Word order and collocations

• Grammar
• Syntax

Syntax

Syntax is a section of the science of language that studies phrases and sentences.

Proposals are formed from words and phrases.

The sentence is one of the basic units of the language and the basic unit of syntax. With the help of the sentence, we express our thoughts and feelings, we address each other with questions, advices, requests, orders.

A sentence is a word or a few words that contain a message, a question or an urge (order, advice, request). The sentence is characterized by intonation and is a separate utterance.

The sentence has a grammatical basis, consisting of the main members (subject and predicate) or one of them:

• Началась весна.

  (= Spring began.)
• Зеленеет трава.

  (= The grass is green.)

• Сумерки.

  (= Twilights)

• Вечереет.

  (= It is getting dark.)

The sentences may be simple and complex. A complex sentence consists of two or more simple sentences. A complex sentence, like a simple one, is a single whole. The sentences that are part of its composition are related to each other in meaning, intonation and lexical means.

Principal parts of the sentence

The main parts of the sentence are the subject and the predicate.

The subject is the main part of the sentence, which is related to the predicate and to the the nominative case

кто?
(= who?)

or

что?
(= what?)

:

• Установилась хорошая (что?) погода.

  (= The (what?) weather is good.)

• (Кто?) Дети вернулись из школы.

  (= The (who?) children returned from school.)

A predicate is the main member of a sentence that is related to the subject and is used for questions

что делает предмет?
(= what the subject is doing?)

,

что с ним происходит?
(= what is happening to it?)

,

что он такое?
(= what is it?)

,

кто он такой?
(= who is he?)

, etc.

• Листья на деревьях пожелтели. (что сделали?)

  (= The leaves in the trees turned yellow. (what have leaves done?))

• Студенты занимаются в читальном зале. (что делают?)

  (= Students are studying in the reading room. (What are they doing?))
• Москва – столица России. (что такое Москва? что есть Москва?)

  (= Moscow is the capital of Russia. (What is Moscow?))

Subordinate parts of the sentence

The parts of the sentence that explain the main or other parts of the sentence are called subordinate.

The object is a subordinate part of the sentence, answering questions of oblique cases and denoting the subject.

The attribute is a subordinate part of the sentence that answers questions

какой?
(= which?)

,

чей?
(= whose?)

The adverbal modifier is a subordinate part of the sentence that expresses a sign of action or other indication. It explains the predicate or other parts of the sentence. The adverbal modifiers answer questions

как?
(= how?)

,

каким образом?
(= how come?)

,

где?
(= where?)

,

куда?
(= where to?)

,

откуда?
(= from where?)

,

зачем?
(= why? / for what?)

,

при каком условии?
(= under what condition?)

,

почему?
(= why?)

,

отчего?
(= why? / from what cause?)

,

как долго?
(= how long?)

and other.

Types of subordinate parts	Questions that are answered by subordinate parts	Examples
Object	questions of oblique cases	Учитель дал (кому?) мне задание. The teacher gave (to whom?) me a task.
Attribute	какой? (= which?) , чей? (= whose?)	На его лице была (какая?) весёлая улыбка. He had a (what?) cheerful smile on his face
Adverbal modifier	как? (= how?) , каким образом? (= how come?) , где? (= where?) , куда? (= where to?) , откуда? (= from where?) , зачем? (= why? / for what?) , при каком условии? (= under what condition?) , почему? (= why?) , отчего? (= why? / from what cause?) , как долго? (= how long?)	(когда?) Сегодня русский язык изучает много людей. (when?) Today the Russian language is studied by many people.

Simple sentence

A simple sentence is a sentence that has one grammatical basis. It can consist of:

• Two main parts — subject and predicate:
  

  Кругом лежит снег.
  (= Snow is everywhere around.)
  

• or of only one subject:
  

  Зима. Кругом много снега.
  (= It’s winter. The snow’s around. )
  

• or of only one predicate:
  

  Вечереет. Небо на западе порозовело.
  (= It’s getting dark. The sky has turned pink on the west.)
  

The subject and the predicate may include dependent words — dependend parts of the sentence.

The parts of the sentence are divided into main and subordinate.

Simple sentence according to the presence or absence of subordinate parts

The sentences are divided into simple and complex. Both simple and complex sentences can be expanded and unextended, that is, they may or may not contain, in addition to the main parts some subordinate parts (definitions, additions, circumstances, etc.):

• Он пришёл очень быстро.

  
  He came very quickly.

  (expanded)

• Он пришёл.

  
  He came.

  (unextended)

Simple sentence according to the presence or absence of neccessary parts of the sentence

By the presence or absence of the necessary parts the simple sentences are divided into complete and incomplete.

Complete simple sentences contain all the parts of the sentence that are necessary for the structure:

• Небо на востоке озарялось розовым светом.

  
  The sky in the east was illuminated by a pink light.

Incomplete simple sentences have lack one main or subordinate part that is easily restored in meaning:

• Коля пошёл в спортзал, а я – в бассейн.

  
  Kolya went to the gym, and I went to the pool.

(the predicate went is missed)

Types of simple sentences according to the purpose of the saying

For the purpose of the statement — message, question, motivation — simple sentences are divided into narrative, interrogative and motivational.

In narrative sentences, an event or fact is reported:

• Один берег реки был высокий и обрывистый.

  
  One side of the river was high and steep.

• Другой берег реки был низкий и ровный.

  
  The other side of the river was low and level.

Interrogatory sentences express the question:

• Кто сегодня опоздал?

  
  Who is late today?

• Где будет проходить выставка?

