Word meaning of plants

1	0   0 Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. These organisms have the following general characteristics: lack of locomotion, lack of a nervous system, and cellulose cell walls. Most plants can photosyn [..]

2	0   0 Plant To place seismometers on the ground. The seismometer should be firmly stuck or planted in the ground in the proper location and orientation for optimal seismic acquisition.

3	0   0 Plant The assets of a business including land, buildings, machinery, and all equipment permanently employed.

4	0   0 Plant   A term commonly used either as a synonym for an industrial establishment or a generating facility or to refer to a particular process within an establishment.

5	0   0 Plant «put in the ground to grow,» Old English plantian, from Latin plantare (see plant (n.)). Reinforced by cognate Old French planter. Without reference to growing, «to insert firmly,» [..]

6	0   0 Plant Old English plante «young tree or shrub, herb newly planted,» from Latin planta «sprout, shoot, cutting» (source of Spanish planta, French plante), perhaps from *plantare «to [..]

7	0   0 Plant to place in the earth or water for growth.

8	0   0 Plant organism that produces its own food through photosynthesis and whose cells have walls.

9	0   0 Plant building and equipment used for manufacturing or a type of industry.

10	0   0 Plant In project work, the land, buildings, machinery, apparatus, and fixtures employed in carrying on a trade or an industrial business. [D03143]

11	0   0 Plant The physical capital (building and equipment) at a particular location used for the production of goods and services. While the term plant is occasional used synonymously with the terms firm or busine [..]

12	0   0 Plant buildings for carrying on industrial labor; "they built a large plant to manufacture automobiles" put or set (seeds, seedlings, or plants) into the ground; "Let& [..]

13	0   0 Plant anything that grows up from the earth, like grass or flowers

14

0   0 Plant All the facilities and equipment used to provide telecommunications services. Note: Plant is usually characterized as outside plant or inside plant. Outside plant, for example, includes all poles, repeaters and unoccupied buildings housing them, ducts, and cables—including the «inside» portion of interfacility cables outward from the mai [..]

15	0   0 Plant Definition A place where a company will manufacture a good or service. A plant is considered to be a fixed asset.

16	0   0 Plant Definition A long-term, tangible asset held for business use and not expected to be converted to cash in the current or upcoming fiscal year, such as manufacturing equipment, real estate, and furnitur [..]

17	0   0 Plant flantsn

18	0   0 Plant In terms of networking, the cables that connect all the computers in a local area network.

19	0   0 Plant A building or group of buildings where something is made or processed; factory.

20	0   0 Plant Up-front costs of creating a book – editing, typesetting, repro and so on. cf

21	0   0 Plant or vegetable oils. include cooking oils such as corn oil, olive oil, sesame oil, grapeseed, flax, coconut, etc. Some are classified as saturated, unsaturated, and poly unsaturated, and all are the sub [..]

22	0   0 Plant Physical properties used for institutional purposes; i.e., land, building, improvements, equipment, and so forth. The term does not include real estate or properties of restricted or unrestricted fund [..]

23	0   0 Plant The term «plant» means “any member of the plant kingdom, including seeds, roots and other parts thereof.” (16 USCS § 1532)

24	0   0 Plant A general term for all equipment used by a telephone company to provide telecommunications services. In the telecom business, plant comes in two variations – inside and outside plant.  Inside is in [..]

25	0   0 Plant (n) buildings for carrying on industrial labor(n) (botany) a living organism lacking the power of locomotion(n) an actor situated in the audience whose acting is rehearsed but seems spontaneous to [..]

26

0   0 Plant  A facility at which are located prime movers, electric generators, and auxiliary equipment for converting mechanical, chemical, and/or nuclear energy into electric energy. A plant may contain more than one type of prime mover. Electric utility plants exclude facilities that satisfy the definition of a qualifying facility under the Public Utility [..]

27	0   0 Plant A term used to identify a media company and its entire outdoor advertising inventory in a market.

28	0   0 Plant All of the Outdoor advertising structures in a given city, town or area operated by an Outdoor company or «plant operator».

29	0   0 Plant A general term to describe any telephone company equipment used to provide communications services.

30	0   0 Plant All the outdoor advertising units in a market that are operated by a single company. Sometimes the term refers to the outdoor company itself.

31	0   0 Plant All outdoor advertising structures in a given city, town or area operated by an individual company.

32	0   0 Plant A term used to identify a media company and its entire outdoor advertising inventory in a market.

33	0   0 Plant All of the Outdoor advertising structures in a given city, town or area operated by an Outdoor company or «plant operator».

34	0   0 Plant Also referred to as bottling plant, this refers to a bottling facility of Coca-Cola Hellenic, where beverages are manufactured.

35	0   0 Plant Also referred to as bottling plant, this refers to a bottling facility of Coca-Cola Hellenic, where beverages are manufactured.

36	0   0 Plant Also referred to as bottling plant, this refers to a bottling facility of Coca-Cola HBC, where beverages are manufactured.

37	0   0 Plant Also referred to as bottling plant, this refers to a bottling facility of Coca-Cola Hellenic Group, where beverages are manufactured.

38	0   0 Plant Multicellular, eukaryotic Life Forms of the kingdom Plantae (sensu lato), comprising the Viridiplantae; Rhodophyta; and Glaucophyta; all of which acquired Chloroplasts by direct endosymbiosis of Cyano [..]

39	0   0 Plant A Plant genus, in the Family Amaranthaceae, best known as a source of high-protein Grain crops and of Red Dye No. 2 (Amaranth Dye). Tumbleweed sometimes refers to Amaranthus but more often refers to S [..]

40	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Caryophyllaceae. The common name of sandwort is used with other Plants. Do not confuse with Arenaria Bird or with other genera which use arenaria as the species name such a [..]

41	0   0 Plant A Plant genus in the Family Liliaceae (sometimes placed in Asparagaceae) that contains Ecdysteroids and is an ingredient of Siotone. The shoots are used as a vegetable and the roots are used in FOLK M [..]

42	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Asteraceae. This Plant should not be confused with Microtubule asters (Microtubules) nor with aster yellows Phytoplasma (Mycoplasma-like organisms).

43	0   0 Plant A Plant genus in the Family Fabaceae, subFamily Papilionaceae, order Fabales, subclass Rosidae. Many of the species are associated with Poisoning of grazing Animals. Some of the species are used medic [..]

