to be narrowed in scope.
- Example
- Sarah will buy a train ticket if her flight is cancelled.
Compound-Complex Sentence Structure
A compound-complex sentence is composed of two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses.
Structure of a Compound-Complex Sentence: Independent clause + subordinating conjunction + dependent clause + coordinating conjunction + independent clause
- Example
- The first method failed because it caused the wires to melt, but the second method succeeded in bending the wires without causing the same issue.
- Example
- Sarah’s flight took off before she started driving to the airport, so she drove to the train station instead.
What is a Complex Sentence?
In English language the sentences are classified into several categories depending on their function, structure etc. There are mainly four types of sentence structures. Each sentence structure uses a specific combination of independent clauses, also called main clauses, and dependent clauses also called subordinate clauses. A complex sentence is one among these four sentence structures. An independent clause can stand alone as a sentence, but a dependent clause even though it has a subject and a verb cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be linked to the independent clause by a subordinate conjunction.
Prerequisites to comprehend this article
For grasping the contents of this article, it’s essential that you have sufficient knowledge of the following grammatical terms:
- Sentences
- Sentence Structure
- Subject
- Simple subject
- Complete subject
- Compound subject
- Predicate
- Simple predicate
- Complete predicate
- Compound predicate
- Object
- Direct object
- Indirect object
- Object to preposition
- Clauses
- Dependent clauseaka Subordinate clause
- Adverb clause aka Adverbial clause
- Adjective clause aka Relative clause
- Noun clause aka Content clause
- Independent clause aka Coordinate clause/Main clause/Principal clause
- Dependent clauseaka Subordinate clause
- Linking words aka Connectives
- Subordinating conjunctions
- Subordinating conjunctions of Comparison
- Subordinating conjunctions of Concession
- Subordinating conjunctions of Contrast
- Subordinating conjunctions of Manner
- Subordinating conjunctions of Place
- Subordinating conjunctions of Reason
- Subordinating conjunctions of Time
- Relative pronouns
- Relative adverbs
- Subordinating conjunctions
- Verb
- Finite verb
- Nonfinite verb
A complex sentence is a sentence that consists of an independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. We use complex sentences to show the relationship between two ideas and indicate which of the two ideas is more important.
Example:
- I opened my eyes. I heard the alarm ringing.
Given above are two simple sentences or in other words two independent clauses. Reading these sentences, we can only guess the relation between the two ideas. But by combining these two ideas into a complex sentence, the idea of these two simple sentences can be made specifically clear as shown below:
- I opened my eyes when I heard the alarm ringing.
Now the idea is noticeably clear. By adding the subordinate conjunction, “when” we transformed the independent clause, ” I heard the alarm ringing”, to a dependent clause it cannot stand alone. It is dependent on the other independent clause, “I heard the alarm ringing”. Not only the meaning of the ideas became clear; but it has also highlighted the importance of the independent clause,” I opened my eyes.”
From the above example, it is evident that simple sentences are not able to express the relationship between two ideas explicitly, and complex sentences are essential for this purpose. The subordinate conjunctions help complex sentences for performing this function.
There are a lot of subordinate conjunctions in English language to show different types of relationships like Time, Place, Concession, Comparison, Condition, Manner, Reason etc. Relative pronoun and relative adverb also connect the clauses and indicate some specific relation. Depending on the context we must choose suitable subordinate conjunctions, so that the relationship between the ideas will be clear. Some of the most common subordinate conjunctions, relative pronoun, and relative adverb are given below, along with examples of complex sentences, so that we may get an idea of how these subordinate conjunctions and other connective words are used.
Examples of complex sentences using different types of subordinate conjunctions:
1. Subordinate conjunction of Time
- After he had a nap, he began to watch a film on the TV.
(In this complex sentence, “After he had a nap “is the dependent clause. This is connected to the independent clause,” he began to watch a film on the TV,” with the subordinate conjunction, “after” that shows the time.)
Some other common subordinate conjunctions which show “time” are:
Before
As long as
As soon as
Till
Since
2. Subordinate conjunction of Place
- This is the school where I studied.
(In this complex sentence, ” where I studied. “is the dependent clause. This is connected to the independent clause,” This is the school.” with the subordinate conjunction, “where”, that shows the place.)