  
  Where will the exhibition be?

• Вы знаете, где находится музей?

  
  Do you know where the museum is?

Various motives for action such as an order, a request, an appeal, a demand, a recommendation, etc. are expressed in the imperative sentences.

• Посмотри вокруг.

  
  Look around.

• Пойдём в парк.

  
  Let’s go to the park.

• Ешь побыстрее!

  
  Eat quickly!

Types of simple sentences according to the emotional coloring

Simple sentences can additionally express the emotions and feelings of the speaker. Such sentences are pronounced with the intonation of exclamation. Such sentences are called exclamatory.

• Какая кругом красота!

  
  Such a beauty around!

• Ребята, послушайте!

  
  Kids, listen!

Sentences without expression of feelings are called non-exclamatory. Such sentences have either narrative or interrogative intonation.

Every simple sentence can be an exclamatory by the purpose of the statement:

• narrative exclamatory sentence:
  • Как хорошо в лесу!

    
    How good it is in the forest!

  • Как прекрасна весна!

    
    What a wonderful spring!

• interrogative exclamatory sentence:
  • Неужели ты этого не знал?!

    
    Did not you know that?!
• imperative exclamatory sentence:
  • Пойдём на бассейн!

    
    Let’s go to the pool!

Declarative sentence

Narrative sentences are divided into affirmative and negative, in accordance with the statement or denial of the thought expressed in the sentence.

• Погода стояла тихая, тёплая, безветренная.

  
  The weather was quiet, warm, windless.

  affirmative sentence

• Ничего не было слышно из-за громкой музыки.

  
  Nothing was heard because of the loud music.

  negative sentence
  

In Russian, negation is expressed with the help of a negative particle

не
(= not)

and a word

нет
(= there is not)

.

If the particle

не
(= not)

is placed before the predicate, then the whole thought, reported in the sentence, is denied; If the particle

нет
(= there is not)

is before any other part of the sentence, then some part of the statement is denied.

• Я завтра не приду в университет.

  
  I will not go to university tomorrow.

• Нет, я не тебе меня судить.

  
  No, don’t you judge me.

Simple sentence according to the presence of principal parts of the sentence

By the presence of main parts, simple sentences are divided into two-part and one-part sentences.

A two-part sentence is a simple sentence with the subject and the predicate as necessary components:

• Они громко засмеялись.

  
  They laughed out loud.

• Он был очень умён.

  
  He was very clever.

• Весело сияет месяц над селом.

  
  The moon is shining brightly over the village.

A one-part sentence sentence is a simple sentence with only one main part (with or without dependent words). Depending on this, these sentences can be nominal (only a subject) and verbal (only a predicate). One-part sentence sentences are:

• Indefinitely-personal {/ b} — the main part can be expressed by the verb of the 3. person plural of the present or future tense or the verb of the past tense in plural. Indeterminate-personal sentences are used when the person is unknown:
  • Меня вызвали к директору.

    
    I was summoned to the director.
  • За рекой косили.

    
    The mowing was performed behind the river.

• Generalized-personal{/ b} — most often found in proverbs, sayings, descriptions; the main part in such sentences is expressed by the verb of the 2nd person singular and plural present and future tense or the verb of imperative mood:
  • Что посеешь, то и пожнёшь

    
    What goes around comes around.
    

• {B} Impersonal {/ b} — can not be of a person. The predicate is usually expressed by an impersonal verb:
  • На улице стемнело.

    
    It got dark.
• {B} Definitely-personal {/ b} — in the sentences, the main part can be expressed by the verb of the 1st or 2nd person singular or plural, present or future tense, as well as the verb of imperative mood:
  • Стою и смотрю.

    (= I stand and look.)

• Infinitive sentence, because the main term is infinitive:
  • Вам уже exать.

    (= It’s time for you to go.)

  • Спать!

    (= Sleep!)

• Nominal is a sentence in which the main member is correlated with the subject of a two-part sentence and expressed by noun in the singular nominative case.

  Ночь.
  (= Night.)
  
  ,

  Улица.
  (= Street.)
  
  ,

  Фонарь.
  (= Street lamp.)
  
  ,

  Аптека.
  (= Pharmacy.)
  

Complex sentence

Composite sentence consists of two or more simple sentences, related in meaning and/or with the help of connective word. Composite sentences are divided into:

• Compound sentences in which simple sentences are equal in meaning and are bound by co-ordinating conjunction

  и
  (= and)
  
  ,

  а
  (= but)
  
  ,

  но
  (= but)
  
  ,

  да
  (= yes (=and))
  
  ,

  или
  (= or)
  
  ,

  либо
  (= or)
  
  ,

  однако
  (= but)
  
  ,

  зато
  (= on the other hand)
  
  , as well as by compound co-ordinating conjunction

  ни… ни…
  (= neither … nor)
  
  ,

  то… то…
  (= now…now)
  
  ,

  то ли…, то ли…
  (= whether … or)
  
  ,

  не то…, не то…
  (= either … or)
  
  , etc.:

  • Дождь кончился, и взошло солнце.

    
    The rain was over and the sun rose.

  • То кто-то закричит, то кто-то запоёт.

    
    Once someone screams, once someone sings.