44	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Musaceae, order Zingiberales, subclass Zingiberidae, class Liliopsida.

45	0   0 Plant Several Plant species of the genus Vaccinium known for the edible blueberry Fruit.

46	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Convolvulaceae. Members contain bonaspectins (tetrahydrofuran-type sesqui-Lignans).

47	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Asteraceae. Arctiin (Lignans) is in the Seed.

48	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Araceae. Calla Lily (CallaLily) also refers to the Zantedeschia. There is no relationship with CALLA Antigen.

49	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Cyperaceae. The Seed contains oligoStilbenes (Stilbenes).

50	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Euphorbiaceae, order Euphorbiales, subclass Rosidae. The Seed of Ricinus communis L. is the Castor Bean which is the source of Castor Oil; Ricin; and other Lectins.

51	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Cecropiaceae. Hypotensive and hypoglycemic effects have been observed in Animals after ingesting members of this genus. There is no relation to cecropia Moth (Hyalophora ce [..]

52	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Malvaceae. It is the source of Cotton Fiber; Cottonseed Oil, which is used for Cooking, and Gossypol. The economically important cotton crop is a major user of agricultural [..]

53	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Brassicaceae. Members contain crambin.

54	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Fabaceae. Members contain cyclopamine, a teratogen producing cyclopia (one eye in the middle of the Face) and Xanthones.

55	0   0 Plant Anethum graveolens L. is a Plant species of the Family Apiaceae. The leaves are considered as a Spice (Spices).

56	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Rosaceae. Do not confuse with Dryas Butterfly (Butterflies).

57	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Asteraceae. Members contain a pseudoguaiane sesquiterpene. San-fang-feng is the root of E. grijisii used in Drugs, Chinese Herbal.

58	0   0 Plant A Plant genus in the Family Caprifoliaceae best known for elderberries.

59	0   0 Plant A Plant genus. The common name of tasselflower is easily confused with other Plants.

60	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Myoporaceae. Members have been used in FOLK Medicine.

61	0   0 Plant An organism of the vegetable kingdom suitable by Nature for use as a Food, especially by Human beings. Not all parts of any given Plant are edible but all parts of edible Plants have been known to fig [..]

62	0   0 Plant Plants, or their progeny, whose Genome has been altered by Genetic Engineering.

63	0   0 Plant A monophyletic group of green Plants that includes all Land Plants (Embryophyta) and all Green Algae (Chlorophyta and Streptophyta).

64	0   0 Plant Plants that have adapted to or require a high concentration of salt.

65	0   0 Plant The Plant genus in the Cannabaceae Plant Family, Urticales order, Hamamelidae subclass. The Flowering Tops are called many slang terms including pot, marijuana, hashish, bhang, and ganja. The STEM is [..]

66	0   0 Plant Several Plant species of the genus Vaccinium known for the edible huckleberry Fruit.

67	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Aizoaceae. It is a native of Africa and widely Planted for erosion control to stabilize Soil along roadsides and beaches.

68	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Iridaceae that contains IRIP, a type-1 Ribosome-inactivating protein, and iridals (TRITERPENES).

69	0   0 Plant A Plant species of the Family Actinidiaceae, order Theales.

70	0   0 Plant Higher Plants that live primarily in terrestrial habitats, although some are secondarily aquatic. Most obtain their energy from Photosynthesis. They comprise the vascular and non-vascular Plants.

71	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Lythraceae that is the source of henna and has cytotoxic activity.

72	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Fabaceae Family known for the Seeds used as Food.

73	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Liliaceae. Members contain ruscogenin. Do not confuse with the Liriope jellyfish (Cnidaria).

74	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Euphorbiaceae. Members contain fredelin type TRITERPENES, mallorepine (a cyano-pyridone), and Hydrolyzable Tannins.

75	0   0 Plant Plants whose roots, leaves, Seeds, bark, or other constituent parts possess Therapeutic, tonic, purgative, curative or other pharmacologic attributes, when administered to man or Animals.

76	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Lamiaceae that is the source of a familiar Food seasoning.

77	0   0 Plant Plants containing an active ingredient(s) with applications for medicinal purposes.

78	0   0 Plant Units that convert some other form of energy into electrical energy.

79	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Pedaliaceae.

80	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Proteaceae which should not be confused with Protea Beetles (Cetoniini).

81	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Scrophulariaceae.

82	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Lamiaceae Family. It is known as a Spice and Medicinal Plant.

83	0   0 Plant A Plant species of the Salvia genus known as a Spice and Medicinal Plant.

84	0   0 Plant Plants that can grow well in Soils that have a high Salinity.

85	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Lamiaceae used to flavor Food.

86	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Fabaceae. Senna Extract is obtained from members of this genus. Members contain Anthraquinones and have been an ingredient in Laxatives (Cathartics). Many species of the Ca [..]

87	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Poaceae. The small pointed Seeds are grown for hay in North America and western Europe and important as Food in China and other Asian countries.

88	0   0 Plant A Plant genus of the Family Lamiaceae best known for the thyme Spice added to Foods.

89	0   0 Plant Plants or Plant parts which are harmful to man or other Animals.

90	0   0 Plant Plants into which genetic material from another species has been transferred.

91	0   0 Plant There are two types of plant vehicles: (a) plant built on a truck chassis which has machinery permanently attached to it; and (b) ‘implement’ type plant which is not built on a truck chassis, such as excavators, road graders, bulldozers and forklifts.

92	0   0 Plant An organism in the Plant Kingdom. Plants do not have the ability to move like animals, but they are able to make their own food by pulling water and nutrients from the soil, and by using light. Plants [..]

93	0   0 Plant belonging to the plant or vegetable kingdom or to set plants or sow seeds (Glossary of PM)

94	0   0 Plant multicellular eukaryotes containing plastids, developing from nonblastular embryos planula

95	0   0 Plant See WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT.

96	0   0 Plant A building or group of buildings in which a process or function is carried out; at a mine site it will include warehouses, hoisting equipment, compressors, maintenance shops, offices and the mill or concentrator. Plate tectonics

97	0   0 Plant Sir Arnold Plant, Professor of Commerce (with special reference to Business Administration) at the London School of Economics, was born in 1898 in …

98	0   0 Plant (n) Someone on the scene but in hiding

99	0   0 Plant A freeform GM disguised as a player

100	0   0 Plant A facility containing prime movers, electric generators, and other equipment for producing electric energy.

