Word meaning two parts - Word и Excel - помощь в работе с программами

The most appropriate term I can think of is composite, used either as a noun or adjective. NOAD provides some excellent accompanying examples:

composite

(adjective) made up of several parts or elements:

(esp. of a constructional material) made up of recognizable constituents:

a new composite material—a blend of plastic and ceramic resins.

(noun) a thing made up of several parts or elements:

a composite constructional material:

the next decade may well see the introduction of more designer polymers and composites

Since composite refers to several elements, not just two, you could use it in your example this way:

… between the two different sites in the composite blend

using the word two to specify how many elements there are.

The answer provided by Kris, however, is more technically appropriate for the specific example you mention. However, combining this with your suggestion, binary composite is certainly an excellent alternative. Binary mixture is also technically correct, as all composites, amalgams, blends, etc, are simply mixtures.

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Lecture 2. Word meaning is studied by the branch of lexicology called semasiology. Usually meaning is defined as the realization of a notion (or concept, in other terms) by means of a definite language system.

The word: basic unit of lexicology The most important characteristics of the word : 1. The word is a unit of speech which serves the purposes of human communication. So the word can be defined as a unit of communication. 2. The word is the total of the sounds which compose it. 3. The word possesses both external and internal characteristics.

The word is a unit used for purposes of human communication, materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning, characterised by formal and semantic unity and a capacity for grammatical employment. The word may be described as the basic unit of language. Uniting meaning and form, it is composed of one or more morphemes, each consisting of one or more spoken sounds or their written representation.

Types of meaning grammatical meaning (unites words into parts of speech) Ex. : goes, stops, works lexical meaning (individual for every word) Ex. : went, kissed, looked

Denotational and connotational meaning Denotational component expresses the notional content of the word, shows what the word refers to. Connotational component expresses additional meanings of the word which may be of different types: stylistic, evaluative (rational and emotional) and emotional, etc.

Types of connotational meaning Evaluative (rational and emotional) Ex. : brain Ex. : brock (“a scoundrel”) Cf. also: notorious – celebrated Emotional, or emotive connotation of the word is its capacity to evoke and express emotion ( duckling, darling (diminutive emotive value). Stylistic connotation shows the stylistic status of a word: neutral, bookish, colloquial, slang, etc.

Componential Analysis consists in decomposition of the word meaning into semes – minimal components of meaning, or elementary units of sense. archisemes differential semes Ex. : girl, woman, spinster

Motivation morhological (Ex. : leader, cranberry) phonetical (Ex. : splash, boom, chung, ching) semantic (Ex. : chain store, chain hotel, chain smoker) folk etymology asparagus sparrow grass полуклиника , спинжак→

Polysemy Ex. : do, go, see, etc. lexico-semantical variants of the word (LSVs) Primary and secondary meanings in the semantic structure of the word Table “a piece of furniture” “ a supply of food”, “an act of assembling to eat”, “a group of people assembled at a table”, etc. Meanings can also be direct and figurative, concrete and abstract, central and peripheral, general and special

Semantic changes. Causes: historical, or extralinguistic, and linguistic. villain ( « деревенский житель » → « негодяй » Tory « ирландский разбойник » → « член партии Тори » lord « хранитель хлеба » → « господин , владелец , etc. » Borrowing Ex. : “any animal”: Deer, beast (Fr. ), animal (Lat. ) Ellipsis Ex. : daily newspaper→daily Analogy catch “understand”, grasp ”understand”

The nature of semantic change Association Transference: 1) based on similarity linguistic metaphor: neck (of a human being) → neck (of a bottle). 2) based on contiguity (real connection between the two objects). linguistic metonymy: hands (“limbs of a human body”) → hands (“a worker”).