• Complex sentences where one simple sentence is subordinate to the other in meaning and is associated with it by means of subordinating conjunctions and connctive words:

  что
  (= that)
  
  ,

  чтобы
  (= to)
  
  ,

  где
  (= where)
  
  ,

  когда
  (= when)
  
  ,

  куда
  (= where)
  
  ,

  почему
  (= why)
  
  ,

  если (ежели)
  (= if)
  
  ,

  как
  (= as; like)
  
  ,

  пока
  (= while)
  
  ,

  хотя
  (= although)
  
  ,

  поэтому
  (= that’s why)
  
  ,

  какой
  (= which)
  
  ,

  который
  (= which)
  
  ,

  чей
  (= whose )
  
  etc., as well as complex subordinate conjunction:

  благодаря тому что
  (= due to the fact that)
  
  ,

  ввиду того что
  (= owing to the fact that)
  
  ,

  вследствие того что
  (= as a result of the fact that)
  
  ,

  вместо того чтобы
  (= instead of)
  
  ,

  несмотря на то что
  (= notwithstanding)
  
  ,

  прежде чем
  (= before)
  
  ,

  с тех пор как
  (= since)
  
  etc. The subordinating conjunction and the connective word are always in the subordinate clause:

  • Он знал, что до конце лекции осталось несколько минут.

    
    He knew that there were a few minutes left until the end of the lecture.

  • Маша не хотела, чтобы её ждали.

    
    Masha did not want to be waited for.

  • В окно я увидел, как маленькая синичка села на ветку.

    
    In the window I saw a little blue bun sitting on a branch.

• Asyndetic sentenses are the sentences where simple sentences are combined without conjunctions or connecting words. The means of communication is content and intonation:

  • Машина резко тронулась, мотор заворчал, все откинулись на сиденья.

    
    The car jerked off, the engine began to grumble, everybody leaned back against the seats.

Compound sentences

Complex sentences, in which simple sentences are equal in meaning and are bound together by coordinating conjunctions, are called compound sentences.

In compound sentences, simple sentences are joined by coordinationg conjunctions:

connective:

и
(= and)

,

да (= и)
(= yes (=and))

,

ни… ни…
(= nor… nor…)

,

тоже
(= also,)

,

также
(= as well,)

,

не только… но и
(= not only… but)

,

как… так и
(= as… same …)

separating:

то… то
(= then… then…)

,

не то… не то…
(= not… not)

,

или
(= or)

,

или… или
(= or… or)

,

либо
(= or)

alternative

а
(= but)

,

но
(= but)

,

да (= но)
(= yes (=but))

,

однако (же)
(= however)

,

зато
(= instead)

,

но зато
(= but instead)

Compound sentences

Complex sentences, in which one simple sentence is subordinate to the other and is associated with it by a subordinate conjunction or a connective word, are called compound sentences.

In a complex sentence, one simple sentence is the main one, and the other is the subordinate clause.

Subclause joins the main sentence with the help of subordinate conjunctions or connective words (see above).

Connective words are relative pronouns (which, which, whom, by whom, by whom, etc.) and adverbs (where, from where, etc.), used in the role of subordinate conjunctions.

Types of subordinate clauses as part of the necessary parts of the sentence

Complicated sentences on the meaning of the subordinate clause are divided into three groups: determinative, explanatory and circumstantial.

The subordinate determinative sentences refer to the noun in the main sentence, giving it a characteristic or attribute. The question

какой?
(= which?)

is used for the subordinate determinative sentences from the defined word (noun in the main sentence)

• Картина (какая), которую я увидел в дальней комнате, меня ошеломила своим великолепием.

  
  The picture (which), which I saw in the back room, stunned me with its magnificence.

Subordinate explanatory sentences refer to the main sentence to words with the meaning of speech (to speak, to ask, to answer), of thought (to think, to decide, to reflect) and of feelings (to feel, to rejoice, happy, sorry) and they clarify (that is, supplement, explain, disclose) the meaning of these words. Caseifiable questions are used from such words to subordinate explanatory sentences:

• Он явился с известием (о чём?), что лошади готовы.

  
  He appeared with the news (about what?) that the horses are ready.

Subadverbal modifiers refer to verbs or words with circumstantial meaning in the main sentence and specify the place, time, cause, purpose of the action, etc.

Subclauses with the meaning of place denote the place of action referred to in the main sentence and answer questions

где?
(= where?)

,

куда?
(= where to?)

,

откуда?
(= where from?)

• Деревья кругом (где?), куда ни глянешь, были все золотые и красные.

  
  Trees are all around (where?), wherever you look, all golden and red.

Subclauses with a time value specify the time of the action described in the main sentence and answer questions

когда?
(= when?)

,

с какого времени?
(= since when?)

,

до какого времени?
(= to when?)

• Когда уже все расселись, в огромном театре потухли сразу все лампочки. (когда потухли?)

  
  When everyone was already seated, all the light died out in the huge theater. (When did they die out?)

Subclauses with the meaning of the condition specify the condition under which the action referred to in the main sentence passes or can pass, and answer the question

при каком условии?
(= under what condition?)

• Хорошо (при каком условии?), когда за окнами шумят деревья.

  
  It’s nice (under what condition?), when there is a noise of the threes behind the windows.

Subclauses with the meaning of the reason specify the reason of the action referred to in the main sentence and answer the question

по какой причине?
(= for what reason?)

• Они вернулись (по какой причине?), потому что забыли дома ключ.

  
  They returned (for what reason?), because they forgot the key at home.

Subclauses with the meaning of the goal specify the purpose of the action referred to in the main sentence and answer the question

с какой целью?
(= for what aim?)

,

для чего?
(= What for?)

• Она вернулась (с какой целью? для чего?), чтобы взять зонт.

  
  She returned (for what purpose? for what?), to take an umbrella.

Subclauses with the meaning of the effect clarify the results of the action described in the main sentence and answer the question

что из этого следует?
(= what follows from this?)

