Word made from parts of other words - Word и Excel - помощь в работе с программами

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This article is about word-formation. For a method of teaching how to read, see synthetic phonics.

In linguistics, a blend (sometimes called blend word, lexical blend, portmanteau, or portmanteau word) is a word formed from parts of two or more other words. At least one of these parts is not a morph (the realization of a morpheme) but instead a mere splinter, a fragment that is normally meaningless. In the words of Valerie Adams:

In words such as motel, boatel and Lorry-Tel, hotel is represented by various shorter substitutes – ‑otel, ‑tel, or ‑el – which I shall call splinters. Words containing splinters I shall call blends.^[1]^{[n 1]}

Classification[edit]

Blends of two or more words may be classified from each of three viewpoints: morphotactic, morphonological, and morphosemantic.^[2]

Morphotactic classification[edit]

Blends may be classified morphotactically into two kinds: total and partial.^[2]

Total blends[edit]

In a total blend, each of the words creating the blend is reduced to a mere splinter.^[2] Some linguists limit blends to these (perhaps with additional conditions): for example, Ingo Plag considers «proper blends» to be total blends that semantically are coordinate, the remainder being «shortened compounds».^[3]

Commonly for English blends, the beginning of one word is followed by the end of another:

boom + hoist → boost ^{[n 2]}
breakfast + lunch → brunch ^{[n 2]}

Much less commonly in English, the beginning of one word may be followed by the beginning of another:

teleprinter + exchange → telex ^{[n 2]}
American + Indian → Amerind ^{[n 2]}

Some linguists do not regard beginning+beginning concatenations as blends, instead calling them complex clippings,^[4] clipping compounds^[5] or clipped compounds.^[6]

Unusually in English, the end of one word may be followed by the end of another:

Red Bull + margarita → bullgarita ^{[n 2]}
Hello Kitty + delicious → kittylicious ^{[n 2]}

A splinter of one word may replace part of another, as in three coined by Lewis Carroll in «Jabberwocky»:

chuckle + snort → chortle ^{[n 2]}
flimsy + miserable → mimsy
slimy + lithe → slithy ^{[n 2]}

They are sometimes termed intercalative blends; these words are among the original «portmanteaus» for which this meaning of the word was created. ^[7]

Partial blends[edit]

In a partial blend, one entire word is concatenated with a splinter from another.^[2] Some linguists do not recognize these as blends.^[8]

An entire word may be followed by a splinter:

dumb + confound → dumbfound ^{[n 2]}
fan + magazine → fanzine ^{[n 3]}

A splinter may be followed by an entire word:

Brad + Angelina → Brangelina ^{[n 2]}
American + Indian → Amerindian ^{[n 2]}

An entire word may replace part of another:

adorable + dork → adorkable ^{[n 2]}
disgusting + gross → disgrossting ^{[n 2]}

These have also been called sandwich words,^[9] and classed among intercalative blends.^[7]

(When two words are combined in their entirety, the result is considered a compound word rather than a blend. For example, bagpipe is a compound, not a blend, of bag and pipe.)

Morphonological classification[edit]

Morphonologically, blends fall into two kinds: overlapping and non-overlapping.^[2]

Overlapping blends[edit]

Overlapping blends are those for which the ingredients’ consonants, vowels or even syllables overlap to some extent. The overlap can be of different kinds.^[2] These are also called haplologic blends.^[10]

There may be an overlap that is both phonological and orthographic, but with no other shortening:

anecdote + dotage → anecdotage ^{[n 2]}
pal + alimony → palimony ^{[n 2]}

The overlap may be both phonological and orthographic, and with some additional shortening to at least one of the ingredients:

California + fornication → Californication ^{[n 4]}
picture + dictionary → pictionary ^{[n 2]}

Such an overlap may be discontinuous:

politician + pollution → pollutician ^{[n 5]}
beef + buffalo → beefalo ^{[n 2]}

These are also termed imperfect blends.^[11]^[12]

It can occur with three components:

camisade + cannibalism + ballistics → camibalistics ^{[n 6]}
meander + Neanderthal + tale → meandertale ^{[n 6]}

The phonological overlap need not also be orthographic:

back + acronym → backronym ^{[n 2]}
war + orgasm → wargasm ^{[n 2]}

If the phonological but non-orthographic overlap encompasses the whole of the shorter ingredient, as in

sin + cinema → sinema ^{[n 2]}
sham + champagne → shampagne ^{[n 2]}

then the effect depends on orthography alone. (They are also called orthographic blends.^[13])

