Word meaning and meaning of morphemes - Word и Excel - помощь в работе с программами

A
morpheme is a segment of a word regularly recurrent in other words
and having the same meaning in all of its recurrences. Morphemes have
lexical, part-of-speech, differential and distributional meanings.

The
lexical meaning of roots.
Root morphemes possess a kind of generalized lexical meaning
which
differs
from that of affixes. The root-morpheme is the lexical nucleus of the
word; it has a very general and abstract lexical meaning common to a
set of semantically related words constituting one word-cluster, e.g.
(to)
teach,
teacher,
teaching.

The
meaning of affixes.
The meaning of affixes is purely sinificative. For example, the
suffix —en
carries the meaning ‘the change of quality’. Verbs formed with
the help of this suffix express the idea that someone or something
has more of a quality than it had previously. If, for example, a
river deepens,
it becomes deeper
than it was before, and if something strengthens
a person or group, they become more powerful and secure, or more
likely to succeed.

As
in words the meaning in morphemes may also be analyzed into
denotational and connotational components. For example, endearing and
diminutive suffixes, such as -ette
(kitchenette,
luncheonette);
—ie
(y)
(dearie,
girlie);
-ling (duckling,
wolfling)
bear
a heavy emotive charge. Morphemes —ly,
-like,
-ish
in the words womanly,
womanlike,
womanish
have the same denotational meaning of similarity but differ in the
connotational component (cf. the Russian equivalents: женственный
– женский
– бабий).

The
differential meaning
is the semantic component that serves to distinguish one word from
other in words containing the same (identical) morphemes. For
example, in the word note-book
the morpheme note-
serves to distinguish the word from other words: exercise-book,
copy-book,
bookshelf,
bookcase.

The
distributional meaning
is found in all words having more than one morpheme. It is found in
the arrangement and order of morphemes making up the word. For
example, the word teacher
is composed of two morphemes teach-
and —er
both of which possess the denotational meaning – ‘to give
instruction or lessons’ and ‘the doer of the action’. A
different arrangement of the same morphemes *erteach
would make the word meaningless.
More examples, playboy
– boy-play,
pot flower – flowerpot,
board school – school board.

The
part-of-speech (functional)
meaning
is indicative of the part of speech to which a derivational word
belongs. If we see the words with the suffixes -ment,
-er,
-ity,
-or,
we say that they are nouns, e.g. establishment,
plurality,
teacher,
translator,
sailor.
If -ful,
-less,
-able,
-al
etc. are present in words we say the words are adjectives, e.g.
helpful,
handless,
guiltless,
readable,
national,
writable,
operational,
openable,
proposal.

Pseudo-morpheme
– is a morpheme which has a differential and distributional meaning
but doesn’t possess any lexical or part-of-speech meaning.
For example, in the words retain,
detain,
contain
and receive,
deceive,
conceive,
the clusters re-,
de-,
con-
(having nothing in common with the phonetically identical prefixes
re-,
de- in
the words rewrite,
reorganize,
deodorize,
decode)
and

—tain,
-ceive
have no lexical meaning. However they have a differential meaning
because re-
distinguishes retain
from detain,
and —tain
distinguishes retain
from receive.
They also have a distributional meaning as their order points at the
affixal status of re-,
de-,
con-
and makes one understand —tain,
-ceive
as roots. But as they lack any lexical meaning of their own, they can
be characterizes as pseudo-morphemes. There to approaches to the
problem. Some linguists recognize pseudo-morphemes and regard word
like retain,
detain,
receive,
deceive as
polymorphic derived (affixed) words; others do not recognize
pseudo-morphemes and treat these words as monomorphic.

Unique
root
is a pseudo-morpheme since it has no lexical meaning, but it carries
a differential meaning and a distributional meaning that doesn’t
occur in other words, whereas is a word, containing a unique root,
other morphemes display a more or less clear lexical meaning, e.g.
hamlet,
cranberry,
gooseberry,
mulberry,
comet.

There’s
a close connection between the type of meaning in morphemes and the
type of morphemic segmentability. A great number of words are
characterized by complete
segmentability.
In this case individual morphemes clearly stand out within the word
and can be easily isolated, their meaning is transparent, e.g.
endless,
useless.
Conditional
segmentability
is typical for words whose component morphemes are pseudo-morphemes.
Defective
segmentability
is the property of words whose component morphemes are unique ones.