• Я вернулся в родной город (что из этого следует?), поэтому скоро снова смогу увидеть дорогие мне с детства лица.

  
  I returned to my hometown (what follows from this?), so I will see the faces dear to me from childhood again.

Subclauses with the meaning of the mode of action clarify the image (nature) of the action mentioned in the main sentence, and answer questions

как?
(= how?)

,

каким образом?
(= how come?)

• Человек этот вёл себя так (как?), как будто никого рядом не было.

  
  This man behaved as if (how?) no one was around.

Subclauses with the meaning of measure and degree specify the measure and degree of action referred to in the main sentence and answer questions

в какой мере?
(= to what extent?)

,

в какой степени?
(= to what degree?)

,

до какой степени?
(= to what degree?)

,

сколько?
(= how many/much?)

,

насколько?
(= How much?)

• Она знала жизнь настолько плохо (насколько?), насколько это возможно в 20 лет.

  
  She knew life so little (how much?) as it’s possible when being 20 years old.

Subclauses with the comparison refine the actions on the basis of comparison with a similar object or event and answer questions

как что?
(= like what?)

,

как кто?
(= like who?)

,

чем что?
(= than what?)

,

чем кто?
(= than who?)

,

подобно чему?
(= similarly to what?)

,

подобно кому?
(= similarly to who?)

• С острыми звуками (подобными чему?), будто кто-то бьёт мелкой дробью в барабан, дожди стучит по подоконнику.

  
  With sharp sounds (like what?), as if someone is beating drum-roll, the rain is knocking on the windowsill.

Subclauses with the value of the assignment indicate an action that is opposed to the action in the main sentence and answer question

несмотря на что?
(= despite what?)

• Было уже достаточно тепло (несмотря на что?), несмотря на то, что кругом лежал рыхлый, тяжёлый снег.

  
  It was already warm enough (despite what?), despite the fact that there was a loose, heavy snow all around.

Word order in word collocations

At the neutral order of words in phrases:

• the adjective precedes the noun (

  интересная выставка
  (= an interesting exhibition)
  
  );

• the dependent word follows the main (

  в центре города
  (= at the center of the city)
  
  ,

  читает газету
  (= reading newspaper)
  
  );

• adverbs as -о, -е, precede the verb (

  хорошо танцует
  (= good dancer)
  
  ), and adverbs with the prefix по- and the suffix -ски follow the verb (

  пишет по-русски
  (= writing in Russian)
  
  );

• the subject group is in front of the predicate group (

  Брат читает.
  (= The brother is reading.)
  
  );

• the determinant denoting the place or time can be at the beginning of the sentence, followed by the predicate group, followed by the subject group (

  В городе есть театр.
  (= There is a theatre in the city.)
  
  );

• The dependent case form follows the verb (

  пришёл в класс
  (= came to the class)
  
  ).

Word order in the sentence

In the neutral order of words in the sentence:

• Preposition of the subject group, postposition of the predicate group:

  • Сестра пишет.

    (= The sister is writing.)

  • Брат читает.

    (= The brother is reading.)

• The determinant at the beginning of the sentence (the preposition of the predicate group, the postposition of the subject group):

  • Зимой начались каникулы.

    
    In the winter holidays began.

  • Весной распускаются деревья.

    
    In the spring trees bloom.

• Dependence of the order of words in the sentence on the actual division:

  • Игорь вернулся поздно вечером. (Когда вернулся Игорь?)

    
    Igor came back at night. (When did Igor came back?)

  • Поздно вечером вернулся Игорь. (Кто вернулся поздно вечером?)

    
    Igor came back at night. (Who came back late at night?)

Direct speech

A direct speech is exactly reproduced someone else’s speech, reproduced on behalf of the one who pronounced, thought or wrote it:

• Таня помолчали и опять спросила: «Так куда же мы сегодня пойдём?»

  
  Tanya paused and again asked: «So where are we going today?»

The sentence with a direct speech consists of two parts: the speech of someone else and the author’s words that accompany a direct speech. These parts are linked together unconditionally, united by intonation and meaning.

The author’s words indicate:

• who owns a direct speech:
  • «Ты что тут делаешь?» – спросил другой детский голос.

    
    «What are you doing here?» asked another child’s voice.

• When the speech was made, under what circumstances:
  • «Смотри, плачет!» – раздалось за кустами.

    
    «Look, he is crying!» — someone’s voice came from behind bushes.

• the speech manner of speaking person:
  • «Ему же вредно волноваться!» – скороговоркой сказала сестра.

    
    «It’s harmful for him to worry!» — sister said quickly.

Words of the author can be

• before direct speech
  • Я наклонился к нему и тихо спросил: «А ты знаешь, кто я?»

    
    I leaned close to him and quietly asked: «Do you know who I am?»

• after it
  • «Здравствуй!» – я пожал протянутую мне руку.

    
    «Hello,» I shook the hand offered to me.

• in the middle of the direct speach
  • «Какой разговор!» – отвечаю ему. – Я должен это сделать!»

    
    «No doubt!» — I answer him. — I must do it!»

Reported speech

Speech of someone else’s can be expressed with a simple sentence. In this case, only the topic of speech or subject of the conversationis indicated. The content of someone else’s speech is expressed with the help of conjunctions and connective words (

что
(= that)

,

где
(= where)

,

когда
(= when)

,

сколько
(= how many/much)

,

почему
(= why)

, etc.):

• Врач посмотрел на Андрея и спросил, как он себя чувствует.

  
  The doctor looked at Andrei and asked how he felt.