101	0   0 Plant Land, buildings and improvements, associated infrastructure (e.g., electrical substations, piping systems, roads)

102	0   0 Plant a plant is an integrated workplace, usually all in one location.

103	0   0 Plant A facility containing prime movers, electric generators, and other equipment for producing electric energy.

104	0   0 Plant An organism that is not an animal, especially an organism capable of photosynthesis. Typically a small or herbaceous organism of this kind, rather than a tree. *Dryden *: a plant of stubborn oak [..]

105	0   0 Plant The assets of a business including land, buildings, machinery, and all equipment permanently employed.

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In Autumn or Spring cut off a quantity of laft year’s ftrong moots, from eight or ten, to twelve inches long, retaining their tops entire* and plant them in a fhady border, to re* main till Autumn or Spring following; then, the plants being rooted, fet them out in the nurfery, to be trained like the layer-railed plants* ❋ Unknown (1779)

Shortly after the discovery of RNAi, it was shown that PTGS in plants is correlated to the presence of a population of small RNAs (about 25 nucleotides long), and that this RNA contains both sense and antisense RNA sequences29. ❋ Unknown (2006)

I knew that there was no way I was going to be able to afford to put in plants from a nursery and still keep Zak and I in both Thai food and pesto – the amounts needed were too high. ❋ Unknown (2005)

To understand how the Birkman differs from the many other workplace assessments that describe or «label» people, consider a landscaper who can tell you that one of your plants is a cactus and the other is a ficus. ❋ Roger Birkman (2010)

If one of the plants is attacked by caterpillars, the other members of the network are warned via an internal signal. ❋ Unknown (2007)

An analysis of potential future conditions done by the bureau found that a large increase in trees and other plants is the only thing likely to make a big difference in ozone concentrations. ❋ Unknown (2005)

We must now deal with the higher forms of cell aggregates, which we call plants and animals. ❋ George McCready Price (N/A)

Just a general nursery of plants is what I’m looking for. ❋ Unknown (2009)

Since you live in DF the climate may be too cool in the winter to have some of the more tropical plants from the Far East. ❋ Unknown (2009)

Bennett stole the plants from the market then rode off on his bicycle. ❋ Unknown (2009)

President Bush was referring to an exceptional civilian nuclear deal that allows India to import uranium for its power plants from the Nuclear Suppliers ‘Group without subjecting its military reactors to international inspection. ❋ Raghav Bahl (2010)

I also never realised 3 was such a common number in plants, thanks for sharing your lovely photos ❋ Unknown (2010)

I found that the problem with most photos of plants is that they are too detailed. ❋ Unknown (2009)

Some sugar alcohols occur naturally in plants (sorbitol comes from corn syrup), but most are manufactured from sugars and starches. ❋ M.D. Glenn D. Braunstein (2010)

[Phil]: [hey look] at those plants[Jeff]: Wow, thats stupid ❋ Captain John_smith (2006)

We’re [Watering] Our Plants [WithOut Pants] ([wopwop]). ❋ Jim Ference (2007)

He couldn’t stand up for [5 minutes] after getting [PLANTED]! He should not have agreed to fight with a [Judoka]. ❋ 69cuntdestroyer (2018)

[The air] [smells] so… [plantful] ❋ Johnny’s Coffee (2020)

[That man] who keeps starting drama, seemingly for no reason, is [suspect] of [being a plant]. ❋ Truthypants (2011)

[Human] 1: this [plants] looks beautiful
Human 2: I don’t [trust] plants for some reason ❋ Mask Of The Shadow (2017)

That fool over [dar] doesn’t hit on da [bitchez], he hasn’t had a piece in years. He’s [a plant]. ❋ No Dozin (2010)

that plante girl is crazy. she wore a [grill] in [the dance] [ensemble] show. ❋ Emilysaurus Rex (2007)

go [water] that plant [yah] [negrah]! ❋ Bbc (2003)

«[The reason] he won that [contest], was because he was [a plant].» ❋ Gillima (2008)

plant

 (plănt)

n.

1. Botany

a. Any of various photosynthetic, eukaryotic, multicellular organisms of the kingdom Plantae characteristically containing chloroplasts, having cell walls made of cellulose, producing embryos, and lacking the power of locomotion. Plants include trees, bushes, herbs, ferns, mosses, and certain green algae.

b. A plant having no permanent woody stem; an herb.

c. Any of various fungi, algae, or protists that resemble plants and were formerly classified in the plant kingdom. Not in scientific use.

2.

a. A building or group of buildings for the manufacture of a product; a factory: works in an auto plant.

b. The buildings, fixtures, and equipment, including machinery, tools, and instruments, necessary for an industrial operation or an institution: the university’s mechanical plant.

3. A person or thing put into place in order to mislead or function secretly, especially:

a. A person placed in a group of spectators to influence behavior.

b. A person stationed in a given location as a spy or observer.

c. A misleading piece of evidence placed so as to be discovered.

d. A remark or action in a play or narrative that becomes important later.

4. Slang A scheming trick; a swindle.

tr.v. plant·ed, plant·ing, plants

1.

a. To place or set (seeds, for example) in the ground to grow.

b. To place seeds or young plants in (land); sow: plant a field in corn.

2.

a. To place (spawn or young fish) in water or an underwater bed for cultivation: plant oysters.

b. To stock with spawn or fish.

3. To introduce (an animal) into an area.

4.

a. To place or fix in a certain position: planted both feet on the ground; planted a kiss on my cheek.

b. To deliver (a punch or blow).

c. To fix firmly in the mind; implant: «The right of revolution is planted in the heart of man» (Clarence Darrow).

5. To establish; found: plant a colony.

6.

a. To station (a person) for the purpose of functioning in secret, as by observing, spying, or influencing behavior: Detectives were planted all over the store.

b. To place secretly or deceptively so as to be discovered or made public: planted a gun on the corpse to make the death look like suicide.

7. To conceal; hide: planted the stolen goods in the warehouse.

---

[Middle English plante, from Old English and Old French, both from Latin planta, sprout, seedling; see plat- in Indo-European roots.]

---

plant′a·ble adj.