Metaphors Based on similarity between two physical objects (concrete to concrete metaphores): teeth of a saw, leg of a table, a goose (of a silly woman). Zoosemy. concrete to abstract metaphors: a ray of hope, a shade of doubt. different types of similarity: similarity of shape (tongue of a bell), function (leg of a table), position (foot of a page), character of motion (snail (of a sluggish person)), dimensions (dumpling (of a short, chabby creature)), value (dirt cheap). proper names → common names: Appolo, Don Juan, Othello. Structural metaphors: Time is money. Argument is war

Metonymy 1) instrument → agent: pen (“writer”); 2) consequence → cause: grey hair (“old age”); 3) symbol →the thing symbolized (crown “monarchy”) 4) material → the thing made from it (silver “money”) 5) container → the thing contained (to drink a cup); 6) name of a place → institution (Whitehall); 7) action → the object of action (my love); quality →the person possessing the quality (He is a talent).

Synechdoche is a variety of metonymy which consists in using the name of a part to denote the whole or vice versa: Hands are wanted; OE mete “food” →Mn. E meat “kind of food”.

Semantic change may result in the change of the range of meaning. narrowing (specialization) of meaning. OE fugol (“any bird”) → domestic bird (fowl) widening (generalization) of meaning. girl “a child of either sex → “a female child”.

The change of the connotational structure Degradation (pejoration) of meaning: the process when the object to which the word refers acquires negative characteristics, and the meaning develops a negative evaluative connotation. OE word cnafa (Mn. E knave) “a boy” → a “boy servant” → “a swindler, a scoundrel”. Elevation (amelioration): the development of a positive evaluative connotation. OE cwen (Mn. E queen) “woman” cniht (Mn. E knight) – “a young servant”

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Semantics:
Word-meaning
Lecture 3
2 слайд

Semantics
is the study of meanings dealing with the relationship between symbols (words, signs, etc.) and what they refer to (called ‘referents’) and of behavior in reaction to non-verbal symbols and verbal symbols (words).
3 слайд

Types of semantic complexity of word
every word combines lexical, lexico-grammatical and grammatical meanings

many words not only refer to some object but have associations expressing the attitude of the speaker

the denotational meaning is segmented into semantic components or semes

a word may be polysemantic, that is it may have several meanings, all interconnected and forming its semantic structure
4 слайд

§ 1. What’s lexical word-meaning?
Two approaches
1) F. de Saussure considers meaning to be the relation between the object or notion named, and the name itself
The denotational trend of semantic studies considers a word as a unit possessing its own meaning. The main problem is the relation between the word, its meaning and the thing in reality which it denotes. The basis of the denotational theory is the double nature (ideal and material) of the word.
5 слайд

2) Bloomfield defines the meaning as the situation in which the word is uttered.
The relative/functional approach is based on treating the language as a semiotic system — the theory of relations. Each sign achieves a meaning only in comparison with other signs, its neighbours, i.e. meaning can be studied only through context.
6 слайд

1.1. Referential approach:
the semantic triangle
meaning
name
referent
1) in the scheme the word is represented only by the left-hand side of the diagram
2) does not show the actual process of reflection in our mind
3) describes only one meaning of a word and one form
concept
perception
WORD
7 слайд

What is the relation of words to the world of things, events and relations outside of language which they refer to?
Words by their form convey some meaning, which reflects a concept (with certain linguistic constraints conditioned by paradigmatic influence within the vocabulary) which in its turn is a generalized perception of a referent.
The lexical meaning of a word is the realization of a notion by means of a definite language system.
8 слайд

Meaning vs. concept
1.Can have a particular individual referent

2. reveal the speaker’s state of mind and his attitude

3. belonging to some specific stylistic level reflect personality of the speaker, his background and his relations with his audience

4. Grouped on linguistic basis

5. nationally determined and limited
Refers to a class of referents

emotionally neutral as they are a category of thought

3. Does not

4. Grouped on logical basis

5. international
9 слайд

1.2. Functional approach:
context
is based on the assumption that difference in meaning of linguistic units is always indicated by a difference in environment.
E. Nida: «it is from linguistic contexts that the meanings of a high proportion of lexical units in active or passive vocabularies are learned”.