An orthographic overlap need not also be phonological:

smoke + fog → smog ^{[n 2]}
binary + unit → bit ^{[n 2]}

For some linguists, an overlap is a condition for a blend.^[14]

Non-overlapping blends[edit]

Non-overlapping blends (also called substitution blends) have no overlap, whether phonological or orthographic:

California + Mexico → Calexico ^{[n 2]}
beautiful + delicious → beaulicious ^{[n 4]}

Morphosemantic classification[edit]

Morphosemantically, blends fall into two kinds: attributive and coordinate.^[2]

Attributive blends[edit]

Attributive blends (also called syntactic or telescope blends) are those in which one of the ingredients is the head and the other is attributive. A porta-light is a portable light, not a ‘light-emitting’ or light portability; light is the head. A snobject is a snobbery-satisfying object and not an objective or other kind of snob; object is the head.^[2]

As is also true for (conventional, non-blend) attributive compounds (among which bathroom, for example, is a kind of room, not a kind of bath), the attributive blends of English are mostly head-final and mostly endocentric. As an example of an exocentric attributive blend, Fruitopia may metaphorically take the buyer to a fruity utopia (and not a utopian fruit); however, it is not a utopia but a drink.

Coordinate blends[edit]

Coordinate blends (also called associative or portmanteau blends) combine two words having equal status, and have two heads. Thus brunch is neither a breakfasty lunch nor a lunchtime breakfast but instead some hybrid of breakfast and lunch; Oxbridge is equally Oxford and Cambridge universities. This too parallels (conventional, non-blend) compounds: an actor–director is equally an actor and a director.^[2]

Two kinds of coordinate blends are particularly conspicuous: those that combine (near‑) synonyms:

gigantic + enormous → ginormous
insinuation + innuendo → insinuendo

and those that combine (near‑) opposites:

transmitter + receiver → transceiver
friend + enemy → frenemy

Blending of two roots[edit]

Blending can also apply to roots rather than words, for instance in Israeli Hebrew:

רמזור ramzor ‘traffic light’ combines רמז √rmz ‘hint’ and אור or ‘light’.
מגדלור migdalor ‘lighthouse’ combines מגדל migdal ‘tower’ and אור or ‘light’.
Israeli דחפור dakhpór ‘bulldozer’ hybridizes (Mishnaic Hebrew>) Israeli דחפ √dħp ‘push’ and (Biblical Hebrew>) Israeli חפר √ħpr ‘dig'[…]
Israeli שלטוט shiltút ‘zapping, surfing the channels, flipping through the channels’ derives from
- (i) (Hebrew>) Israeli שלט shalát ‘remote control’, an ellipsis – like English remote (but using the noun instead) – of the (widely known) compound שלט רחוק shalát rakhók – cf. the Academy of the Hebrew Language’s שלט רחק shalát rákhak; and
- (ii) (Hebrew>) Israeli שטוט shitút ‘wandering, vagrancy’. Israeli שלטוט shiltút was introduced by the Academy of the Hebrew Language in […] 1996. Synchronically, it might appear to result from reduplication of the final consonant of shalát ‘remote control’.
Another example of blending which has also been explained as mere reduplication is Israeli גחלילית gakhlilít ‘fire-fly, glow-fly, Lampyris‘. This coinage by Hayyim Nahman Bialik blends (Hebrew>) Israeli גחלת gakhélet ‘burning coal’ with (Hebrew>) Israeli לילה láyla ‘night’. Compare this with the unblended חכלילית khakhlilít ‘(black) redstart, Phœnicurus’ (<Biblical Hebrew חכליל ‘dull red, reddish’). Synchronically speaking though, most native Israeli-speakers feel that gakhlilít includes a reduplication of the third radical of גחל √għl. This is incidentally how Ernest Klein^[15] explains gakhlilít. Since he is attempting to provide etymology, his description might be misleading if one agrees that Hayyim Nahman Bialik had blending in mind.»^[16]

«There are two possible etymological analyses for Israeli Hebrew כספר kaspár ‘bank clerk, teller’. The first is that it consists of (Hebrew>) Israeli כסף késef ‘money’ and the (International/Hebrew>) Israeli agentive suffix ר- -ár. The second is that it is a quasi-portmanteau word which blends כסף késef ‘money’ and (Hebrew>) Israeli ספר √spr ‘count’. Israeli Hebrew כספר kaspár started as a brand name but soon entered the common language. Even if the second analysis is the correct one, the final syllable ר- -ár apparently facilitated nativization since it was regarded as the Hebrew suffix ר- -år (probably of Persian pedigree), which usually refers to craftsmen and professionals, for instance as in Mendele Mocher Sforim’s coinage סמרטוטר smartutár ‘rag-dealer’.»^[17]

