Word meaning and sentence meaning of simple sentence

Other types of sentences contain a different amount of independent and dependent clauses:

The
simple sentence is a sentence in which only one predicative line is
expressed.

1.
According to their structure all
simple sentences of English should be divided into two-member
(two-axis) constructions and one-member (one-axis)
constructions
(Fig.
112).

One-member
and two-member sentences are distinguished by the num­ber of
principal parts (positions) they contain: two-member sentences have
two main parts – the subject and the predicate, while one-member
sen­tences have only one principal part, which is neither the
subject nor the predicate.

Fig.
112

One-member
sentences in English are of two types:
nominal
sentences and
verbal
sentences. Nominal sentences are those in which the principal part is
expressed by a noun. They state the existence of the things expressed
by them. They are typical of descriptions. Verbal sentences are those
in which the principal part is expressed by a non-finite form of the
verb, either an infinitive or a gerund. Infinitive and gerundial
one-member sentences are mostly used to describe different emotional
perceptions of reality.

Two-member
(two-axis) constructions can be complete
and
incomplete. They are distinguished by the presence or absence of
word-forms in the principal positions of two-member sentences.

In a complete sentence both
the principal positions are filled with word-forms.

In an
incomplete (elliptical) sentence one or both of the main posi­tions
are not filled, but can be easily supplied as it is clear from the
context what is missing.
Elliptical
sentences are typical of conversational English. There exist several
types of elliptical sentences (Fig.
113).

Fig.
113

Fig.
114

The
semantic classification of simple sentences should be effected at
least on the three bases: first, on the basis of the subject
categorial meanings; second,
on the basis of the predicate
categorial meanings; third,
on the basis of the subject-object
relation.

2.
According to the type of the subject
simple sentences are divided into personal and impersonal (Fig.
114).
The further division of the personal sentences is into human and
non-human; human —
into
definite and indefinite; non-human —
into
animate and inanimate. The further essential division of impersonal
sentences is into factual and perceptional. The differences in
subject categorial meanings are sustained by the obvious differences
in subject-predicate combinability.

3.
According to the type of the predicate simple
sentences are divided into process-featuring (“verbal”) and, in
the broad sense, substance-featuring (including substance as such and
substantive quality —
“nominal”)
(Fig.
115).
Among the process-featuring sentences actional and statal ones are to
be discriminated. Among the substance-featuring sentences factual and
perceptional ones are to be discriminated.

Fig.
115

4.
According
to the type of the subject-object relation
simple
sentences should be divided into subjective, objective and neutral or
“potentially” objective, capable of implying both the transitive
action of the syntactic person and the syntactic person’s
intransitive characteristic (Fig.
116).

Fig.
116

5.
According to the presence of secondary parts simple
sentences should be divided into unextended
(unexpanded) and extended
(expanded)
(Fig.
117).

Fig.
117

An
unextended
sentence contains two main positions of the basic pattern, that of
the subject and the predicate.

An extended
sentence may contain various
optional
elements (including attributes, certain kinds of prepositional
objects and adverbial modifiers).

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A technology that strives to understand human communication must be able to understand meaning in language. In this post, we take a deeper look at a core component of our expert.ai technology, the semantic disambiguator, and how it determines word meaning and sentence meaning via disambiguation.

To start, let’s clarify our definitions of words and sentences from a linguistic point of view.

Word Meaning and Sentence Meaning in Semantics

Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases, sentences and text. This can be broken down into subcategories such as formal semantics (logical aspects of meaning), conceptual semantics (cognitive structure of meaning) and today’s focus of lexical semantics (word and phrase meaning).

A “word” is a string of characters that can have different meanings (jaguar: car or animal?; driver: one who drives a vehicle or the part of a computer?; rows, the plural noun or the third singular person of the verb to row?). A “sentence” is a group of words that express a complete thought. To fully capture the meaning of a sentence, we need to understand how words relate to other words.

Going Back to School

To understand word meaning and sentence meaning, our semantic disambiguator engine must be able to automatically resolve ambiguities with any word in a text.

Let’s consider this sentence:

John Smith is accused of the murders of two police officers.

To understand the word meaning and sentence meaning in any phrase, the disambiguator performs four consecutive phases of analysis:

Lexical Analysis

During this phase, the stream of text is broken up into meaningful elements called tokens. The sequence of “atomic” elements resulting from this process will be further elaborated in the next phase of analysis.

• John > human proper noun
• Smith > human proper noun
• is > verb
• accused > noun
• of > preposition
• the > article

Grammatical Analysis

During this phase, each token in the text is assigned a part of speech. The semantic disambiguator can recognize any inflected forms and conjugations as well as identify nouns, proper nouns and so on.