Context is a minimal stretch of speech and the conditions necessary and sufficient to reveal in which of its individual meanings the word in question is used.
10 слайд

Types of contexts
Lexical context
determines the meaning of a word by lexical meanings of surrounding words
Black denotes colour when used with the words naming some material or thing: black velvet, black gloves.
When used with words denoting feeling or thought, it means ‘sad’, ‘dismal‘: black thoughts, black despair
With nouns denoting time, the meaning is ‘unhappy’, ‘full of hardships‘: black days, black period.

Syntactic context
has the indicative power in the syntactic pattern
To make means ‘to cause’ when followed by a complex object:
I couldn’t make him understand a word I said.
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Mixed context
Late, when used predicatively, means ‘after the right, expected fixed time‘:
be late for school.
When used attributively with words denoting periods of time, it means ‘towards the end of the period’,
in late summer.
Used attributively with proper personal nouns and preceded with a definite article, means ‘recently dead‘
late Mr. Brown

Speech situation as context (text-situation and life-situation)
the necessary indication comes not from within the sentence but from some part of the text outside it.
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Types of motivation
Motivation is the relationship between the phonemic or morphemic composition and structural pattern of the word and its meaning
1) Phonetical — similarity between the sounds that make up the word and those referred to by the sense
bang, buzz, cuckoo, giggle, gurgle, hiss, purr
2) Morphological — reflects the type of nomination process chosen by the creator of the new word.
re-think, detainee, manoeuvrable, prefabricated, self-propelling
3) Semantic — co-existence of direct and figurative meanings of the same word within the same synchronous system.
the mouth of a river, of a cave
4) Non-mоtivated — no perceptible reason for the word having this particular phonemic and morphemic composition
13 слайд

§ 2. Parts of lexical meaning
The denotative meaning
is essentially cognitive: it conceptualizes and classifies our experience and names objects spoken about
It is the central factor in the functioning of language
Includes the bare minimum of characteristic features as used by every speaker in everyday life
The connotative meaning
is the pragmatic communicative value that the word receives by virtue of where, when, how, by whom, for what purpose and in what contexts it is or may be used
Optional, additional to the denotative
Signifiсative
(the referent is a concept
Ex. A cat)
Demоnstrative
(the referent is an individual object ex. My cat Fluffy)
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Connotation and its types
Connotation is the speaker’s attitude to the social circumstances and the appropriate functional style, about his approval or disapproval of the object spoken, or the degree of intensity, fixed in the lexical meaning in addition to denotation.
Ex. a hovel denotes «a small house» and besides implies that it is a miserable dwelling place, dirty, in bad repair, and, in general, unpleasant to live in.

Ex. childlike vs. childish
Denotation: characteristic of a child
Connotation:Childlike suggests “good” qualities: innocence and trustworthiness
Childish connotes “bad” characteristics: foolishness or immaturity
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stylistic connotation
Is an association with the situation in which the word is uttered, the social circumstances (formal, familiar, etc.), the social relationships between the interlocutors (polite, rough), the type and purpose of communication (learned, poetic, official, etc.)
Ex. horse – steed, to discharge/dismiss — to fire – to give a sack
emotive connotation
is acquired by the word as a result of its frequent use in contexts corresponding to emotional situations or because the referent named in the denotative meaning is associated with emotions. For example, the verb means
Ex. dog – doggie; beseech: ‘to ask eagerly and also anxiously’
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evaluative connotation
expresses approval or disapproval.
Ex. famous/well-known — notorious
Magic=witchcraft=sorcery — art and power of controlling events by occult supernatural means
magic has glamorous attractive connotations
witchcraft and sorcery have rather sinister associations
expressive or intensifying connotation
exaggerates real qualities of a referent
Ex. splendid, superb, fantastic, beastly, etc. are used colloquially as terms of exaggeration
17 слайд

bias words involving ideological viewpoints
Ex. the red, the black
Associative (implicational) meaning
is the implied information associated with the word by virtue of what it refers to and what the speakers know about the referent.
Ex. A wolf is known to be greedy and cruel but the denotative meaning of this word does not necessarily include these features.
Words can combine two or three types of connotations at once
Ex. beastly (beastly weather or It’s beastly cold) is emotional, colloquial, expresses disapproval and intensity.
18 слайд