Lexical selection[edit]

Blending may occur with an error in lexical selection, the process by which a speaker uses his semantic knowledge to choose words. Lewis Carroll’s explanation, which gave rise to the use of ‘portmanteau’ for such combinations, was:

Humpty Dumpty’s theory, of two meanings packed into one word like a portmanteau, seems to me the right explanation for all. For instance, take the two words «fuming» and «furious.» Make up your mind that you will say both words … you will say «frumious.»^[18]

The errors are based on similarity of meanings, rather than phonological similarities, and the morphemes or phonemes stay in the same position within the syllable.^[19]

Use[edit]

Some languages, like Japanese, encourage the shortening and merging of borrowed foreign words (as in gairaigo), because they are long or difficult to pronounce in the target language. For example, karaoke, a combination of the Japanese word kara (meaning empty) and the clipped form oke of the English loanword «orchestra» (J. ōkesutora オーケストラ), is a Japanese blend that has entered the English language. The Vietnamese language also encourages blend words formed from Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary. For example, the term Việt Cộng is derived from the first syllables of «Việt Nam» (Vietnam) and «Cộng sản» (communist).

Many corporate brand names, trademarks, and initiatives, as well as names of corporations and organizations themselves, are blends. For example, Wiktionary, one of Wikipedia’s sister projects, is a blend of wiki and dictionary.

Notes[edit]

^ Adams attributes the term splinter to J. M. Berman, «Contribution on blending,» Zeitschrift für Anglistik und Amerikanistik 9 (1961), pp. 278–281.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x Example provided by Mattiello of a blend of this kind.
^ Example provided by Mattiello of a blend of this kind. (Etymologically, fan is a clipping of fanatic; but it has since become lexicalized.)
^ ^a ^b Elisa Mattiello, «Lexical index.» Appendix (pp. 287–329) to Extra-grammatical Morphology in English: Abbreviations, Blends, Reduplicatives, and Related Phenomena (Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, 2013; doi:10.1515/9783110295399; ISBN 978-3-11-029539-9).
^ Example provided by Mattiello of a blend of this kind, slightly amended.
^ ^a ^b Example provided by Mattiello of a blend of this kind. The word is found in Finnegans Wake; Mattiello credits Almuth Grésillon, La règle et le monstre: Le mot-valise. Interrogations sur la langue, à partir d’un corpus de Heinrich Heine (Tübingen: Max Niemeyer, 1984), 15, for bringing it to her attention.

References[edit]