There are two levels of
approach to the study of word-structure: the level of morphemic
analysis and the level of derivational (or word-formation) analysis.

If
the analysis is limited to stating the number and the types of
morphemes that make up a word, it is referred to as morphemic.
For example, the word underestimates
may
be analyzed into four morphemes: the root —estim-,
the prefix under-,
lexical suffix —ate
and grammatical suffix —s.
The morphemic analysis establishes the morphemes that make up the
word, regardless of their role in the formation of this word. In
other words, the morphemic analysis only defines the morphemes (their
number and types) comprising a word, but doesn’t reveal their
hierarchy.

The
morphemic structure of the word is being established by the method of
immediate
constituents analysis.
This method is based on a binary principle which means that at each
stage the word is broken into the components (immediate
constituents)
after that these components are broken further into two other
components. When the components can’t be further divided and the
analysis is completed we have arrived at the ultimate
constituents
– the morphemic structure of the word. For example, the morphemic
structure of the word
underestimates can
be represented as a linear structure
in
the following way:
W=
{[Pr +(R+L)]+Gr}, or as a hierarchical structure of Immediate
Constituents (Diagram 13).

Diagram
13.

Word

St
₁(underestimate-) Gr.
Suf. (-s)

Pref
(under-)
St ₂(-estimate)

R
(estim-)
Lex. Suf.(-ate)

Derivational
analysis
studies the structural patterns and rules on which words are built.
Analyzing the word-formation structure of a word one tries to answer
the question: What was formed from what? One studies the last
word-formation act, the result of which is this or that unit. For
example, in the word Oxbridgian
the last word formation act was suffixation (Oxbridge
+ -ian),
but in the previous word-formation act telescoping took place (Oxford
+ Cambridge).
The verb to
dognap
is back formation from the word dognapping
which
was
formed by analogy with kidnapping.

The
nature, type and arrangement of the ICs (immediate constituent –
непосредственная составляющая) of the
word is known as its derivative
structure.
Though the derivative structure of the word is closely connected with
its morphemic structure and often coincides with it, it differs from
it in principle.

According
to the derivative structure all words fall into two big classes:
simplexes or simple, non-derived words and complexes or derivatives.
Simplexes
are words which derivationally cannot be segmented into ICs. The
morphological stem of simple words, i.e. the part of the word which
takes on the system of grammatical inflections is semantically
non-motivated and independent of other words, e.g. hand,
come,
blue.
Derivatives
are words which depend on some other simpler lexical items that
motivate them structurally and semantically, i.e. the meaning and the
structure of the derivative is understood through the comparison with
the meaning and the structure of the source word. Hence derivatives
are secondary, motivated units, made up as a rule of two ICs, i.e.
binary units, e.g. words like friendliness,
unwifely,
school-masterish,
etc. The ICs are brought together according to specific rules of
order and arrangement preconditioned by the system of the language.
It follows that all derivatives are marked by the fixed order of
their ICs.

The basic elementary units of
the derivational structure of words are: derivational bases,
derivational affixes and derivational patterns.

The
derivational base
– is the part of the word from which the word was built. Types of
derivational bases:

bases
that coincide with morphological stems – dutiful,
dutifully;

—
bases that coincide with grammatical word-forms – unknown;

—
bases the coincide with word-groups – second-rateness.

Derivational
affixes
are ICs of the derived word in all parts of speech. Derivational
affixes are highly selective (the choice depends on etymological,
phonological, semantic and structural properties of the base):
blacken,
scribbler,
novelist,
befriend,
enslave,
brainless.

The
derivational pattern
– is a regular meaningful arrangement, a structure that imposes
rigid rules on the order and the nature of the derivational bases and
affixes which may be brought together. According to structural
formulas all words may be classified into: 1) suffixal derivatives:
blackness;
2) prefixal derivatives: rewrite;
3) conversions: a cut;
4) compound words: music-lover.
Structural patterns specify the base classes and individual affixes
thus indicating the lexico-grammatical and lexical classes of derived
words. The affixes refer derivatives to specific parts of speech and
lexical subsets. For example, the derivational pattern noun
+ -ish → Adjective
signals a set of adjectives with the lexical meaning of resemblance,
e.g. girlish,
whereas adjective
+ -ish → Adjective
signals adjectives meaning a small degree of quality, e.g.
blackish.