Practical task # 3
Which type of motivation (morphological, phonetical, semantic) do the words below possess?
neigh (the long high-pitched sound that a horse makes)
resettlement
eyewash (‘something said or done to deceive a person so that he thinks that what he sees is good, though in fact it is not‘)
19 слайд

2. Define the types of connotation (emotional, expressive, evaluative, stylistic) characteristic to the highlighted words as compared with their neutral counterparts:
terrific pleasure vs. very pleasant
a buddy vs. a friend
stubborn vs. determined
huge vs. big
plump vs. overweight
20 слайд

3. Which approach (referential, functional) is realized in each type of presenting the word-meaning of the word “to lay off”?
COLLINS COBUILD
1. If workers are laid off by their employers, they are told to leave their jobs, usually because there is no more work for them to do
2. If you tell smb to lay off, you are telling them to leave you alone.

b) ENCARTA
to stop employing somebody when there is insufficient work to be done
to stop bothering somebody (informal)
21 слайд

4. Identify the meanings of the word “cool” having no connotational components:
somewhat cold, usually pleasantly so
staying calm or not showing emotions, especially nervousness or fear
fashionable and sophisticated (informal)
unfriendly or unenthusiastic (ex. cool reception)
used to emphasize how large a sum of money is (slang)
22 слайд

5. What type of context (lexical, syntactic, mixed) is used as an indicator of meaning for the highlighted words in the following utterances?
Her success at the exam earned her a place at university
We feed our dogs on fresh meet
We fed the spy some false information
Where do the two streams join?
I’ll have you pay for your lies!

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Types
of word meaning (classifications):

According
to the aspect relation
of a word to the components of the situation
where it is used:

Referential
meaning
— determined by the relation of linguistic sign to the referent
in the material world
Significative
meaning
— determined by the relation of a linguistic sign to its user,
the speaker’s intention
Differential
(systematic) meaning
— determined by the relation of the given linguistic sign to
other signs in the language system of speech

Another
typology is based on the conception
of word meaning as specific structure:

Part-of-speech
meaning (functional)
Grammatical
—
may be defined as the component of meaning recurrent in identical
sets of individual forms of different words, as, e.g.,
the tense meaning in the word-forms of verbs (asked, thought,
walked, etc.) or the case meaning in the word-forms of various
nouns (girl’s, boy’s, night’s, etc.)
Lexical
— may
be described as the component of meaning proper to the word as a
linguistic unit, i.e. recurrent in all the forms of this word.
E.g.
the word-forms go, goes, went, going, gone possess different
grammatical meanings of tense, person and so on, but in each of
these forms we find one and the same semantic component denoting
the process of movement.
Denotational
(reference
of a word or other lexical unit to individual object or concept)
REVEALED IN THE DICTIONARY DEFINITION
CONNOTATIONAL
(includes
ideas or emotions)
Emotional
implications (personal,
studied by pragmatics)
Emotive
charge (may
be inherent in word meaning or created by prefixes and suffixes)
Stylistic
reference (refers
the word to a certain style register (neutral, colloquial,
literary) This may be best illustrated by comparing words almost
identical in their denotational meaning,
e. g., ‘parent — father — dad’.
In comparison with the word father which is stylistically
neutral, dad stands out as colloquial and parent is felt as
bookish.

Motivation
is the
suggestion of the meaning of the word by the lexical form of the
word.