• Я сказал, что Петя сейчас на работе.

  
  I said that Pit is at work now.

• Витя объяснил, почему он не пришёл на репетицию.

  
  Vitya explained why he did not come to the rehearsal.

Some words in English tend to be used together. Matt Norton explores the most popular examples and give some tips on how to teach word order in English collocations.

Word patterns like fish and chips, safe and sound, or Mr and Mrs can be hard for learners to grasp, as they can be quite unpredictable and can vary between languages. They are combinations of words linked by and, or, or a preposition. They often seem to be idiomatic, and they are almost always written in a fixed order. In fact, they tend to sound strange if given in the wrong order (e.g. “chips and fish” or “fro and to”). They are usually of the same part of speech category, e.g. two nouns or two verbs. These word pairs are also usually in the same domain, e.g. town and country, or have a connection to each other, e.g. signed and sealed. But they can be quite unpredictable, e.g. by and large (meaning “mostly”). Some word pairs can go in either order e.g. day and night, night and day, though in this case the former is more common.

Collecting word pairs

We searched the Internet for hand-compiled lists containing examples we knew. It is unclear exactly how many word pairs actually exist in English. On the Wikipedia page alone there are about one thousand. However, there are a lot more which can be extracted automatically from a corpus of text. These may not appear obvious to someone compiling a list. The following table lists the most frequent patterns found in the Cambridge Learner Corpus. According to the Corpus, these are the word pairs that learners use most often in their exams:

work or school
cruel and unnecessary
positive and negative
kind and helpful
health and safety
black and white
national and international
male and female
manufacturing and agricultural
good and bad
fit and healthy
come and visit
furniture and equipment
time and money
technology and design
health and fitness
come and see
track and field
tennis and basketball

Looking for rules

So, how do we teach these word pairs to students? Although the collocations can be hard to predict, there are certain general rules or guidelines which can be used to guess the order of word pairs:

1. In logical order. As we might expect, there is a logic to a lot of these collocations. Examples include first and second (and other number sequences), cause and effect, old and new, crime and punishment, (mind your) Ps and Qs.
2. The semantically bigger or better thing comes first: fish and chips, bacon and eggs, meat and vegetables. Examples of the better thing first include: good and bad, highs and lows, dos and don’ts, pros and cons. This pattern can sometimes seem to be the opposite of the first rule, e.g. a higher number is bigger than a smaller one, but this rule is not applied to words which can be put in a logical sequence.
3. Longest last: The longer (or “heavier” to pronounce) word goes last. There are a lot of collocations which seem to obey this rule. Examples include salt and pepper, cloak and dagger, cause and effect, men and women, ladies and gentlemen, cream and sugar. This rule seems to take lower priority than the other rules and often overlaps with them. It may arise from the need to put more complicated words or ideas after simpler ones.
4. Male often goes before female, e.g. men and women, he and she, his and hers, Mr and Mrs, brothers and sisters, Dear Sir or Madam. There are exceptions, e.g. ladies and gentlemen, (which follows the longest last rule) mum and dad and aunt and uncle.
5. Some of the word pairs follow rules similar to those of adjective order. E.g. we say tall and thin just like we say “a tall thin man” rather than “thin tall man”.

Word pairs in other languages

It seems that all other languages have patterns like this, though sometimes they may not use a joining word, or use a different one, as in some East Asian languages. Some word pairs are the same, e.g. Adam and Eve and Romeo and Juliet, as they translated in the same order. Ladies and gentlemen also appears to in the same order across languages (but please point out if you can find exceptions!)

Do the above rules apply in other languages? The logical order rules will probably work in other languages since things happen in the same order. The bigger/better first rule may apply in other languages, e.g. knife and fork tend to be in that order. The longest last rule also has some equivalents in other languages, e.g. in German nationalen und internationalen. The male and female rules seem to be varied in other languages, as they are in English. One example are German feminine nouns which come first, e.g. Schülerinnen und Schüler (“female and male pupils”). An example of a varied pair: English prefers black and white whereas Spanish and a few others seem to prefer the other order.

Research on errors

We searched for specific pairs in the Cambridge Learner Corpus to find out which ones students find the hardest to use, shown in the table below. These are of varying levels and may be as high as C2. It is important to remember that some of the word pairs depend on a larger construction, e.g. to be a matter of life and death, so it may be necessary to teach the full construction as well as the word pair.

bride and groom
by and large
chalk and cheese
clean and tidy
first and foremost
flesh and blood
good and evil
head over heels (fall head over heels in love with)
now and then
knife and fork
life and/or death
near and far
on and off
pros and cons
research and development
sooner or later
supply and demand
to and fro
trial and error
up and down
ups and downs
wait and see

Some high performing pairs are: Mr and Mrs, he or she, name and address and fish and chips, probably because these are frequently used or well-known.

Classroom ideas

We have seen that there are a lot of word pairs in English, which seem to favour one order. These can be taken from hand-written lists, but also searched for in a corpus. We can spot patterns in these which are hopefully useful for teaching them. We’ve collected a few exercises for students which are aimed at helping to drill in the collocations, focussing on some of the most troublesome ones for learners.

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Download the collocation classroom ideas worksheet here.

Вам знаком термин collocation (коллокация) в английском? Collocations — устойчивые словосочетания в английском языке. В этой статье мы расскажем, какие бывают коллокации, зачем их нужно учить и какими ресурсами при этом пользоваться.