Starting from a mere sequence of tokens, what results from this elaboration is a sequence of elements. Some of them have been grouped to form collocations (e.g., police officer) and every token or group of tokens is represented by a block that identifies its part of speech.

• John Smith > human proper noun
• is accused > predicate nominal

Syntactical Analysis

During this phase, the disambiguator operates several word grouping operations on different levels to reproduce the way that words are linked to one another to form sentences. Sentences are further analyzed to attribute a logical role to each phrase (subject, predicate, object, verb, complement, etc.) and identify relationships between them and other complements whenever possible. In our example, the sentence is made of a single independent clause, where John Smith is recognized as subject of the sentence.

• John Smith > subject
• is accused > nominal predicate

Semantic Analysis

During the last and most complex phase, the tokens recognized during grammatical analysis are associated with a specific meaning. Though each token can be associated to several concepts, the choice is made by considering the base form of each token with respect to its part of speech, the grammatical and syntactical characteristics of the token, the position of the token in the sentence and its relation to the syntactical elements surrounding it.

Like the human brain, the disambiguator eliminates all candidate terms for each token except one, which will be definitively assigned to the token. When it comes across an unknown element in a text (e.g., human proper names), it tries to infer word meaning and sentence meaning by considering the context in which each token appears to determine its meaning.

• Is accused > to accuse > to blame
• police officer > policeman, police woman, law enforcement officer

---

Want to learn more about the disambiguation process? Take a deep dive in our brief, “Disambiguation: The Key to Contextualization“.

Presentation on theme: «Module 3 L4. Word and Sentence Meaning Consists of: word 1/ Semantics and the study of the word: sense relation 3/ Aspect of Sentential Meaning sentence.»— Presentation transcript:

1

Module 3 L4. Word and Sentence Meaning Consists of: word 1/ Semantics and the study of the word: sense relation 3/ Aspect of Sentential Meaning sentence 2/ Semantics and the Nature of the Lexicon 4/ Pragmatics and Speech Acts Theory

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Unit 1: 1/ Semantics and the study of the word: sense relation Sense/lexical relations used to explain meaning of English words as: Synonymy Antonymy Hyponymy Homonoymy Polysemy Mentonymy

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As you study you know: 1/ Semantics theories try to explain the nature the meaning of words and sentences. 2/ meaning of a word is realized from its referential or denotation characteristics. 3/ some words it is not easy to analyze their characteristics.  Therefore, it is better to study them by the relation that create with other words which is based on the sense of the words

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 This sense relation study through Synonymy Antonymy Hyponymy Homonoymy Polysemy Metonymy We will use these sense relation to study t he meaning of words, as follows:

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when the relation is closed and similar..   between word we used it. We call them synonymous. Like this set of synonymy: Sad/angry/depressed/afraid(emotional set)  Pairs of words with similar meaning called synonymys as:-  Friends/ally  Boss/master  Amiable/friendly s ynonymy

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Synonym typeDefinitionExample Stylistic (most common) A lexical unit that has a similar range of reference but is differentiated by speaker intention, the audience, and the situation.range of reference {happy, glad, joyful}

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a word opposite in meaning to another. Fast is an antonym of slow. Has two types: Gradable: : Differ by degree and can compared with suffix As tall — taller- tallest More most Antonymy

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Also in substitution like: Everybody/everyone Bandit /brigand( قاطع طريق Some are broad or near: Rich غني / sumptuous باذخ

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nongradable No compare – but complementary(binary) pairs Examples: Male/ female Sister/brother Buy/ sell Master/ servant

10

Categories of Antonyms There are three categories of antonyms: Graded antonyms — deal with levels of the meaning of the words, like if something is not “good”, is may still not be “bad.” There is a scale involved with some words, and besides good and bad there can be average, fair, excellent, terrible, poor, or satisfactory. Complementary antonyms — have a relationship where there is no middle ground. There are only two possibilities, either one or the other. Relational antonyms — are sometimes considered a subcategory of complementary antonyms. With these pairs, for there to be a relationship, both must exist. The chart below shows examples of all three categories of antonyms.