American Heritage® Dictionary of the English Language, Fifth Edition. Copyright © 2016 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved.

plant

(plɑːnt)

n

1. (Botany) any living organism that typically synthesizes its food from inorganic substances, possesses cellulose cell walls, responds slowly and often permanently to a stimulus, lacks specialized sense organs and nervous system, and has no powers of locomotion

2. (Botany) such an organism that is green, terrestrial, and smaller than a shrub or tree; a herb

3. (Botany) a cutting, seedling, or similar structure, esp when ready for transplantation

4. informal a thing positioned secretly for discovery by another, esp in order to incriminate an innocent person

5. (Billiards & Snooker) billiards snooker a position in which the cue ball can be made to strike an intermediate which then pockets another ball

vb (tr)

6. (Botany) (often foll by out) to set (seeds, crops, etc) into (ground) to grow

7. to place firmly in position

8. to establish; found

9. to implant in the mind

10. slang to deliver (a blow)

11. informal to position or hide, esp in order to deceive or observe

12. (Zoology) to place (young fish, oysters, spawn, etc) in (a lake, river, etc) in order to stock the water

[Old English, from Latin planta a shoot, cutting]

ˈplantable adj

ˈplantˌlike adj

---

plant

(plɑːnt)

n

1. (Commerce)

a. the land, buildings, and equipment used in carrying on an industrial, business, or other undertaking or service

b. (as modifier): plant costs.

2. (Commerce) a factory or workshop

3. (Civil Engineering) mobile mechanical equipment for construction, road-making, etc

[C20: special use of plant¹]

Collins English Dictionary – Complete and Unabridged, 12th Edition 2014 © HarperCollins Publishers 1991, 1994, 1998, 2000, 2003, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2011, 2014

plant

(plænt, plɑnt)

n.

1. any member of the kingdom Plantae, comprising multicellular organisms that produce food from sunlight and inorganic matter by the process of photosynthesis and that have rigid cell walls containing cellulose, including the vascular plants, mosses, liverworts, and hornworts.

2. an herb or other small vegetable growth, in contrast with a tree or shrub.

3. a seedling or a growing slip, esp. one ready for transplanting.

4. a factory, workshop, etc., where a product is manufactured.

5. the equipment, machinery, tools, etc., necessary to carry on any industrial business.

6. the complete equipment or apparatus for a particular mechanical operation: a heating plant.

7. the buildings, equipment, etc., of an institution: the university plant.

8. a scheme to trap, trick, or defraud.

9. a person or thing placed secretly or strategically, as to gather information, provoke responses, or advance a plot or scheme.

v.t.

10. to put or set in the ground for growth, as seeds, shrubs, or young trees.

11. to furnish or stock (land) with plants.

12. to establish or implant (ideas, principles, etc.).

13. to bed (oysters).

14. to insert or set firmly in or on the ground: to plant fence posts.

15. to place; put.

16. to place or station with great force or determination: He planted himself in the doorway.

17. to place (something) in order to advance a plot, obtain a desired result, etc.: The police planted a story in the newspaper to trap the thief.

18. to place (a person) secretly in a situation, as to gather information or stir up reactions: to plant a spy.

19. to hide or conceal, as stolen goods.

20. to settle or found (a colony, etc.).

v.i.

21. to plant crops, seeds, etc.

[before 900; (n.) Middle English plaunte (< Old French plante), Old English plante < Latin planta a shoot, plant; (v.) Middle English plaunten (< Old French planter), Old English plantian < Latin plantāre, derivative of the n.]

plant′a•ble, adj.

Random House Kernerman Webster’s College Dictionary, © 2010 K Dictionaries Ltd. Copyright 2005, 1997, 1991 by Random House, Inc. All rights reserved.

plant

(plănt)

Any of a wide variety of multicellular organisms, most of which manufacture their own food by means of photosynthesis. Plants have cells with cell walls made of cellulose, cannot move about under their own power, and have no nervous system. They range in size from a few millimeters to trees that stand over 300 feet (91.4 meters) tall. Plants are grouped as a separate kingdom in taxonomy.

The American Heritage® Student Science Dictionary, Second Edition. Copyright © 2014 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. Published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company. All rights reserved.

factory

– works – mill – plant

1. ‘factory’

A building where machines are used to make things is usually called a factory.

I work in a cheese factory.

He visited several factories which produce domestic electrical goods.

2. ‘works’

A place where things are made or where an industrial process takes place can also be called a works. A works can consist of several buildings and may include outdoor equipment and machinery.

There used to be an iron works here.

After works you can use either a singular or plural form of a verb.

The sewage works was closed down.

Engineering works are planned for this district.

3. ‘mill’

A building where a particular material is made is often called a mill.

He worked at a cotton mill.

4. ‘plant’

A building where chemicals are produced is called a chemical plant.

There was an explosion at a chemical plant.

A power station can also be referred to as a plant.

They discussed the re-opening of the nuclear plant.

Collins COBUILD English Usage © HarperCollins Publishers 1992, 2004, 2011, 2012

plant

Past participle: planted
Gerund: planting

Imperative
plant
plant

Present
I plant
you plant
he/she/it plants
we plant
you plant
they plant

Preterite
I planted
you planted
he/she/it planted
we planted
you planted
they planted

Present Continuous
I am planting
you are planting
he/she/it is planting
we are planting
you are planting
they are planting

Present Perfect
I have planted
you have planted
he/she/it has planted
we have planted
you have planted
they have planted

Past Continuous
I was planting
you were planting
he/she/it was planting
we were planting
you were planting
they were planting

Past Perfect
I had planted
you had planted
he/she/it had planted
we had planted
you had planted
they had planted

Future
I will plant
you will plant
he/she/it will plant
we will plant
you will plant
they will plant

Future Perfect
I will have planted
you will have planted
he/she/it will have planted
we will have planted
you will have planted
they will have planted

Future Continuous
I will be planting
you will be planting
he/she/it will be planting
we will be planting
you will be planting
they will be planting

Present Perfect Continuous
I have been planting
you have been planting
he/she/it has been planting
we have been planting
you have been planting
they have been planting

Future Perfect Continuous
I will have been planting
you will have been planting
he/she/it will have been planting
we will have been planting
you will have been planting
they will have been planting

Past Perfect Continuous
I had been planting
you had been planting
he/she/it had been planting
we had been planting
you had been planting
they had been planting

Conditional
I would plant
you would plant
he/she/it would plant
we would plant
you would plant
they would plant