Morphological
motivation
implies
a direct connection between the lexical meaning of the component
morphemes, the pattern of their arrangement and the meaning of the
word. The degree of morphological motivation may be different
varying from the extreme of complete motivation to lack of
motivation. (The
words finger-ring
and
ring-finger,
e.g.,
contain two morphemes, the combined lexical meaning of which is the
same; the difference in the meaning of these words can be accounted
for
by
the difference in the arrangement of the component morphemes).
Phonetical
motivation
implies
a direct connection between the phonetic structure of the word and
its meaning. Phonetical motivation is not universally recognised in
modern linguistic science.

It
is argued that speech sounds may suggest spatial and visual
dimensions, shape, size, etc. Experiments carried out by a group of
linguists showed that back
open vowels
are suggestive of big size, heavy weight, dark colour, etc.
Words
as swish,
sizzle, boom, splash, etc.
may be defined as phonetically motivated because the soundclusters
[swi∫, sizl, bum, splæ∫] are a direct imitation of the sounds
these words denote.

Semantic
motivation
implies
a direct connection between the central and marginal meanings of
the word. This connection may be regarded as a metaphoric extension
of the central meaning based on the similarity of different classes
of referents denoted by the word. (For
example, a woman who has given birth is called a
mother; by
extension, any act that gives birth is associated with being a
mother, e.g. in
Necessity
is the mother of invention. The
same principle can be observed in other meanings: a mother looks
after a child, so that we can say She
became a mother to her orphan nephew, or
Romulus
and Remus were supposedly mothered by a wolf. Cf.
also mother
country, a mother’s mark (=a birthmark), mother tongue, etc.)

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Presentation on theme: «Word Meaning. Two approaches to word meaning Meaning and Notion Types of word meaning Types of morpheme meaning Motivation.»— Presentation transcript:

1

Word Meaning

2

Two approaches to word meaning Meaning and Notion Types of word meaning Types of morpheme meaning Motivation

3

Semantics branch of linguistics which studies meaning of words and word equivalents

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Two Approaches to Word Meaning The Referential Approach The Functional Approach

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Referential Approach formulates the essence of meaning by establishing the interdependence between words and things or concepts they denote distinguishes between three components closely connected with meaning: the sound-form of the linguistic sign, the concept and the actual referent

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Basic Triangle concept (thought, reference) – the thought of the object that singles out its essential features referent – object denoted by the word, part of reality sound-form (symbol, sign) – linguistic sign concept – flower sound-form referent [rәuz]

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Meaning and Sound-form are not identical different e.g. dove — [d۸v] English sound-forms [golub’] Russian convey one [taube] German and the same meaning

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Meaning and Sound-form nearly identical sound-forms have different meanings in different languages e.g. [kot] English – a small bed for a child [kot] Russian – a male cat identical sound-forms have different meanings (homonyms) e.g. knight [nait] night [nait]

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Meaning and Sound-form even considerable changes in sound-form do not affect the meaning e.g. OE lufian [luvian] – love [l v]

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Meaning and Concept concept is a category of human cognition concept is abstract and reflects the most common and typical features of different objects and phenomena in the world concept is almost the same for the whole humanity in one and the same period of its historical development meanings of words are different in different languages

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Meaning and Concept identical concepts may have different semantic structures in different languages e.g. concept “a building for human habitation” – in English HOUSE ≠ in Russian ДОМ (+ “fixed residence of family or household) one and the same concept possess meaning which is felt as different in each of the units e.g. “young child” – child, baby, babe, infant

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Meaning and Referent referent is beyond the scope of language one and the same object (referent) may be denoted by more than one word of a different meaning e.g. apple – apple, fruit, something, this

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Meaning a component of a word through which a concept is communicated, in this way endowing the word with the ability to denote objects, qualities, abstract notions

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Functional Approach studies the functions of a word in speech meaning of a word is studied through relations of it with other linguistic units e.g. to move (we move, move a chair) movement (movement of smth, slow movement)

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Lexical Meaning and Notion Notion denotes the reflection in the mind of real objects and phenomena in their relations Notion is a unit of thinking Lexical meaning is the realization of a notion by means of a definite language system Word is a language unit

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Lexical Meaning and Notion Notions are always emotionally neutral as they are a category of thought. Lexical meanings convey not only reflection of objective reality but also the speaker’s state of mind and his attitude to what he is speaking about.