Что такое collocations в английском языке и зачем их учить

Collocations или коллокации — это грамматически и лексически правильные словосочетания. Причем такие выражения есть во всех языках. Например, русский язык: пирожок лежит на столе, но кувшин стоит на столе, зато мы можем принять душ и в то же время принять лекарство и т. д. В английском языке словосочетания «работают» так же: мы говорим high temperature (высокая температура), а не tall temperature; take a photo (сфотографировать), а не make/do a photo; tell the truth, а не say/speak the truth.

Мы должны учить collocations, чтобы:

1. Говорить естественно

   Вы учитесь говорить правильно и естественно, изучая устойчивые словосочетания в английском. Так, например, словосочетания do a mistake (делать ошибку) и make exercises (делать упражнения) грамматически правильные, однако для носителей языка они будут звучать неестественно, ведь нужно говорить make a mistake и do exercises.

2. Легче запоминать слова

   Учить слова в отрыве от контекста сложнее, чем в устойчивых словосочетаниях. Наш мозг гораздо быстрее запоминает связанные блоки информации, а не разрозненные отрывочные знания. К тому же, когда вы учите отдельные слова, вы не знаете, как их в итоге использовать. То есть вы получаете набор материала, из которого непросто бывает собрать устойчивую конструкцию. Заучивая collocations, вы получаете шаблоны, по сути, целые отрывки предложений, из которых легче построить фразу.

3. Точнее выражать свои мысли и быть понятым

   Знание устойчивых выражений позволит вам лучше выражать свои мысли на английском языке и при этом быть понятым собеседником. Так, носителю языка будет понятно, что кто-то нарушает закон, если вы скажете break the law, а не destroy the law. В некоторых случаях употребление несочетающихся друг с другом слов может привести к непониманию между собеседниками.

Какими бывают коллокации в английском языке

В английском есть несколько видов collocations. Знать их нужно для того, чтобы при изучении новых слов понимать, на что нужно обращать внимание: с какими частями речи могут быть сочетания с этими словами. Выделяют следующие основные типы collocations:

1. Наречие + прилагательное (adverb + adjective)

Оба слова в коллокации характеризуют предмет.

Примеры словосочетаний: utterly stupid — крайне глупый, easily available — легкодоступный, bitterly cold — ужасно холодный, сильный мороз. А еще много сочетаний наречий и прилагательных мы собрали в статье «Intensifying adverbs, или Особенности употребления усилительных наречий в английском языке».

2. Прилагательное + существительное (adjective + noun)

Это сочетание используется, чтобы назвать предмет (существительное) и дать ему характеристику (прилагательное).

Примеры словосочетаний: a powerful engine — мощный двигатель, strong smell — сильный запах, a heavy smoker — заядлый курильщик.

3. Существительное + существительное (noun + noun)

Такие словосочетания часто употребляются с предлогом of, но бывают и без предлогов. В коллокациях типа «существительное + существительное» важно запомнить порядок слов и не менять их местами.

Примеры словосочетаний: a bar of soap — брусок мыла, round of applause — аплодисменты, взрыв аплодисментов, river bank — берег реки.

4. Глагол + существительное (verb + noun)

Пожалуй, самые важные collocations в английском языке — сочетание глагола и существительного. Они выражают действие и называют предмет, над которым это действие производится. Глагол — одна из самых важных частей речи, поэтому от правильного его выбора зависит, поймет ли вас собеседник.

Примеры словосочетаний: to receive education — получить образование, to commit a crime — совершить преступление, to drive a bargain — заключить сделку.

5. Глагол + выражение с предлогом (verb + expression with preposition)

На эти выражения тоже следует обратить особое внимание: они аналогичны предыдущим. Только между глаголом и существительным будет предлог (не всегда логичный для русскоговорящих).

Примеры словосочетаний: to burst into tears — разрыдаться, to drive anybody to crime — довести кого-то до преступления, to fill with joy — наполниться радостью.

6. Существительное + глагол (noun + verb)

Эта группа отличается от предыдущих двух порядком слов: сначала идет существительное, потом глагол. Словосочетания называют предмет (существительное) и указывают, какое действие он выполняет (глагол). Менять части речи местами нельзя, так как в этом случае полностью теряется смысл предложения.

Примеры словосочетаний: a plane takes off — самолет взлетает, a dog barks — собака лает, priсes fall— цены падают.

7. Глагол + наречие (verb + adverb) и наречие + глагол (adverb + verb)

Эта группа слов называет действие (глагол) и описывает его (наречие).

Примеры словосочетаний: to rain heavily — сильно льет (дождь), to place gently — аккуратно положить, distinctly remember — отчетливо помнить, flatly refuse — категорически отказаться.

Как учить collocations в английском языке

Если мы вспомним, что в английском языке более 500 тысяч слов, и посчитаем, сколько с ними может быть словосочетаний, получится огромная цифра. К счастью, для общения на английском языке вам не нужно знать абсолютно все слова и коллокации с ними. К тому же даже слона можно съесть по кусочкам, а английский и подавно поддастся вам, если разбить изучение collocations на небольшие удобоваримые порции. Мы предлагаем несколько приемов, которые облегчат вашу работу по изучению collocations.

1. Использовать словарь устойчивых английских словосочетаний

Чтобы узнать, с какими словами «сотрудничает» слово, посмотрите в специальный словарь, например, на сайте englishcollocation.com. Ресурс хорош тем, что указаны не просто словосочетания, а примеры предложений с ними. При этом все коллокации разбиты на группы по частям речи, употребляемым с указанным вами словом.

Оксфордский онлайн-словарь коллокаций английского языка — еще один надежный источник информации. Тут также приведены разные части речи, которые могут употребляться с введенным вами словом, а также указаны примеры употребления.