^ Valerie Adams, An Introduction to Modern English Word-Formation, Harlow, Essex: Longman, 1973; ISBN 0-582-55042-4, p. 142.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ Elisa Mattiello, «Blends.» Chap. 4 (pp. 111–140) of Extra-grammatical Morphology in English: Abbreviations, Blends, Reduplicatives, and Related Phenomena (Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton, 2013; doi:10.1515/9783110295399; ISBN 978-3-11-029539-9).
^ Ingo Plag, Word Formation in English (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003; ISBN 0-521-81959-8, ISBN 0-521-52563-2), 121–126.
^ Stefan Th. Gries, «Quantitative corpus data on blend formation: Psycho- and cognitive-linguistic perspectives», in Vincent Renner, François Maniez, Pierre Arnaud, eds, Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives on Lexical Blending (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2012; ISBN 978-3-11-028923-7), 145–168.
^ Laurie Bauer, «Blends: Core and periphery», in Vincent Renner, François Maniez, Pierre Arnaud, eds, Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives on Lexical Blending (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2012; ISBN 978-3-11-028923-7), 11–22.
^ Outi Bat-El and Evan-Gary Cohen, «Stress in English blends: A constraint-based analysis», in Vincent Renner, François Maniez, Pierre Arnaud, eds, Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives on Lexical Blending (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2012; ISBN 978-3-11-028923-7)
^ ^a ^b Suzanne Kemmer, «Schemas and lexical blends.» In Hubert C. Cuyckens et al., eds, Motivation in Language: From Case Grammar to Cognitive Linguistics: Studies in Honour of Günter Radden (Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2003; ISBN 9789027247551, ISBN 9781588114266).
^ Angela Ralli and George J. Xydopoulos, «Blend formation in Modern Greek», in Vincent Renner, François Maniez, Pierre Arnaud, eds, Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives on Lexical Blending (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2012; ISBN 978-3-11-028923-7), 35–50.
^ Harold Wentworth, «‘Sandwich’ words and rime-caused nonce words», West Virginia University Bulletin: Philological Studies 3 (1939), 65–71; cited in Algeo, John (1977). «Blends, a Structural and Systemic View». American Speech. 52 (1/2): 47–64. doi:10.2307/454719. JSTOR 454719.
^ Francis A. Wood, «Iteratives, blends, and ‘Streckformen’,» Modern Philology 9 (1911), 157–194.
^ Algeo, John (1977). «Blends, a Structural and Systemic View». American Speech. 52 (1/2): 47–64. doi:10.2307/454719. JSTOR 454719.
^ Michael H. Kelly, «To ‘brunch’ or to ‘brench’: Some aspects of blend structure,» Linguistics 36 (1998), 579–590.
^ Adrienne Lehrer, «Blendalicious,» in Judith Munat, ed., Lexical Creativity, Texts and Contexts (Amsterdam: Benjamins, 2007; ISBN 9789027215673), 115–133.
^ Giorgio-Francesco Arcodia and Fabio Montermini, «Are reduced compounds compounds? Morphological and prosodic properties of reduced compounds in Russian and Mandarin Chinese», in Vincent Renner, François Maniez, Pierre Arnaud, eds, Cross-Disciplinary Perspectives on Lexical Blending (Berlin: De Gruyter, 2012; ISBN 978-3-11-028923-7), 93–114.
^ Klein, Ernest (1987). A Comprehensive Etymological Dictionary of the Hebrew Language. Jerusalem: Carta. See p. 97.
^ Zuckermann, Ghil’ad (2003). Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 66. ISBN 978-1403917232.
^ Zuckermann 2003, p. 67.
^ Carroll, Lewis (2009). Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking-Glass. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-955829-2.
^ Fromkin, Victoria; Rodman, R.; Hyams, Nina (2007). An Introduction to Language (8th ed.). Boston: Thomson Wadsworth. ISBN 978-1-4130-1773-1.

External links[edit]

Look up blend word in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

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Word formation

Nowadays, the terms ‘word formation’ does not have a clear cut, universally accepted usage. It is sometimes referred to all processes connected with changing the form of the word by, for example, affixation, which is a matter of morphology. In linguistics, morphology is the study of words, how they are formed, and their relationship to other words in the same language. It analyzes the structure of words and parts of words, such as stems, root words, prefixes, and suffixes. In its wider sense word formation denotes the processes of creation of new vocabulary units. There are numerous word formation processes.

Clipping

Clipping is the word formation process which consists in the reduction of a word to one of its parts (Marchand: 1969). Clippings are, also, known as “shortenings.”Clipping mainly consists of the following types:

Back clipping b. Fore-clipping c. Middle clipping d. Complex clipping

Back clipping

Back clipping or apocopation is the most common type, in which the beginning is retained. The unclipped original may be either a simple or a composite. For example: ad (advertisement), cable (cablegram), doc(doctor), exam (examination), gas (gasoline), math (mathematics), memo(memorandum), gym (gymnastics, gymnasium) mutt (muttonhead), pub(public house), pop (popular concert), trad (traditional jazz), fax(facsimile).

Fore-clipping

Fore-clipping or aphaeresis retains the final part. For Example: phone(telephone), varsity (university), chute (parachute), coon (raccoon), gator(alligator), pike (turnpike).

Middle clipping

In middle clipping or syncope, the middle of the word is retained. For Example: flu (influenza), tec (detective), polly (apollinaris), jams (pyjamas), shrink (head-shrinker).

Complex clipping

Clipped forms are also used in compounds. One part of the original compound most often remains intact. For examples are: cablegram (cabletelegram), op art (optical art), org-man (organization man)

Sometimes both halves of a compound are clipped as in navicert (navigation certificate). In these cases it is difficult to know whether the resultant formation should be treated as a clipping or as a blend, for the border between the two types is not always clear.