“Wherever” is another commonly used subordinate conjunctions which shows “place”.
3. Subordinate conjunction of Concession
- Though it was raining, she went out.
(In this complex sentence, ” Though it was raining “is the dependent clause. This is connected to the independent clause,” she went out.” with the subordinate conjunction, “though”, that shows concession.)
Some other common subordinate conjunctions which show “concession” are:
Although
Even though
4. Subordinate conjunction of Comparison
- My brother smarter than I am.
(In this complex sentence, ” than I am “is the dependent clause. This is connected to the independent clause,” My brother smarter.” with the subordinate conjunction, “than” that shows comparison.)
Some other common subordinate conjunctions which show “Comparison ” are:
Rather than
As much as
Whereas
5. Subordinate conjunction of Condition
- If my only son goes to USA, I will be lonely.
(In this complex sentence, ” If my only son goes to USA” is the dependent clause. This is connected to the independent clause,”, I will be lonely.” with the subordinate conjunction, ” if”, that shows condition.)
Some other common subordinate conjunctions which show “condition ” are:
Only if
Unless
Provided that
6. Subordinate conjunction of Manner
- The husband and wife looked each other as though they are going to start an altercation.
(In this complex sentence, “as though they are going to start an altercation” is the dependent clause. This is connected to the independent clause, ” I will be lonely ” with the subordinate conjunction, “as though“, that shows manner.)
Some other common subordinate conjunctions which show “manner” are:
As
As if
Note: When we talk about an unreal situation, we use past tense after “as if” and “as though”. Then we can use ” were “with she, he, and I.
Example:
- He treats me as if I were a small child.
7. Subordinate conjunction of Reason
She never scolds her naughty little brother because she loves him so much.
(In this complex sentence, “ because she loves him so much. ” is the dependent clause. This is connected to the independent clause, “She never scolds her naughty little brother ” with the subordinate conjunction, “because “, that shows reason.)
Some other common subordinate conjunctions which show “reason ” are:
Since
As
So that
8. Relative Pronoun
A Relative Pronoun is a pronoun used to connect a subordinate clause (relative clause) to the main clause. Like any other pronoun it has the grammatical function of a noun, and acts as the subject/ object of the relative clause.
Example:
She is the girl who sits next to me in the class
(In this complex sentence, ” who sits next to me in the class ” is the dependent clause (relative clause). This is connected to the independent clause, ” She is the girl” with the Relative Pronoun, “who “, which is the subject of the dependent clause too.)
The five common relative pronouns are:
Who
Whom
which
Whose
That
9. Relative Adverb
A Relative adverb is an adverb used to connect a subordinate clause (relative clause) to the main clause. Like many other adverbs, it modifies a verb.
Example:
I love the village where I was born.
The Relative Adverbs are:
Where
When
Why
Structure, Order and Punctuation of Complex Sentence.
Structure: As already stated above a complex sentence consists of an independent clause/main clause, and one or more dependent clauses/subordinate clauses connected to the main clause using subordinate conjunction. The dependent clause may be adverbial clause, adjective clause/Relative clause, or noun clause.
Order: The order of the clauses in a complex sentence is flexible. We can structure the sentence with either the dependent clause first or the independent clause first without any change in meaning.
Punctuation: When the dependent clause is placed first, it is general followed by a comma. But when the independent clause comes first, usually comma is not required.
Examples:
Before you eat anything with your hand, you must wash your hand thoroughly.
In the above sentence, “before you eat anything with your hand “is a dependent clause. It is an adverbial clause of time. It is at the beginning of the sentence, so it is followed by a comma. The same sentence is rewritten below, in which the independent clause is written first. Then no comma is placed.
You must wash your hand thoroughly before you eat anything with your hand.
The bird that is singing so sweetly is a koel
In the above sentence, “that is singing so sweetly” is the dependent clause. Here it is an adjective/ relative clause.
I know that he is lying.
In the above sentence, “that he is lying” is the dependent clause. Here it is a noun clause as it is the object of the verb, “know”.
A complex sentence can add variety and depth to our writing. From the above article, when we use simple sentence, it is difficult to convey the ideas explicitly. But when we use complex sentences, we can convey cause and effect, progression of events etc., clearly, with the help of subordinate clauses, selecting most suitable subordinate conjunctions.