Можно также использовать сайт prowritingaid.com. Введите слово, с которым хотите получить collocations. В открывшемся окне вы увидите список слов, с которыми оно сочетается, разбитых на группы по принадлежности к частям речи.

Еще один проверенный ресурс englishclub.com. Здесь собраны словосочетания в алфавитном порядке. Это не так удобно, как на предыдущих сайтах, но все равно пригодится для обучения. Настоятельно рекомендуем заглянуть и на другую страницу этого сайта, где вы найдете наиболее часто употребляемые collocations. Этот список лучше выучить наизусть, словосочетания пригодятся вам для повседневного общения.

Если вы собираетесь использовать английский в научных целях, вам пригодится Academic Collocation List, который можно совершенно бесплатно скачать по указанной ссылке. А если вам нужны коллокации для повседневного общения, возьмите на вооружение этот список.

2. Учить коллокации при изучении новых слов

Запомнить любое слово будет легче, если вы будете учить его в сочетании с другими словами. При изучении новой лексики загляните на указанные выше сервисы и выпишите себе несколько словосочетаний.

3. Слушать материалы на английском языке

Чем больше аудиоматериалов вы слушаете, тем больше полезных collocations будете запоминать. Вспомните, ведь словосочетание fast food мы слышим настолько часто, что никому в голову не придет сказать quick food. Вы можете слушать аудиоматериалы на одном из 6 сайтов с подкастами на английском языке или смотреть видео на одном из ресурсов из нашей подборки сайтов с видеоматериалами.

4. Читать материалы на английском

Текст на английском — лучший источник коллокаций. При чтении текста срабатывает зрительная память, а именно она лучше всего развита у многих людей. Вы видите словосочетания в «естественной среде обитания», поэтому они будут легко запоминаться. Наш совет: даже если вы читаете для удовольствия, а не для обучения, старайтесь иногда делать паузы, обращать внимание на то, как используются слова.

5. Составлять интеллект-карты

Проще всего будет учить collocations, взаимосвязанные между собой. Вы можете сгруппировать слова по теме или по слову, которое используется в словосочетаниях. Так, например, можно составить список коллокаций со словом take и нарисовать mind-map от руки, пока вы будете это делать, словосочетания будут запоминаться.

6. Учить словосочетания, как слова

Вы можете воспользоваться одним из 15 предложенных нами приемов изучения английских слов для изучения collocations. Выберите наиболее удобный для вас, и дерзайте!

7. Выполнять тесты

Тесты покажут, насколько хорошо вы знаете коллокации. Например, можно воспользоваться следующим ресурсом better-english.com. На нем приведен небольшой сборник тестов на collocations. Кроме того, почти на каждом обучающем ресурсе найдется парочка тестов на эту тему, поэтому можно просто ввести в поисковик запрос «collocations quiz» и воспользоваться результатами поиска.

Как вы успели убедиться из нашей статьи, изучать collocations или устойчивые словосочетания в английском языке очень полезно и несложно. Пользуйтесь предложенными нами приемами и ресурсами регулярно, и у вас не возникнет никаких проблем с изучением коллокаций. Если же вы хотите изучать язык под руководством опытного наставника, приглашаем учить английский язык по Скайпу в нашей школе.

Normally, sentences in the English language take a simple form. However, there are times it would be a little complex. In these cases, the basic rules for how words appear in a sentence can help you.

Word order typically refers to the way the words in a sentence are arranged. In the English language, the order of words is important if you wish to accurately and effectively communicate your thoughts and ideas.

Although there are some exceptions to these rules, this article aims to outline some basic sentence structures that can be used as templates. Also, the article provides the rules for the ordering of adverbs and adjectives in English sentences.

Basic Sentence Structure and word order rules in English

For English sentences, the simple rule of thumb is that the subject should always come before the verb followed by the object. This rule is usually referred to as the SVO word order, and then most sentences must conform to this. However, it is essential to know that this rule only applies to sentences that have a subject, verb, and object.

For example

Subject + Verb + Object

He loves food

She killed the rat

Sentences are usually made of at least one clause. A clause is a string of words with a subject(noun) and a predicate (verb). A sentence with just one clause is referred to as a simple sentence, while those with more than one clause are referred to as compound sentences, complex sentences, or compound-complex sentences.

The following is an explanation and example of the most commonly used clause patterns in the English language.

Inversion

The English word order is inverted in questions. The subject changes its place in a question. Also, English questions usually begin with a verb or a helping verb if the verb is complex.

For example

Verb + Subject + object

Can you finish the assignment?

Did you go to work?

Intransitive Verbs

Some sentences use verbs that require no object or nothing else to follow them. These verbs are generally referred to as intransitive verbs. With intransitive verbs, you can form the most basic sentences since all that is required is a subject (made of one noun) and a predicate (made of one verb).

For example

Subject + verb

John eats

Christine fights

Linking Verbs

Linking verbs are verbs that connect a subject to the quality of the subject. Sentences that use linking verbs usually contain a subject, the linking verb and a subject complement or predicate adjective in this order.

For example

Subject + verb + Subject complement/Predicate adjective

The dress was beautiful

Her voice was amazing

Transitive Verbs

Transitive verbs are verbs that tell what the subject did to something else. Sentences that use transitive verbs usually contain a subject, the transitive verb, and a direct object, usually in this order.

For example

Subject + Verb + Direct object

The father slapped his son

The teacher questioned his students

Indirect Objects

Sentences with transitive verbs can have a mixture of direct and indirect objects. Indirect objects are usually the receiver of the action or the audience of the direct object.