Clipping is the word formation process in which a word is reduced or shortened without changing the meaning of the word. Clipping differs from back-formation in that the new word retains the meaning of the original word. For example:

advertisement – ad
alligator – gator
examination – exam
gasoline – gas
gymnasium – gym
influenza – flu
laboratory – lab
mathematics – math
memorandum – memo
photograph – photo
public house – pub
raccoon – coon
reputation – rep
situation comedy – sitcom
telephone – phone

Types of clipping

There are four types of clipping:

Back clipping

In this type the beginning is retained:

Examples:

ad = advertisement

cable = cablegram

doc = doctor

exam = examination

fax = facsimile

gas = gasoline

gym = gymnastics, gymnasium

memo = memorandum

pub = public house

pop = popular music

Fore-clipping

The final part is retained:

Examples:

chute = parachute

coon = raccoon

gator = alligator

phone = telephone

Middle clipping

The middle part is retained.

Example:

flu = influenza

fridge = refrigerator

Complex clipping

Clipping may also occur in compounds. In complex clipping, one part of the original compound most often remains intact. But sometimes both halves of a compound are clipped:

Examples:

cablegram= cable telegram

op art = optical art

org-man= organization man

linocut = linoleum cut

navicert = navigation certificate

sitcom = situation comedy

When both halves are clipped, as in navicert, it becomes confusing whether to consider the resultant formation as clipping or as blending.

Clipped forms, shortened abbreviations of words, have a checkered history. Some are acceptable in formal writing, and others aren’t. When writing in academic contexts, in business writing, or another formal environment, take note of the status of these common clipped forms:

Burger: If ever a reference to this fast food staple makes its way into formal writing, the short form of hamburgeris just as likely to appear as the long form.
Bus: Omnibus(Latin for “all”), a word for a horse-drawn public-transportation conveyance, gave the right of way to its short form around the time such vehicles became motorized.
Copter: The full form, helicopter, is best for formal writing.
Deli: Though this word has been in use for at least a half century, delicatessen, from the German word for “delicacies,” is best for formal usage.
Exam: Examinationwas clipped back in the late 1800s and has long since been used even in formal writing.
Flu: The short form of influenza(Italian for “influence,” from the medieval supposition that illness was the result of celestial perturbations) is several hundred years old and has long been acceptable even in formal medical texts.
Fridge: This term, unusual not only in that the full form, refrigerator, has been clipped at both ends but also in that the spelling has been altered to reflect the pronunciation, is suitable for informal writing only.
Gas: Gasolineis much more likely to appear in formal writing than its clipped form.
Gator: This clipped form of alligator, in spite of its nearly 200-year-old tenure in the English language, is considered slang.
Gym: Most formal references to a school building for athletic activities will use the full form, gymnasium,
Memo: So pervasive is this clipped form of memorandumthat many people may not even know its origins. (The full word ultimately derives from the Latin for “memory.”)
Movie: Even more taken for granted than memo is this diminutive form of “moving picture,” which, if you step back from it, may appear silly looking and juvenile. Formal writing often refers to the medium as film or cinema, but movieis also acceptable.
Phone: The original term, telephone, is still often used in formal writing, but the clipped form is just as likely to be used.
Plane: Plane has become as acceptable as airplanein formal writing.
Pro: Professional, the full form, is the preferred usage in formal contexts.
Quake: This clipped form of earthquakeis, despite long usage, still considered informal.
Tie: The full form, necktie, is all but obsolete. (Perhaps the clothing accessory will be, too, before long.)
Typo: This slang for “typographical error” is over a century old but is still considered substandard usage.

Some more examples:

auto – automobile	mike – microphone
bike – bicycle	mum – chrysanthemum
burger – hamburger	pen – penitentiary
co-op – cooperative	champ – champion
con – convict	pike – turnpike
cuke – cucumber	rev – revolution
dorm – dormitory	rhino – rhinoceros
ref – referee	specs – spectacles; specifications
stats – statistics	stereo – stereophonics
lunch – luncheon	sub – submarine
grad – graduate	taxi – taxicab
tux – tuxedo	teen – teenager
hippo – hippopotamus	van – caravan
limo – limousine	vet – veteran; veterinarian
alum – alumni	bro – brother
mart market

Clipped Words Used in Sentences

advertisement	ad
All company’s spend a lot of money on ads

hamburger	burger
Burger does not suit old people

omnibus	bus
The tourist bus broke down near Paris

helicopter	copter
The copter forces landed in the disturbed areas to stem the communal violence

demonstration	demo
BPL company conducted a demo at Paris corner of easy washing

ampere	amp
It is an 40 amp bulb

motor bike	bike
Ajith had just brought a very expensive bike.

suitcase	case
There are bundles of currency notes inside the case.

pressure cooker	cooker
Cookers are now available for even $20/-

discotheque	disco
Disco is not a part of Italian culture

diskette	disc
I saved all the word documents in a Compact disc

gasoline	gas
Gas has become an expensive fuel for low income group families.