Derivational
relations are distinguished into:

—
derivative clusters – a set of derivatives that can be formed from
the same derivative base (friendship,
friendly,
unfriendly);

—
derivative row – is made up by the derivatives that represent
consecutive steps of the derivative from the initial derivative base
(friend
– friendly – unfriendly – unfriendliness);

— derivative categories –
comprises derivations of different derivative patterns brought
together by the same generalized derivative meanings:

(Teacher) N=V+er

(Historian) N=N+an

(Activist) N=Adj+ist

(Author) N=N+or.

It
should be taken into consideration that the word-building meaning
which often depends on the affixal meaning or the number of bases is
not the same with the lexical meaning. For example, the word-building
meaning of the word writer
is ‘a person or thing that performs an action specified by
the derivational base’. The lexical meaning reveals the character
of the action – a writer is ‘a person who writes’. The
word-building meaning unites words, derived according to the same
word-building model with the same semantic consequence, e.g.
brainstorming
and
blamestorming.
The group of words united by the same lexical meaning numbers words
built up according to different word-building patterns and entering
synonymic relation.

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Morphology is the study of words, word formation, and the relationship between words. In Morphology, we look at morphemes — the smallest lexical items of meaning. Studying morphemes helps us to understand the meaning, structure, and etymology (history) of words.

Morphemes: meaning

The word morphemes from the Greek morphḗ, meaning ‘shape, form‘. Morphemes are the smallest lexical items of meaning or grammatical function that a word can be broken down to. Morphemes are usually, but not always, words.

Look at the following examples of morphemes:

These words cannot be made shorter than they already are or they would stop being words or lose their meaning.

For example, ‘house’ cannot be split into ho- and -us’ as they are both meaningless.

However, not all morphemes are words.

For example, ‘s’ is not a word, but it is a morpheme; ‘s’ shows plurality and means ‘more than one’.

The word ‘books’ is made up of two morphemes: book + s.

Morphemes play a fundamental role in the structure and meaning of language, and understanding them can help us to better understand the words we use and the rules that govern their use.

How to identify a morpheme

You can identify morphemes by seeing if the word or letters in question meet the following criteria:

Morphemes must have meaning. E.g. the word ‘cat’ represents and small furry animal. The suffix ‘-s’ you might find at the end of the word ‘cat’ represents plurality.
Morphemes cannot be divided into smaller parts without losing or changing their meaning. E.g. dividing the word ‘cat’ into ‘ca’ leaves us with a meaningless set of letters. The word ‘at’ is a morpheme in its own right.

Types of morphemes

There are two types of morphemes: free morphemes and bound morphemes.

Free morphemes

Free morphemes can stand alone and don’t need to be attached to any other morphemes to get their meaning. Most words are free morphemes, such as the above-mentioned words house, book, bed, light, world, people, and so on.

Bound morphemes

Bound morphemes, however, cannot stand alone. The most common example of bound morphemes are suffixes, such as —s, —er, —ing, and -est.

Let’s look at some examples of free and bound morphemes:

Tall
Tree
-er
-s

‘Tall’ and ‘Tree’ are free morphemes.

We understand what ‘tall’ and ‘tree’ mean; they don’t require extra add-ons. We can use them to create a simple sentence like ‘That tree is tall.’

On the other hand, ‘-er’ and ‘-s’ are bound morphemes. You won’t see them on their own because they are suffixes that add meaning to the words they are attached to.

Fig. 1 — These are the differences between free vs bound morphemes

So if we add ‘-er’ to ‘tall’ we get the comparative form ‘taller’, while ‘tree’ plus ‘-s’ becomes plural: ‘trees’.

Morphemes: structure

Morphemes are made up of two separate classes.

Bases (or roots)
Affixes

A morpheme’s base is the main root that gives the word its meaning.

On the other hand, an affix is a morpheme we can add that changes or modifies the meaning of the base.

‘Kind’ is the free base morpheme in the word ‘kindly’. (kind + -ly)

‘-less’ is a bound morpheme in the word ‘careless’. (Care + —less)

Morphemes: affixes

Affixes are bound morphemes that occur before or after a base word. They are made up of suffixes and prefixes.

Suffixes are attached to the end of the base or root word. Some of the most common suffixes include —er, -or, -ly, -ism, and -less.

Taller

Thinner

Comfortably

Absurdism

Ageism

Aimless

Fearless

Prefixes come before the base word. Typical prefixes include ante-, pre-, un-, and dis-.