Past Conditional
I would have planted
you would have planted
he/she/it would have planted
we would have planted
you would have planted
they would have planted

Collins English Verb Tables © HarperCollins Publishers 2011

ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend:

Translations

Plants Temporal range: Mesoproterozoic–present Pha. Proterozoic Archean Had’n
Scientific classification
Domain:	Eukaryota
Clade:	Diaphoretickes
(unranked):	Archaeplastida
Kingdom:	Plantae sensu Copeland, 1956
Superdivisions
see text
Synonyms
Viridiplantae Cavalier-Smith 1981[1] Chlorobionta Jeffrey 1982, emend. Bremer 1985, emend. Lewis and McCourt 2004[2] Chlorobiota Kenrick and Crane 1997[3] Chloroplastida Adl et al., 2005 [4] Phyta Barkley 1939 emend. Holt & Uidica 2007 Cormophyta Endlicher, 1836 Cormobionta Rothmaler, 1948 Euplanta Barkley, 1949 Telomobionta Takhtajan, 1964 Embryobionta Cronquist et al., 1966 Metaphyta Whittaker, 1969

Plants are predominantly photosynthetic eukaryotes, forming the kingdom Plantae. Most of them are multicellular. Historically, the plant kingdom encompassed all living things that were not animals, and included algae and fungi. All current definitions exclude the fungi and some of the algae. By one definition, plants form the clade Viridiplantae (Latin name for «green plants») which consists of the green algae and the Embryophyta or land plants. The latter include hornworts, liverworts, mosses, lycophytes, ferns, conifers and other gymnosperms, and flowering plants. A definition based on genomes includes the Viridiplantae, along with the red algae and the glaucophytes, in the clade Archaeplastida.

Green plants obtain most of their energy from sunlight, using chloroplasts derived from endosymbiosis with cyanobacteria. Chloroplasts perform photosynthesis using the pigment chlorophyll, which gives them their green colour. Some plants are parasitic and have lost the ability to produce normal amounts of chlorophyll or to photosynthesize. Plants are characterized by sexual reproduction and alternation of generations, but asexual reproduction is also common.

There are about 380,000 known species of plants, of which the majority, some 260,000, produce seeds. Green plants provide a substantial proportion of the world’s molecular oxygen and are the basis of most of Earth’s ecosystems. Grain, fruit, and vegetables are basic human foods and have been domesticated for millennia. Plants have many cultural and other uses, such as ornaments, building materials, writing materials, and, in great variety, they have been the source of medicines. The scientific study of plants is known as botany, a branch of biology.

Definition

Taxonomic history

All living things were traditionally placed into one of two groups, plants and animals. This classification dates from Aristotle (384–322 BC), who distinguished different levels of beings in his biology,^[5] based on if living things have locomotion or had sensory organs.^[6] Theophrastus, Aristotle’s student, continued his work in plant taxonomy and classification.^[7] Much later, Linnaeus (1707–1778) created the basis of the modern system of scientific classification, but retained the animal and plant kingdoms.^[7]

Alternative concepts

When the name Plantae or plant is applied to a specific group of organisms or taxon, it usually refers to one of four concepts. From least to most inclusive, these four groupings are:

Name(s)	Scope	Description
Land plants, also known as Embryophyta	Plantae sensu strictissimo	Plants in the strictest sense include liverworts, hornworts, mosses, and vascular plants, as well as fossil plants similar to these surviving groups (e.g., Metaphyta Whittaker, 1969,[8] Plantae Margulis, 1971[9]).
Green plants, also known as Viridiplantae, Viridiphyta, Chlorobionta or Chloroplastida	Plantae sensu stricto	Plants in a strict sense include the green algae, and land plants that emerged within them, including stoneworts. The relationships between plant groups are still being worked out, and the names given to them vary considerably. The clade Viridiplantae encompasses a group of organisms that have cellulose in their cell walls, possess chlorophylls a and b and have plastids bound by only two membranes that are capable of photosynthesis and of storing starch. This clade is the main subject of this article (e.g., Plantae Copeland, 1956[10]).
Archaeplastida, also known as Plastida or Primoplantae	Plantae sensu lato	Plants in a broad sense comprise the green plants listed above plus the red algae (Rhodophyta) and the glaucophyte algae (Glaucophyta) that store Floridean starch outside the plastids, in the cytoplasm. This clade includes all of the organisms that eons ago acquired their primary chloroplasts directly by engulfing cyanobacteria (e.g., Plantae Cavalier-Smith, 1981[11]).
Old definitions of plant (obsolete)	Plantae sensu amplo	Plants in the widest sense refers to older, obsolete classifications that placed the unrelated groups of algae, fungi and bacteria in Plantae (e.g., Plantae or Vegetabilia Linnaeus,[12] Plantae Haeckel 1866,[13] Metaphyta Haeckel, 1894,[14] Plantae Whittaker, 1969[8]).

Evolution

Diversity

There are about 382,000 accepted species of plants,^[15] of which the great majority, some 293,000, produce seeds.^[16] The table below shows some species count estimates of different green plant (Viridiplantae) divisions. About 85–90% of all plants are flowering plants. Several projects are currently attempting to collect records on all plant species in online databases, e.g. the World Flora Online.^[15][17]

Plants range in scale from single cells, such as many algae including desmids (from 10 micrometres across) and picozoans (less than 3 micrometres across),^[18][19] to trees such as the conifer Sequoia sempervirens (up to 380 feet (120 m) tall ) and the angiosperm Eucalyptus regnans (up to 325 feet (99 m) tall ).^[20]

Diversity of living green plant (Viridiplantae) divisions

Informal group	Division name	Common name	No. of living species
Green algae	Chlorophyta	Green algae (chlorophytes)	3,800–4,300 [21][22]
Charophyta	Green algae (e.g. desmids & stoneworts)	2,800–6,000 [23][24]
Bryophytes	Marchantiophyta	Liverworts	6,000–8,000 [25]
Anthocerotophyta	Hornworts	100–200 [26]
Bryophyta	Mosses	12,000 [27]
Pteridophytes	Lycopodiophyta	Clubmosses	1,200 [28]
Polypodiophyta	Ferns, whisk ferns & horsetails	11,000 [28]
Spermatophyte (seed plants)	Cycadophyta	Cycads	160 [29]
Ginkgophyta	Ginkgo	1 [30]
Pinophyta	Conifers	630 [28]
Gnetophyta	Gnetophytes	70 [28]
Magnoliophyta	Flowering plants	258,650 [31]