bridegroom	groom
Groom is wanted for a 22 year old Cristian community girl drawing $8000/-PM in an MNC.

gymnasium	gym
My uncle goes to the gym early morning.

killogram	kilo
Get me a kilo of mangoes.

memorandum	memo
The managing director issued a memo to the head clerk.

micro phone	mic
This mic doesn’t work properly.

non-vegetarian	non-veg
He is a non-veg.

spectacles	specs
She cannot read without specs.

storehouse	store
Jems works in a store.

fountain pen	pen
Pen is mightier than sward

perambulator	param
The mother took the child out in a param.

university	varsity
London varsity has renovated its auditorium

vegetarian	veg
She regularly eats her dinner in a veg mess.

veterinary surgeon	vet
I took my cat to the vet.

fascimile	Fax
I got a fax copy of the conference notice yesterday.

handkerchief	karchief
I have lost my karchief yesterday.

aeroplane	plane
Sarah was excited as she was to travel by plane for the first time.

laboratory	lab
This college has five labs.

refrigerator	fridge
Having firdge is not a luxury but a necessity.

pantaloons	pants
The clown at the circus wore a very loose pants.

tubelight	tube
The tube of our hall didn’t work from yesterday.

mathematics	maths
She is our maths teacher.

centum	cent
We have been living in the 21st cent.

bicycle	cycle
David presented a cycle to John on his birthday.

alchemist	chemist
We have a chemist on the corner of our street.

influenza	flu
I was suffering from flu.

examination	exam
She is preparing for her exam.

luncheon	lunch
I invited my close friends for lunch.

photograph	photo
My friend got my photo to keep it with herself.

signature	sign
Akbar’s sign is totally illegible.

newscast	news
Every day I watch news in the TV.

telephone	phone
I contacted him over phone.

mummy	mum
Where is your mum?

daddy	dad
Where does your dad work?

identity	ID
Please, show me your ID.

curiosity	curio
We visited a curio shop.

demarcate	mark
They marked the boundaries.

tram car	tram
We travelled in a tram in London.

public house	pub
The couple were found in a local pub.

fanatic	fan
He is a fan of Arnold Schwarzenegger.

telephone	phone
Our Principal contacted the chief guest over the phone.

taxicab	taxi
I hired a taxi to go home.

topbrass	brass
The meeting was attended by diplomats and the top military brass.

newsflash	flash
We interrupt this programme to bring you a flash.

okay	ok
Did the head office ok the proposal?

rehabilitate	rehab
Lora saved all her money in order to send her husband for a rehab programme.

popmusic	pop
Michael Jackson is the king of pop.

pathway	path
The tourist chose the wrong path when they went for sight-seeing.

hitchhike	hitch
Can you give me a hitch till Mount Road?

zoological park	zoo
The little children love to visit a zoo.

Clip Word	Original Word	Clip Word	Original Word
wig	periwig	margarine	oleomargarine
lube	lubricate	mend	amend
miss	mistress	pants	pantaloons
mod	modern	bust	burst
caf	cafeteria	pen	penitentiary
calc	calculus	pep	pepper
canter	Canterbury gallop	perk	percolate
cent	centum	perk	perquisite
chem	chemistry	photo	photograph
chemist	alchemist	pike	turnpike
clerk	cleric	pop	popular
coed	coeducational student	prof	professor
curio	curiosity	prom	promenade
deb	debutante	cab	cabriolet
deli	delicatessen	doc	doctor
drape	drapery	rev	revolution
exam	examination	scram	scramble
fan	fanatic	sport	disport
gab	gabble	still	distill
tails	coattails	sub	submarine
hack	hackney	trig	trigonometry
iron	flatiron	trump	triumph
jet	jet aircraft	varsity	university
pianoforte	piano	public house	pub

Acronyms

Acronyms and initialisms are abbreviations, such as NATO, LASER, and IBM that are formed using the initial letters of words or word parts in a phrase or name. Acronyms and initialisms are usually pronounced in a way that is distinct from that of the full forms for which they stand: as the names of the individual letters (as in IBM), as a word (as in NATO), or as a combination (as in IUPAC). Another term, alphabetism, is sometimes used to describe abbreviations pronounced as the names of letters.