Antedate

Prehistoric

Unkind

Disappear

Derivational affixes

Derivational affixes are used to change the meaning of a word by building on its base. For instance, by adding the prefix ‘un-‘ to the word ‘kind‘, we got a new word with a whole new meaning. In fact, ‘unkind‘ has the exact opposite meaning of ‘kind’!

Another example is adding the suffix ‘-or’ to the word ‘act’ to create ‘actor’. The word ‘act’ is a verb, whereas ‘actor’ is a noun.

Inflectional affixes

Inflectional affixes only modify the meaning of words instead of changing them. This means they modify the words by making them plural, comparative or superlative, or by changing the verb tense.

books — books

short — shorter

quick — quickest

walk — walked

climb — climbing

There are many derivational affixes in English, but only eight inflectional affixes and these are all suffixes.

Word class	Modification reason	Suffixes
To modify nouns	Plural & possessive forms	-s (or -es), -‘s (or s’)
To modify adjectives	Comparative & superlative forms	-er, -est
To modify verbs	3rd person singular, past tense, present & past participles	-s, -ed, -ing, -en

All prefixes in English are derivational. However, suffixes may be either derivational or inflectional.

Morphemes: categories

The free morphemes we looked at earlier (such as tree, book, and tall) fall into two categories:

Lexical morphemes
Functional morphemes

Reminder: Most words are free morphemes because they have meaning on their own, such as house, book, bed, light, world, people etc.

Lexical morphemes

Lexical morphemes are words that give us the main meaning of a sentence, text or conversation. These words can be nouns, adjectives and verbs. Examples of lexical morphemes include:

house
book
tree
panther
loud
quiet
big
orange
blue
open
run
talk

Because we can add new lexical morphemes to a language (new words get added to the dictionary each year!), they are considered an ‘open’ class of words.

Functional morphemes

Functional (or grammatical) morphemes are mostly words that have a functional purpose, such as linking or referencing lexical words. Functional morphemes include prepositions, conjunctions, articles and pronouns. Examples of functional morphemes include:

and
but
when
because
on
near
above
in
the
that
it
them.

We can rarely add new functional morphemes to the language, so we call this a ‘closed’ class of words.

Allomorphs

Allomorphs are a variant of morphemes. An allomorph is a unit of meaning that can change its sound and spelling but doesn’t change its meaning and function.

In English, the indefinite article morpheme has two allomorphs. Its two forms are ‘a’ and ‘an’. If the indefinite article precedes a word beginning with a constant sound it is ‘a’, and if it precedes a word beginning with a vowel sound, it is ‘an’.

Past Tense allomorphs

In English, regular verbs use the past tense morpheme -ed; this shows us that the verb happened in the past. The pronunciation of this morpheme changes its sound according to the last consonant of the verb but always keeps its past tense function. This is an example of an allomorph.

Consider regular verbs ending in t or d, like ‘rent’ or ‘add’.

Now look at their past forms: ‘rented‘ and ‘added‘. Try pronouncing them. Notice how the —ed at the end changes to an /id/ sound (e.g. rent /ɪd/, add /ɪd/).

Now consider the past simple forms of want, rest, print, and plant. When we pronounce them, we get: wanted (want /ɪd/), rested (rest /ɪd/), printed (print /ɪd/), planted (plant /ɪd/).

Now look at other regular verbs ending in the following ‘voiceless’ phonemes: /p/, /k/, /s/, /h/, /ch/, /sh/, /f/, /x/. Try pronouncing the past form and notice how the allomorph ‘-ed’ at the end changes to a /t/ sound. For example, dropped, pressed, laughed, and washed.

Plural allomorphs

Typically we add ‘s’ or ‘es’ to most nouns in English when we want to create the plural form. The plural forms ‘s’ or ‘es’ remain the same and have the same function, but their sound changes depending on the form of the noun. The plural morpheme has three allomorphs: [s], [z], and [ɨz].

When a noun ends in a voiceless consonant (i.e. ch, f, k, p, s, sh, t, th), the plural allomorph is /s/.

Book becomes books (pronounced book/s/)

When a noun ends in a voiced phoneme (i.e. b, l, r, j, d, v, m, n, g, w, z, a, e, i, o, u) the plural form remains ‘s’ or ‘es’ but the allomorph sound changes to /z/.