The naming of plants is governed by the International Code of Nomenclature for algae, fungi, and plants^[32] and the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants.^[33]

Evolutionary scenarios

The ancestors of land plants evolved in water. An algal scum formed on the land 1,200 million years ago, but it was not until the Ordovician, around 450 million years ago, that the first land plants appeared, with a level of organisation like that of bryophytes.^[34][35] However, evidence from carbon isotope ratios in Precambrian rocks suggests that complex plants developed over 1000 mya.^[36]

Primitive land plants began to diversify in the late Silurian, around 420 million years ago. Bryophytes, club mosses, ferns then appear in the fossil record.^[37] Early plant anatomy is preserved in cellular detail in an early Devonian fossil assemblage from the Rhynie chert. These early plants were preserved by being petrified in chert formed in silica-rich volcanic hot springs.^[38]

By the end of the Devonian, most of the basic features of plants today were present, including roots, leaves and secondary wood in trees such as Archaeopteris.^[39][40] The Carboniferous Period saw the development of forests in swampy environments dominated by clubmosses and horsetails, including some as large as trees, and the appearance of early gymnosperms, the first seed plants.^[41] The Permo-Triassic extinction event radically changed the structures of communities.^[42] This may have set the scene for the evolution of flowering plants in the Triassic (~200 million years ago), with an adaptive radiation in the Cretaceous so rapid that Darwin called it an «abominable mystery».^[43][44][45] Conifers diversified from the Late Triassic onwards, and became a dominant part of floras in the Jurassic.^[46][47]

• 

  By the Devonian, plants had adapted to land with roots and woody stems.

• 

Towards a phylogenetic tree

A phylogenetic tree of Plantae, proposed in 1997 by Kenrick and Crane,^[48] is as follows. The Prasinophyceae are a paraphyletic assemblage of early diverging green algal lineages, but are treated as a group outside the Chlorophyta:^[49]

A different classification followed Leliaert et al. 2011^[50] and modified with Silar 2016^[51][52][53] for the green algae clades and Novíkov & Barabaš-Krasni 2015^[54] for the land plants clade. Notice that the Prasinophyceae are here placed inside the Chlorophyta.

Genomic phylogeny

In 2019, a phylogeny based on genomes and transcriptomes from 1,153 plant species was proposed.^[55] The placing of algal groups is supported by phylogenies based on genomes from the Mesostigmatophyceae and Chlorokybophyceae that have since been sequenced. Both the «chlorophyte algae» and the «streptophyte algae» are treated as paraphyletic (vertical bars beside phylogenetic tree diagram) in this analysis, as the land plants arose from within those groups.^[56][57] The classification of Bryophyta is supported both by Puttick et al. 2018,^[58] and by phylogenies involving the hornwort genomes that have also since been sequenced.^[59][60]

Physiology

Plant cells

Plant cells have some distinctive features that other eukaryotic cells (such as those of animals) lack. These are the large water-filled central vacuole, chloroplasts, and the strong flexible cell wall, which is outside the cell membrane. Chloroplasts are derived from what was once a symbiosis of a non-photosynthetic cell and photosynthetic cyanobacteria. The cell wall, made mostly of cellulose, allows plant cells to swell up with water without bursting. The vacuole allows the cell to change in size while the amount of cytoplasm stays the same.^[61]

Plant structure

Most plants are multicellular. Just as in animals, plant cells differentiate and develop into multiple cell types, forming tissues such as the vascular tissue with specialized xylem and phloem of leaf veins and stems, and organs with different physiological functions such as roots to absorb water and minerals, stems for support and to transport water and synthesised molecules, leaves for photosynthesis, and flowers for reproduction.^[62]

Photosynthesis

Plants photosynthesize, manufacturing food molecules using energy obtained from light. The primary mechanism plants have for capturing light energy is the green pigment chlorophyll, which plant cells have in their chloroplasts. The simple equation of photosynthesis is:^[63]

This means that they release oxygen into the atmosphere. Green plants provide a substantial proportion of the world’s molecular oxygen, alongside the contributions from photosynthetic algae and cyanobacteria.^[64][65][66]

Growth and repair

Growth is determined by the interaction of a plant’s genome with its physical and biotic environment.^[67] Factors of the physical or abiotic environment include temperature, water, light, carbon dioxide, and nutrients in the soil.^[68] Biotic factors that affect plant growth include crowding, grazing, beneficial symbiotic bacteria and fungi, and attacks by insects or plant diseases.^[69]

Frost and dehydration can damage or kill plants. Some plants have antifreeze proteins, heat-shock proteins and sugars in their cytoplasm that enable them to tolerate these stresses.^[70] Plants are continuously exposed to a range of physical and biotic stresses which cause DNA damage. Plants are able to tolerate and repair much of this damage.^[71]

Reproduction

Plants reproduce to generate offspring, whether sexually, involving gametes, or asexually, involving ordinary growth. Many plants use both mechanisms.^[72]

Sexual

When reproducing sexually, plants have complex lifecycles involving alternation of generations. One generation, the sporophyte, which is diploid (with 2 sets of chromosomes), gives rise to the next generation, the gametophyte which is haploid (with one set of chromosomes), and in some plants reproduces asexually via spores. In non-flowering plants such as mosses and ferns, the sexual gametophyte forms most of the visible plant.^[73] In seed plants (gymnosperms and flowering plants), the sporophyte forms most of the visible plant, and the gametophyte is very small. Flowering plants reproduce sexually using flowers, which contain male and female parts: these may be within the same (hermaphrodite) flower, on different flowers on the same plant, or on different plants. Male pollen enters the ovule to fertilize the egg cell of the female gametophyte. Fertilization takes place enclosed within the carpels or ovaries, which develop into fruits that contain seeds. Fruits may be dispersed whole, or they may split open and the seeds dispersed individually.^[74]

Asexual

Plants reproduce asexually by growing any of a wide variety of structures capable of growing into new plants. At the simplest, plants such as mosses or liverworts may be broken into pieces, each of which may regrow into whole plants. The propagation of flowering plants by cuttings is a similar process. Structures such as runners enable plants to grow to cover an area, forming a clone. Many plants grow food storage structures such as tubers or bulbs which may each develop into a new plant.^[75]