For example

Subject + Verb + IndirectObject + DirectObject

He gave the man a good job.

The singer gave the crowd a spectacular concert.

The order of direct and indirect objects can also be reversed. However, for the reversal of the order, there needs to be the inclusion of the preposition “to” before the indirect object. The addition of the preposition transforms the indirect object into what is called a prepositional phrase.

For example

Subject + Verb + DirectObject + Preposition + IndirectObject

He gave a lot of money to the man

The singer gave a spectacular concert to the crowd.

Adverbials

Adverbs are phrases or words that modify or qualify a verb, adjective, or other adverbs. They typically provide information on the when, where, how, and why of an action. Adverbs are usually very difficult to place as they can be in different positions in a sentence. Changing the placement of an adverb in a sentence can change the meaning or emphasis of that sentence.

Therefore, adverbials should be placed as close as possible to the things they modify, generally before the verbs.

For example

He hastily went to work.

He hurriedly ate his food.

However, if the verb is transitive, then the adverb should come after the transitive verb.

For example

John sat uncomfortably in the examination exam.

She spoke quietly in the class

The adverb of place is usually placed before the adverb of time

For example

John goes to work every morning

They arrived at school very late

The adverb of time can also be placed at the beginning of a sentence

For example

On Sunday he is traveling home

Every evening James jogs around the block

When there is more than one verb in the sentence, the adverb should be placed after the first verb.

For example

Peter will never forget his first dog

She has always loved eating rice.

Adjectives

Adjectives commonly refer to words that are used to describe someone or something. Adjectives can appear almost anywhere in the sentence.

Adjectives can sometimes appear after the verb to be

For example

He is fat

She is big

Adjectives can also appear before a noun.

For example

A big house

A fat boy

However, some sentences can contain more than one adjective to describe something or someone. These adjectives have an order in which they can appear before a now. The order is

Opinion – size – physical quality – shape – condition – age – color – pattern – origin – material – type – purpose

If more than one adjective is expected to come before a noun in a sentence, then it should follow this order. This order feels intuitive for native English speakers. However, it can be a little difficult to unpack for non-native English speakers.

For example

The ugly old woman is back

The dirty red car parked outside your house

When more than one adjective comes after a verb, it is usually connected by and

For example

The room is dark and cold

Having said that, Susan is tall and big

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Word Partnerships & Collocations : Grammar and Spelling Tips

Definition

In general, collocation is placing words together in a determined order. Collocations are thus the relationship between two words or groups of words that often go together and form a partnership. Two or more words become glued together implying a proper order which make it easy for speakers of L1 to predict what comes next once they have heard the first one. Collocations are learnt through large amounts of reading input. It involves the choice of the right words in the right order. Personally I term «collocations» or «word partnerships» a Catholic wedding because there is no divorce. We don’t have any rules as to why certain words go together or behave that way. There are even no explanations either. As in real life we need to find the right partner otherwise life is hell. I hope linguistics will provide some help one day as they are sometimes annoying because they are unpredictable for a lot of learners of English. On the other hand collocations are like making predictions i.e. projecting forward to what we are about to read or to say. This contrasts with memory when our mind refers back to what we have already read or said. May be that’s why collocations exist. It has to do with memory and predictions i.e. past and future. On the Internet, this term (often spelt «co-location») is used to mean the provision of space for a customer’s telecommunications equipment on the service provider’s premises.

Types of collocations and labelling

Partnerships or collocations are of different types. Sometimes other names are given for grammatical reasons: idioms, compound adjectives: Off-peak, compound nouns (noun + noun: sunglasses, baby-sitter (verb + preposition): turnover, cutback), Phrasal verbs: give up. There are also other partnerships which people label binomials: rough and ready, sooner or later, odds and ends, by and large, done and dusted. There are sometimes even trinomials. Collocation data shows that the mutual information score for the words “heavy» and “smoker»‘ is much higher than the score “strong» and “smoker».

This type of labelling is unfortunately not very useful. Such words no matter what parts of speech they are ought to be labelled «word partnerships» or «collocations». As the word collocation is nothing but made up of two parts: «co» meaning «with» and «location» i.e. occur in the same place. But grammar and vocabulary labelling as with other phenomena in life are often confusing or even misleading.

Collocation clash

There is a collocation clash when words are placed together which should not occur together, according to the rules or usage of a particular language. Languages have their own systems and concepts and collocations are part of that individual system. A collocation clash occurs when there is some semantic or pragmatic incompatibility between the words. Consequently it is important to raise awareness of finding the right partner and that a right partner in one language doesn’t necessarily mean it can be applied to another even if they are genetically related. Translators too need to be aware of these linguistic partnerships and clashes.

The following are typically collocation clashes in English but could be the right partners in other languages:

She is making holiday (going on holiday, spending holiday).

She is getting a baby (having a baby).

Collocation clashes sometimes occur in English Bible versions:

ISV Luke 21.15 «for I will give you speech and wisdom»: It is appropriate in English to collocate «give» and «wisdom». But in English the verb «give» does not collocate with the noun object «speech». To properly express the meaning of «give speech», a translator needs to find a synonym for «speech», which will collocate properly, according to English grammar («give» and «words», a synonym for «speech», collocate for some speakers of English, and this happens to be the collocation used in the NIV, TEV, GW, and NRSV).

Lexical approach

Almost all good dictionaries give collocations. There are also dictionaries of collocations and Word Partnerships. The Lexical Approach focuses on lexis and therefore collocation rather than the more traditional grammar first. Learning collocations leads to an increase in written and spoken fluency.