Key becomes keys (pronounced key/z/)

Bee becomes bees (pronounced bee/z/)

When a noun ends in a sibilant (i.e. s, ss, z), the sound of the allomorph sound becomes /iz/.

Bus becomes buses (bus/iz/)

house becomes houses (hous/iz/)

A sibilant is a phonetic sound that makes a hissing sound, e.g. ‘s’ or ‘z’.

Zero (bound) morphemes

The zero bound morpheme has no phonetic form and is also referred to as an invisible affix, null morpheme, or ghost morpheme.

A zero morpheme is when a word changes its meaning but does not change its form.

In English, certain nouns and verbs do not change their appearance even when they change number or tense.

Sheep, deer, and fish, keep the same form whether they are used as singular or plural.

Some verbs like hit, cut, and cost remains the same in their present and past forms.

Morphemes — Key takeaways

Morphemes are the smallest lexical unit of meaning. Most words are free morphemes, and most affixes are bound morphemes.
There are two types of morphemes: free morphemes and bound morphemes.
Free morphemes can stand alone, whereas bound morphemes must be attached to another morpheme to get their meaning.
Morphemes are made up of two separate classes called bases (or roots) and affixes.
Free morphemes fall into two categories; lexical and functional. Lexical morphemes are words that give us the main meaning of a sentence, and functional morphemes have a grammatical purpose.

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1 слайд

Word Meaning
Lecture # 6
Grigoryeva M.
2 слайд

Word Meaning

Approaches to word meaning

Meaning and Notion (понятие)

Types of word meaning

Types of morpheme meaning

Motivation
3 слайд

Each word has two aspects:

the outer aspect
( its sound form)
cat

the inner aspect
(its meaning)
long-legged, fury animal with sharp teeth
and claws
4 слайд

Sound and meaning do not always constitute a constant unit even in the same language

EX a temple

a part of a human head
a large church
5 слайд

Semantics (Semasiology)
Is a branch of lexicology which studies the
meaning of words and word equivalents
6 слайд

Approaches to Word Meaning
The Referential (analytical) approach

The Functional (contextual) approach

Operational (information-oriented) approach
7 слайд

The Referential (analytical) approach
formulates the essence of meaning by establishing the interdependence between words and things or concepts they denote

distinguishes between three components closely connected with meaning:
the sound-form of the linguistic sign,
the concept
the actual referent
8 слайд

Basic Triangle
concept (thought, reference) – the thought of the object that singles out its essential features
referent – object denoted by the word, part of reality
sound-form (symbol, sign) – linguistic sign
concept – flower

sound-form referent
[rәuz]
9 слайд

In what way does meaning correlate with
each element of the triangle ?

In what relation does meaning stand to
each of them?
10 слайд

Meaning and Sound-form
are not identical
different
EX. dove — [dΛv] English sound-forms
[golub’] Russian BUT
[taube] German
the same meaning
11 слайд

Meaning and Sound-form
nearly identical sound-forms have different meanings in different languages
EX. [kot] Russian – a male cat
[kot] English – a small bed for a child

identical sound-forms have different meanings (‘homonyms)
EX. knight [nait]
night [nait]
12 слайд

Meaning and Sound-form
even considerable changes in sound-form do not affect the meaning

EX Old English lufian [luvian] – love [l Λ v]
13 слайд

Meaning and Concept
concept is a category of human cognition

concept is abstract and reflects the most common and typical features of different objects and phenomena in the world

meanings of words are different in different languages
14 слайд

Meaning and Concept
identical concepts may have different semantic structures in different languages

EX. concept “a building for human habitation” –
English Russian
HOUSE ДОМ

+ in Russian ДОМ
“fixed residence of family or household”
In English HOME
15 слайд

Meaning and Referent

one and the same object (referent) may be denoted by more than one word of a different meaning
cat
pussy
animal
tiger
16 слайд

Meaning
is not identical with any of the three points of the triangle –
the sound form,
the concept
the referent

BUT
is closely connected with them.
17 слайд

Functional Approach
studies the functions of a word in speech
meaning of a word is studied through relations of it with other linguistic units
EX. to move (we move, move a chair)
movement (movement of smth, slow movement)

The distriution ( the position of the word in relation to
others) of the verb to move and a noun movement is
different as they belong to different classes of words and
their meanings are different
18 слайд

Operational approach
is centered on defining meaning through its role in
the process of communication