Categories of acronyms

Pronounced as a word, containing only initial letters: FNMA: (Fannie Mae) Federal National Mortgage Association, NATO: North Atlantic Treaty Organisation
Pronounced as a word, containing non-initial letters: Amphetamine: Alpha-methyl-phenethylamine ,Gestapo: GeheimeStaatspolizei (“secret state police”)
pronounced only as the names of letters: BBC: British Broadcasting Corporation, DNA: deoxyribonucleic acid
shortcut incorporated into name: W3C: (double-u three cee)- World Wide Web Consortium, W3M: (three em) originally Minnesota Mining and Manufacturing Company
Recursive acronyms, in which the abbreviation itself is the expansion of one initial (particularly enjoyed by the open-source community): VISA: VISA International Service Association, GNU: GNU’s Not Unix!
pseudo-acronyms are used because, when pronounced as intended, they resemble the sounds of other words: ICQ: “I seek you” , IOU: “I owe you“
multi-layered acronyms: GAIM: GTK+ AOL Instant Messenger, i.e. GIMP Tool Kit America OnLine Instant Messenger, i.e. GNU Image Manipulation Program Tool Kit America OnLine Instant Messenger, i.e. GNU’s Not Unix Image Manipulation Program Tool Kit America OnLine Instant Messenger, VHDL: VHSIC Hardware Description Language, i.e. Very High Speed Integrated Circuits Hardware Description Language

What Is the Difference Between an Abbreviation and an Acronym?

Abbreviations and acronyms are shortened forms of words or phrases. An abbreviation is typically a shortened form of words used to represent the whole (such as Dr. or Prof.) while an acronym contains a set of initial letters from a phrase that usually form another word (such as radar or scuba).

Abbreviations and acronyms are often interchanged, yet the two are quite distinct. The main point of reference is that abbreviations are merely a series of letters while acronyms form new words.

Each one allows writers to make large blocks of text easier to read. Beware that both abbreviations and acronyms are typically considered informal and should be carefully considered before including them in more formal writings.

Abbreviations or Acronyms

There’s a great deal of overlap between abbreviations and acronyms. It’s worth pointing out that an acronym is a type of abbreviation because acronyms are shortened forms of words and phrases.

Abbreviations

Let’s take a closer look at abbreviations. As we know, an abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or phrase, such as Mr. for Mister, or hr. for hour that is still said as the full word or words.

There are millions of common abbreviations used every day. Let’s take a look at some of the popular ones we see and/or use almost daily.

When you write your address, you likely write “St.” or “Ave.” instead of “Street” or “Avenue”.
When you record the date, you likely abbreviate both the days of the week (Mon., Tues., Wed., Thurs., Fri., Sat., and Sun.) and the months of the year (Jan., Feb., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec.).
Often, we use the abbreviation “Ex.” for the word “example”.
Measurements are commonly reduced to abbreviations such as “cm” for “centimeters” or “in.” for “inch”.
How about “vs.”? That’s another popular abbreviation, shortened from the word “versus”.

Tightening “December” to “Dec.” is an abbreviation because “Dec.”is simply a written shorthand for the full word. It’s not an acronym since “Dec.” isn’t said as a word.

You may have wondered why some abbreviations, like those for ounce (oz) and pound (lb) use letters that aren’t part of the original word. In these cases the abbreviations are based on older forms of the word.

Acronyms

An acronym, technically, must spell out another word. This is a good point of reference to help you distinguish between abbreviations and acronyms. Another good way to differentiate them is that acronyms don’t just shorten words, they often simplify a long organization name, scientific term or idea.

Some acronyms create new words that are so commonly used, we forget they’re actually a series of letters from a longer word or phrase. For example, when we go scuba diving, we rarely consider the fact that scuba is an acronym of self-contained underwater breathing apparatus.

Then there are initialisms which cause some confusion. Would you consider “VIP” to be an acronym? Technically, it’s an initialism. Initialisms are a series of initial letters of words or a phrase that form an abbreviation but aren’t pronounced as a word. We enunciate each letter.

NBA is another initialism. How about when you text “rofl”? That’s another initialism, as is “BLT”. Many consider initialisms to be a subset of acronyms-therefore whether you pronounce ASAP as a word or enunciate each letter, it’s still an acronym-but be aware that others say it is another form of abbreviation.

Like abbreviations, acronyms and initialisms are used daily and most people can interpret the meaning of common acronyms without much thought.