Some non-flowering plants, such as many liverworts, mosses and some clubmosses, along with a few flowering plants, grow small clumps of cells called gemmae which can detach and grow.^[76][77]

Disease resistance

Plants use pattern-recognition receptors to recognize pathogens such as bacteria that cause plant diseases. This recognition triggers a protective response. The first such plant receptors were identified in rice^[78] and in Arabidopsis thaliana.^[79]

Genomics

Plants have some of the largest genomes among all organisms.^[80] The largest plant genome (in terms of gene number) is that of wheat (Triticum aestivum), predicted to encode ≈94,000 genes^[81] and thus almost 5 times as many as the human genome. The first plant genome sequenced was that of Arabidopsis thaliana which encodes about 25,500 genes.^[82] In terms of sheer DNA sequence, the smallest published genome is that of the carnivorous bladderwort (Utricularia gibba) at 82 Mb (although it still encodes 28,500 genes)^[83] while the largest, from the Norway Spruce (Picea abies), extends over 19.6 Gb (encoding about 28,300 genes).^[84]

Ecology

Distribution

Plants are distributed almost worldwide. While they inhabit several biomes which can be divided into a multitude of ecoregions,^[85] only the hardy plants of the Antarctic flora, consisting of algae, mosses, liverworts, lichens, and just two flowering plants, have adapted to the prevailing conditions on that southern continent.^[86]

Plants are often the dominant physical and structural component of the habitats where they occur. Many of the Earth’s biomes are named for the type of vegetation because plants are the dominant organisms in those biomes, such as grassland, savanna, and tropical rainforest.^[87]

Primary producers

The photosynthesis conducted by land plants and algae is the ultimate source of energy and organic material in nearly all ecosystems. Photosynthesis, at first by cyanobacteria and later by photosynthetic eukaryotes, radically changed the composition of the early Earth’s anoxic atmosphere, which as a result is now 21% oxygen. Animals and most other organisms are aerobic, relying on oxygen; those that do not are confined to relatively rare anaerobic environments. Plants are the primary producers in most terrestrial ecosystems and form the basis of the food web in those ecosystems.^[88] Plants form about 80% of the world biomass at about 450 gigatonnes (4.4×10¹¹ long tons; 5.0×10¹¹ short tons) of carbon.^[89]

Ecological relationships

Numerous animals have coevolved with plants; flowering plants have evolved pollination syndromes, suites of flower traits that favour their reproduction. Many, including insect and bird partners, are pollinators, visiting flowers and accidentally transferring pollen in exchange for food in the form of pollen or nectar.^[90]

Many animals disperse seeds that are adapted for such dispersal. Various mechanisms of dispersal have evolved. Some fruits offer nutritious outer layers attractive to animals, while the seeds are adapted to survive the passage through the animal’s gut; others have hooks that enable them to attach to a mammal’s fur.^[91]
Myrmecophytes are plants that have coevolved with ants. The plant provides a home, and sometimes food, for the ants. In exchange, the ants defend the plant from herbivores and sometimes competing plants. Ant wastes serve as organic fertilizer.^[92]

The majority of plant species have fungi associated with their root systems in a mutualistic symbiosis known as mycorrhiza. The fungi help the plants gain water and mineral nutrients from the soil, while the plant gives the fungi carbohydrates manufactured in photosynthesis.^[93]
Some plants serve as homes for endophytic fungi that protect the plant from herbivores by producing toxins. The fungal endophyte Neotyphodium coenophialum in tall fescue grass has pest status in the American cattle industry.^[94]

Many legumes have Rhizobium nitrogen-fixing bacteria in nodules of their roots, which fix nitrogen from the air for the plant to use; in return, the plants supply sugars to the bacteria.^[95] Nitrogen fixed in this way can become available to other plants, and is important in agriculture; for example, farmers may grow a crop rotation of a legume such as beans, followed by a cereal such as wheat, to provide cash crops with a reduced input of nitrogen fertilizer.^[96]

Some 1% of plants are parasitic. They range from the semi-parasitic mistletoe that merely takes some nutrients from its host, but still has photosynthetic leaves, to the fully-parasitic broomrape and toothwort that acquire all their nutrients through connections to the roots of other plants, and so have no chlorophyll. Full parasites can be extremely harmful to their plant hosts.^[97]

Plants that grow on other plants, usually trees, without parasitizing them, are called epiphytes. These may support diverse arboreal ecosystems. Some may indirectly harm their host plant, such as by intercepting light. Hemiepiphytes like the strangler fig begin as epiphytes, but eventually set their own roots and overpower and kill their host. Many orchids, bromeliads, ferns, and mosses grow as epiphytes.^[98] Among the epiphytes, the bromeliads accumulate water in their leaf axils; these water-filled cavities can support complex aquatic food webs.^[99]

Some 630 species of plants are carnivorous, such as the Venus flytrap (Dionaea muscipula) and sundew (Drosera species). They trap small animals and digest them to obtain mineral nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus.^[100]

Competition

Competition for shared resources reduces a plant’s growth.^[101][102] Shared resources include sunlight, water and nutrients. Light is a critical resource because it is necessary for photosynthesis.^[101] Plants use their leaves to shade other plants from sunlight and grow quickly to maximize their own expose.^[101] Water too is essential for photosynthesis; roots compete to maximize water uptake from soil.^[103] Some plants have deep roots that are able to locate water stored deep underground, and others have shallower roots that are capable of extending longer distances to collect recent rainwater.^[103]
Minerals are important for plant growth and development.^[104] Common nutrients competed for amongst plants include nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.^[105]

Importance

Food

Human cultivation of plants is the core of agriculture, which in turn has played a key role in the history of world civilizations.^[106] Humans depend on plants for food, either directly or as feed in animal husbandry. Agriculture includes agronomy for arable crops, horticulture for vegetables and fruit, and forestry for timber.^[107][108] About 7,000 species of plant have been used for food, though most of today’s food is derived from only 30 species. The major staples include cereals such as rice and wheat, starchy roots and tubers such as cassava and potato, and legumes such as peas and beans. Vegetable oils such as olive oil and palm oil provide lipids, while fruit and vegetables contribute vitamins and minerals to the diet.^[109]
The study of plant uses by people is called economic botany or ethnobotany.^[110]