EX John came at 6
Beside the direct meaning the sentence may imply that:
He was late
He failed to keep his promise
He was punctual as usual
He came but he didn’t want to

The implication depends on the concrete situation
19 слайд

Lexical Meaning and Notion
Notion denotes the reflection in the mind of real objects

Notion is a unit of thinking
Lexical meaning is the realization of a notion by means of a definite language system
Word is a language unit
20 слайд

Lexical Meaning and Notion
Notions are international especially with the nations of the same cultural level

Meanings are nationally limited

EX GO (E) —- ИДТИ(R)
“To move”
BUT !!!
To GO by bus (E)
ЕХАТЬ (R)

EX Man -мужчина, человек
Она – хороший человек (R)
She is a good person (E)
21 слайд

Types of Meaning
Types of meaning

grammatical
meaning

lexico-grammatical
meaning
lexical meaning
denotational
connotational
22 слайд

Grammatical Meaning
component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words

EX. girls, winters, toys, tables –
grammatical meaning of plurality

asked, thought, walked –
meaning of past tense
23 слайд

Lexico-grammatical meaning
(part –of- speech meaning)
is revealed in the classification of lexical items into:
major word classes (N, V, Adj, Adv)
minor ones (artc, prep, conj)

words of one lexico-grammatical class have the same paradigm
24 слайд

Lexical Meaning
is the meaning proper to the given linguistic unit in all its forms and distributions

EX . Go – goes — went
lexical meaning – process of movement
25 слайд

PRACTICE
Group the words into 3 column according to the grammatical, lexical or part-of –speech meaning
Boy’s, nearest, at, beautiful,
think, man, drift, wrote,
tremendous, ship’s, the most beautiful,
table, near, for, went, friend’s,
handsome, thinking, boy,
nearer, thought, boys,
lamp, go, during.
26 слайд

Grammatical
The case of nouns: boy’s, ship’s, friend’s
The degree of comparison of adj: nearest, the most beautiful
The tense of verbs: wrote, went, thought

Lexical
Think, thinking, thought
Went, go
Boy’s, boy, boys
Nearest, near, nearer
At, for, during (“time”)
Beautiful, the most beautiful

Part-of-speech
Nouns—verbs—adj—-prep
27 слайд

Aspects of Lexical meaning
The denotational aspect

The connotational aspect

The pragmatic aspect
28 слайд

Denotational Meaning
“denote” – to be a sign of, stand as a symbol for”

establishes the correlation between the name and the object
makes communication possible

EX booklet
“a small thin book that gives info about smth”
29 слайд

PRACTICE
Explain denotational meaning

A lion-hunter
To have a heart like a lion
To feel like a lion
To roar like a lion
To be thrown to the lions
The lion’s share
To put your head in lion’s mouth
30 слайд

PRACTICE

A lion-hunter
A host that seeks out celebrities to impress guests
To have a heart like a lion
To have great courage
To feel like a lion
To be in the best of health
To roar like a lion
To shout very loudly
To be thrown to the lions
To be criticized strongly or treated badly
The lion’s share
Much more than one’s share
To put your head in lion’s mouth
31 слайд

Connotational Meaning
reflects the attitude of the speaker towards what he speaks about
it is optional – a word either has it or not

Connotation gives additional information and includes:
The emotive charge EX Daddy (for father)
Intensity EX to adore (for to love)
Imagery EX to wade through a book
“ to walk with an effort”
32 слайд

PRACTICE
Give possible interpretation of the sentences

She failed to buy it and felt a strange pang.
Don’t be afraid of that woman! It’s just barking!
He got up from his chair moving slowly, like an old man.
The girl went to her father and pulled his sleeve.
He was longing to begin to be generous.
She was a woman with shiny red hands and work-swollen finger knuckles.
33 слайд

PRACTICE
Give possible interpretation of the sentences
She failed to buy it and felt a strange pang.
(pain—dissatisfaction that makes her suffer)
Don’t be afraid of that woman! It’s just barking!
(make loud sharp sound—-the behavior that implies that the person is frightened)
He got up from his chair moving slowly, like an old man.
(to go at slow speed—was suffering or was ill)
The girl went to her father and pulled his sleeve.
(to move smth towards oneself— to try to attract smb’s attention)
He was longing to begin to be generous.
(to start doing— hadn’t been generous before)
She was a woman with shiny red hands and work-swollen finger knuckles.
(colour— a labourer involved into physical work ,constant contact with water)
34 слайд

The pragmatic aspect of lexical meaning

the situation in which the word is uttered,
the social circumstances (formal, informal, etc.),
social relationships between the interlocutors (polite, rough, etc.),
the type and purpose of communication (poetic, official, etc.)