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Lexical Meaning and Notion Notions are stylistically neutral, they belong to abstract logic and has ties with any stylistic sphere Lexical meanings have stylistic reference

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Lexical Meaning and Notion Notions are international especially with the nations of the same cultural level Meanings are nationally limited

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Lexical Meaning and Notion The logical notion is the referent of lexical meaning when a referent is not a real object. Real objects may be referents of lexical meaning.

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Types of Meaning types of meaning grammatical meaning lexico-grammatical meaning lexical meaning denotationalconnotational

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Grammatical Meaning component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words e.g. girls, winters, toys, tables – grammatical meaning of plurality asked, thought, walked – meaning of tense

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Lexico-grammatical meaning denominator of all the meanings of words belonging to a lexico- grammatical class e.g. action – generic term for verbs words of one lexico-grammatical class have the same paradigm

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Lexical Meaning component of meaning proper to a word as a linguistic unit met in all word-forms e.g. go-goes-went lexical meaning – process of movement grammatical meaning – tense and person

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Denotational Meaning expresses the conceptual content of a word makes communication possible e.g. notorious, adj. – widely known celebrated, adj. – widely known

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Connotational Meaning emotive charge or stylistic reference of a word it is optional – a word either has it or not

26

Connotation stylistic connotation – associations concern the situation in which the word is uttered, the social circumstances (formal, informal, etc.), social relationships between the interlocutors (polite, rough, etc.), the type and purpose of communication (poetic, official, etc.) e.g. horse (neutral) – steed (poetic) – nag (slang) – gee-gee (baby language)

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Connotation Emotional connotation – emotive charge of words that does not depend on the “feeling” of the individual speaker but is true for all speakers of English varies in different word-classes e.g. in interjections — it prevails in conjunctions – non-existant

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Connotational Meaning notorious + celebrated + widely known for criminal acts or bad traits of a character widely known for special achievements in science, arts, etc.

29

Types of Morpheme Meaning lexical differential functional distributional

30

Lexical Meaning in Morphemes root-morphemes that are homonymous to words possess lexical meaning e.g. boy – boyhood – boyish affixes have lexical meaning of a more generalized character e.g. –er – agent, doer of an action

31

Lexical Meaning in Morphemes has denotational and connotational components e.g. –ly, -like, -ish – denotational meaning of similiarity – womanly, womanlike, womanish connotational component — -ly (positive evaluation), -ish (deragotary) женственный — женоподобный

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Differential Meaning a semantic component that serves to distinguish one word from all others containing identical morphemes e.g. cranberry, blackberry, gooseberry

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Functional Meaning found only in derivational affixes a semantic component which serve to refer the word to the certain part of speech e.g. just, adj. – justice, n.

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Distributional Meaning the meaning of the order and the arrangement of morphemes making up the word found in words containing more than one morpheme different arrangement of the same morphemes would make the word meaningless e.g. sing- + -er =singer, -er + sing- = ?

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Motivation relation between the structure of a word, its phonemic or morphemic composition and its meaning words may be motivated and non- motivated

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Phonetical Motivation when there is a certain similarity between the sounds that make up the word and those produced by animals, objects, etc. e.g. swish, sizzle, boom, splash

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Morphological Motivation when there is a direct connection between the structure of a word and its meaning e.g. finger-ring – ring-finger, lead- + -er=leader one-morpheme words are morphologically non-motivated e.g. dog, girl

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Semantic Motivation based on co-existence of direct and figurative meanings of the same word when there is a direct connection between the central meaning of a word and minor meanings which are metaphorically colored (the combination of components is used figuratively) e.g. a watchdog –”a dog kept for watching property” (morphological motivation) a watchdog – “a watchful human guardian” (semantic motivation)

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