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More example for un-gradable for final exam fat and skinny- young and old -happy and sad -hard and soft last and first — foolish and wise -fast and slow -warm -and cool wide and narrow- abundant and scarce- joy and grief — dark and light -dangerous and safe -clever and foolish early and late empty and full -smart and dumb -risky and safe bad and good pretty and ugly best and worst simple and challenging soft and hard worried and calm sane and crazy rich and poor cool and hot wet and dry late and early ignorant and educated big and small optimistic and pessimistic excited and bored

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L adding a Prefix Sometimes, an antonym can be easily made by adding a prefix. Examples of antonyms that were made by adding the prefix “un” are: Likely and unlikely Able and unable Fortunate and unfortunate Forgiving and unforgiving By adding the prefix “non” you can make these pairs:

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Entity and nonentity Conformist and nonconformist Payment and nonpayment Combatant and noncombatant Lastly, adding the prefix “in” can make the following pairs: Tolerant and intolerant Decent and indecent Discreet and indiscreet Excusable and inexcusable

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hyponymy A hyponym is a subordinate, specific term whose referent is included in the referent of super ordinate term. Likes: blue- green= ar to super word color. Hyponymy is not restricted to objects, abstract concepts, or nouns. It can be identified in many other areas of the lexicon.

15

Examples: E.g. the verb cook has many hyponyms. Word: Cook Hyponyms: Roast مشوي, boil مسلوق, fry مقلي, grill مشوي, bake محمص, etc. Word: color Hyponyms: blue, red, yellow, green, black and purple. In a lexical field, hyponymy may exist at more than one level. A word may have both a hyponym and a super ordinate term. For example, Word: Living Hyponym: bird, insects, animals Now let’s take the word bird from above hyponyms. Word: Bird Hyponyms: sparrow, عصفور hawk صقر, crow, غراب fowl طير / ذجاج

16

Homonymy Words with same spelling and pronunciation but with different meaning:: Bank- river Bank- financial Fly- insect Fly move Lead- verb guide Lead –make pencil9 رصاص

17

Words with same pronucaition but different spelling Key- quay Been- bean Court- caught Were- where two- to Eye- I

18

Hyponymy It describes what happens when we say ‘An X is a kind of Y’—A daffodil is a kind of flower, or simply, A daffodil is a flower.“ A meaning of word included in the meaning of another. Dogs- elephant, goat,… are included in animals, Hierarchical structure

19

20

21

المفهوم الماخوذ

22

Continue on the last lecture

23

Polysemy It means when a word has multiple meaning Has one entry in dictionary examples Foot head

24

of a person Foot of mountain of notes part of a body Head department of meeting How?

25

Metonymy كناية Metonymies are frequently used in literature and in everyday speech. A metonymy is a word or phrase that is used to stand in for another word. Sometimes a metonymy is chosen because it is a well-known characteristic of the word. One famous example of metonymy is the saying, «The pen is mightier than the sword,“ which originally came from Edward Bulwer Lytton’s play Richelieu. This sentence has two examples of metonymy: The «pen» stands in for «the written word.»

26

Examples for Metonymy words Crown — in place of a royal person The White House — in place of the President or others who work there The restaurant: staff Dish — for an entire plate of food The Pentagon — to refer to the staff Ears — for giving attention («Lend me your ears!» from Mark Antony in Julius Caesar)

27

More examples Eyes — for sight The library — for the staff or the books Pen — for the written word Sword — for military might Silver fox — for an attractive older man Hand — for help The name of a country — used in place of the government, economy, etc. The name of a church — used in place of its individual members The name of a sports team — used in place of its individual members

28

Examples for metonymy sentences These sentences will further enhance your appreciation and understanding of metonymies. The metonymy is underlined. We must wait to hear from the crown until we make any further decisions. The White House will be announcing the decision around noon today. If we do not fill out the forms properly, the suits will be after us shortly. She’s planning to serve the dish early in the evening. The cup is quite tasty. The Pentagon will be revealing the decision later on in the morning.

29

The restaurant has been acting quite rude lately. Learn how to use your eyes properly! The library has been very helpful to the students this morning. That individual is quite the silver fox. Can you please give me a hand carrying this box up the stairs? The United States will be delivering the new product to us very soon.

30

Why to use metonymy As with other literary devices, one of the main purposes of using a metonymy is: to add flavor to the writing. Instead of just repeatedly saying, «the staff at the restaurant» or naming all of the elements of a dinner each time you want to refer to the meal, one word breaks up some of that awkwardness. Using a metonymy serves a double purpose — it breaks up any awkwardness of repeating the same phrase over and over and it changes the wording to make the sentence more interesting.

31

Questions’ Bank A. 1. Give the synonymy of the following 2. Give the antonym for these words: ___________________ 3. Give the Hyponymy for these words: _______________ 4. Give the homonymy for the following?

32

B. What are the types meaning sense relation ? Word 1Word 2Sense relation fatthinsynonymy happygladhomonymy antonym hyponymy polysemy

33

Next: Semantics and the Nature of the Lexicon 1. Semantics and the nature of the Lexicon Subcategorizing English Words Role Relations of Lexical items