EX horse (neutral)
steed (poetic)
nag (slang)
gee-gee (baby language)
35 слайд

PRACTICE
State what image underline the meaning

I heard what she said but it didn’t sink into my mind.
You should be ashamed of yourself, crawling to the director like that.
They seized on the idea.
Bill, chasing some skirt again?
I saw him dive into a small pub.
Why are you trying to pin the blame on me?
He only married her for her dough.
36 слайд

PRACTICE
State what image underline the meaning
I heard what she said but it didn’t sink into my mind.
(to understand completely)
You should be ashamed of yourself, crawling to the director like that.
(to behave humbly in order to win favour)
They seized on the idea.
(to be eager to take and use)
Bill, chasing some skirt again?
(a girl)
I saw him dive into a small pub.
(to enter suddenly)
Why are you trying to pin the blame on me?
(to blame smb unfairly)
He only married her for her dough.
(money)
37 слайд

Types of Morpheme Meaning
lexical
differential
functional
distributional
38 слайд

Lexical Meaning in Morphemes
root-morphemes that are homonymous to words possess lexical meaning
EX. boy – boyhood – boyish

affixes have lexical meaning of a more generalized character
EX. –er “agent, doer of an action”
39 слайд

Lexical Meaning in Morphemes
has denotational and connotational components
EX. –ly, -like, -ish –
denotational meaning of similiarity
womanly , womanish

connotational component –
-ly (positive evaluation), -ish (deragotary) женственный — женоподобный
40 слайд

Differential Meaning
a semantic component that serves to distinguish one word from all others containing identical morphemes

EX. cranberry, blackberry, gooseberry
41 слайд

Functional Meaning
found only in derivational affixes
a semantic component which serves to
refer the word to the certain part of speech

EX. just, adj. – justice, n.
42 слайд

Distributional Meaning
the meaning of the order and the arrangement of morphemes making up the word
found in words containing more than one morpheme
different arrangement of the same morphemes would make the word meaningless
EX. sing- + -er =singer,
-er + sing- = ?
43 слайд

Motivation
denotes the relationship between the phonetic or morphemic composition and structural pattern of the word on the one hand, and its meaning on the other

can be phonetical
morphological
semantic
44 слайд

Phonetical Motivation
when there is a certain similarity between the sounds that make up the word and those produced by animals, objects, etc.

EX. sizzle, boom, splash, cuckoo
45 слайд

Morphological Motivation
when there is a direct connection between the structure of a word and its meaning
EX. finger-ring – ring-finger,

A direct connection between the lexical meaning of the component morphemes
EX think –rethink “thinking again”
46 слайд

Semantic Motivation
based on co-existence of direct and figurative meanings of the same word

EX a watchdog –
”a dog kept for watching property”

a watchdog –
“a watchful human guardian” (semantic motivation)
48 слайд

Analyze the meaning of the words.
Define the type of motivation
a) morphologically motivated
b) semantically motivated

Driver
Leg
Horse
Wall
Hand-made
Careless
piggish
49 слайд

Analyze the meaning of the words.
Define the type of motivation
a) morphologically motivated
b) semantically motivated
Driver
Someone who drives a vehicle
morphologically motivated
Leg
The part of a piece of furniture such as a table
semantically motivated
Horse
A piece of equipment shaped like a box, used in gymnastics
semantically motivated
50 слайд

Wall
Emotions or behavior preventing people from feeling close
semantically motivated
Hand-made
Made by hand, not machine
morphologically motivated
Careless
Not taking enough care
morphologically motivated
Piggish
Selfish
semantically motivated
51 слайд

I heard what she said but it didn’t sink in my mind
“do down to the bottom”
‘to be accepted by mind” semantic motivation

Why are you trying to pin the blame on me?
“fasten smth somewhere using a pin” –
”to blame smb” semantic motivation

I was following the man when he dived into a pub.
“jump into deep water” –
”to enter into suddenly” semantic motivation

You should be ashamed of yourself, crawling to the director like that
“to move along on hands and knees close to the ground” –
“to behave very humbly in order to win favor” semantic motivation

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