Medicines

Medicinal plants are a primary source of organic compounds, both for their medicinal and physiological effects, and for the industrial synthesis of a vast array of organic chemicals.^[111] Many hundreds of medicines are derived from plants, both traditional medicines used in herbalism^[112][113] and chemical substances purified from plants or first identified in them, sometimes by ethnobotanical search, and then synthesised for use in modern medicine. Modern medicines derived from plants include aspirin, taxol, morphine, quinine, reserpine, colchicine, digitalis and vincristine. Plants used in herbalism include ginkgo, echinacea, feverfew, and Saint John’s wort. The pharmacopoeia of Dioscorides, De Materia Medica, describing some 600 medicinal plants, was written between 50 and 70 CE and remained in use in Europe and the Middle East until around 1600 CE; it was the precursor of all modern pharmacopoeias.^{[114][115][116]}

Nonfood products

Plants grown as industrial crops are the source of a wide range of products used in manufacturing.^[117] Nonfood products include essential oils, natural dyes, pigments, waxes, resins, tannins, alkaloids, amber and cork. Products derived from plants include soaps, shampoos, perfumes, cosmetics, paint, varnish, turpentine, rubber, latex, lubricants, linoleum, plastics, inks, and gums. Renewable fuels from plants include firewood, peat and other biofuels.^[118][119] The fossil fuels coal, petroleum and natural gas are derived from the remains of aquatic organisms including phytoplankton in geological time.^[120] Many of the coal fields date to the Carboniferous period of Earth’s history. Terrestrial plants also form type III kerogen, a source of natural gas.^[121][122]

Structural resources and fibres from plants are used to construct dwellings and to manufacture clothing. Wood is used for buildings, boats, and furniture, and for smaller items such as musical instruments and sports equipment. Wood is pulped to make paper and cardboard.^[123] Cloth is often made from cotton, flax, ramie or synthetic fibres such as rayon and acetate derived from plant cellulose. Thread used to sew cloth likewise comes in large part from cotton.^[124]

Ornamental plants

Thousands of plant species are cultivated for their beauty and to provide shade, modify temperatures, reduce wind, abate noise, provide privacy, and reduce soil erosion. Plants are the basis of a multibillion-dollar per year tourism industry, which includes travel to historic gardens, national parks, rainforests, forests with colorful autumn leaves, and festivals such as Japan’s^[125] and America’s cherry blossom festivals.^[126]

Plants may be grown indoors as houseplants, or in specialized buildings such as greenhouses. Plants such as Venus flytrap, sensitive plant and resurrection plant are sold as novelties. Art forms specializing in the arrangement of cut or living plant include bonsai, ikebana, and the arrangement of cut or dried flowers. Ornamental plants have sometimes changed the course of history, as in tulipomania.^[127]

In science

Basic biological research has often used plants as its model organisms. In genetics, the breeding of pea plants allowed Gregor Mendel to derive the basic laws governing inheritance,^[128] and examination of chromosomes in maize allowed Barbara McClintock to demonstrate their connection to inherited traits.^[129] The plant Arabidopsis thaliana is used in laboratories as a model organism to understand how genes control the growth and development of plant structures.^[130] Tree rings provide a method of dating in archeology, and a record of past climates.^[131] The study of plant fossils, or Paleobotany, provides information about the evolutions of plants, paleogeographical reconstructions, and past climate change. Plant fossils can also help determine the age of rocks.^[132]

In mythology, religion, and culture

Plants including trees appear in mythology, religion, and literature.^{[133][134][135]} Flowers are often used as memorials, gifts and to mark special occasions such as births, deaths, weddings and holidays. Flower arrangements may be used to send hidden messages.^[136] Architectural designs resembling plants appear in the capitals of Ancient Egyptian columns, which were carved to resemble either the Egyptian white lotus or the papyrus.^[137] Images of plants and especially of flowers are often used in paintings.^[138][139]

Negative effects

Weeds are commercially or aesthetically undesirable plants growing in managed environments such as in agriculture and gardens.^[140] People have spread many plants beyond their native ranges; some of these plants have become invasive, damaging existing ecosystems by displacing native species, and sometimes becoming serious weeds of cultivation.^[141]

Some plants that produce windblown pollen, including grasses, invoke allergic reactions in people who suffer from hay fever.^[142] Many plants produce toxins to protect themselves from herbivores. Major classes of plant toxins include alkaloids, terpenoids, and phenolics.^[143] These can be harmful to humans and livestock by ingestion^[144][145] or, as with poison ivy, by contact.^[146] Some plants have negative effects on other plants, preventing seedling growth or the growth of nearby plants by releasing allopathic chemicals.^[147]

See also

• Plant identification
• Mycorrhizal network

References

Further reading

General:

• Evans, L.T. (1998). Feeding the Ten Billion – Plants and Population Growth. Cambridge University Press. Paperback, 247 pages. ISBN 0-521-64685-5.
• Kenrick, Paul & Crane, Peter R. (1997). The Origin and Early Diversification of Land Plants: A Cladistic Study. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. ISBN 1-56098-730-8.
• Raven, Peter H.; Evert, Ray F.; & Eichhorn, Susan E. (2005). Biology of Plants (7th ed.). New York: W.H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-1007-2.
• Taylor, Thomas N. & Taylor, Edith L. (1993). The Biology and Evolution of Fossil Plants. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 0-13-651589-4.

Species estimates and counts:

• International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) Species Survival Commission (2004). IUCN Red List The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
• Prance, G. T. (2001). «Discovering the Plant World». Taxon. 50 (2, Golden Jubilee Part 4): 345–359. doi:10.2307/1223885. JSTOR 1223885.

External links

• Index Nominum Algarum
• Interactive Cronquist classification
• Plant Resources of Tropical Africa
• Tree of Life Archived 9 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine

Botanical and vegetation databases

• African Plants Initiative database
• Australia
• Chilean plants at Chilebosque
• e-Floras (Flora of China, Flora of North America and others) Archived 19 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine
• Flora Europaea
• Flora of Central Europe (in German)
• Flora of North America Archived 19 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine
• List of Japanese Wild Plants Online Archived 16 March 2022 at the Wayback Machine
• Meet the Plants-National Tropical Botanical Garden
• Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center – Native Plant Information Network at University of Texas, Austin
• The Plant List Archived 25 February 2022 at the Wayback Machine
• United States Department of Agriculture not limited to continental US species