Let’s test our knowledge with a few more examples:

Acronyms (form new words)	Initialisms (pronounce each letter)
radar (radio detection and ranging)	ATM (automated teller machine)
scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus)	NFL (National Football League)
NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration)	FAQ (frequently asked questions)
laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation)	brb (be right back)
POTUS (President of the United States)	idk (I don’t know)
gif (graphics interchange format)	a/c (air conditioning)
SIM card (subscriber identification module)	aka (also known as)
ZIP code (zone improvement plan)	fyi (for your information)
AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome)	lcd (liquid crystal display)
taser (Thomas A. Swift’s Electric Rifle)	ufo (unidentified flying object)

Keep it Short

Abbreviations and acronyms are shortened versions of words and phrases that help speed up our communication. Initialisms act in the same way. Before you use any type of abbreviation consider your audience; are you writing something formal or informal? Will everyone understand the meaning of your abbreviated word or letters? If you need to explain the abbreviation, write out the word or phrase in full first followed by the abbreviation in parentheses.

Blending:

A blend is a word formed from parts of two other words. These parts are sometimes, but not always, morphemes. A blend is different from a portmanteau word in that a portmanteau refers strictly to a blending of two function words, similar to a contraction.

Formation of Blendings: Most blends are formed by one of the following methods:

The beginning of one word is added to the end of the other. For Example: brunch (breakfast and lunch).
The beginnings of two words are combined. For Example: cyborg (cybernetic and organism)
One complete word is combined with part of another word. For Example: guesstimate (guess and estimate)
Two words are blended around a common sequence of sounds. For Example: Californication (from a song by the Red Hot Chili Peppers, is a blend of California and fornication)
Multiple sounds from two component words are blended, while mostly preserving the sounds’ order. Poet Lewis Carroll was well known for these kinds of blends. This method is difficult to achieve and is considered a sign of Carroll’s verbal wit. For Example: slithy (lithe and slimy).

Blending is the word formation process in which parts of two or more words combine to create a new word whose meaning is often a combination of the original words. For example:

advertisement + entertainment → advertainment
biographical + picture → biopic
breakfast + lunch → brunch
chuckle + snort → chortle
cybernetic + organism → cyborg
guess + estimate → guesstimate
hazardous + material → hazmat
motor + hotel → motel
prim + sissy → prissy
simultaneous + broadcast → simulcast
smoke + fog → smog
Spanish + English → Spanglish
spoon + fork → spork
telephone + marathon → telethon
web + seminar → webinar
afterthoughtful (afterthought + thoughtful)

agitprop (agitation + propaganda)
alcopop (alcohol + pop)
bash (bat + mash)
Breathalyzer (breath + analyzer)
camcorder (camera + recorder)
clash (clap + crash)
docudrama (documentary + drama)
electrocute (electricity + execute)
emoticon (emote + icon)
faction (fact + fiction)
fanzine {fan + magazine)
flare (flame + glare)
flirtationship (flirting + relationship)
glimmer (gleam + shimmer)
guitarthritis (guitar + arthritis)
infotainment (information + entertainment)
Jazzercize (jazz + exercise)
moped (motor + pedal)
motorcade (motor + cavalcade)
palimony (pal + alimony)
pulsar (pulse + quasar)
slanguage (slang + language)
smash (smack + mash)
splatter (splash + spatter)
sportscast (sports + broadcast)
squiggle (squirm + wriggle)
stagflation (stagnation + inflation)
staycation (stay home + vacation)
telegenic (television + photogenic)
textpectation (text message + expectation)
transistor (transfer + resistor)
twirl (twist + whirl)
workaholic (work + alcoholic)
simulcast (simultaneous + broadcast)
smog (smoke + fog)
ginormous (giant + enormous)
internet (international + network)
because (by + cause)
emoticon (emotion + icon)
spanglish (spanish + english)
smassy (smart + sassy)
malware (malicious + software)
pixel (picture + element)
bash (bang + smash)
oxbridge (oxford + cambridge)
cellophane (cellulose + diaphane)
televangelist (television + evangelist)
slithy (lithe + slimy)
email (electronic + mail)
bionic (biology + electronic)

Borrowing

Borrowing is just taking a word from another language. The borrowed words are called loan words. A loanword (or loan word) is a word directly taken into one language from another with little or no translation. By contrast, a calque or loan translation is a related concept whereby it is the meaning or idiom that is borrowed rather than the lexical item itself. The word loanword is itself a calque of the German Lehnwort. Loanwords can also be called “borrowings”.

Great number of English words have been borrowed from other languages. These are sometimes referred to as loanwords.

Examples: algebra – Arabic, bagel – Yiddish, cherub – Hebrew, chow mein – Chinese, fjord – Norwegian, galore – Irish, haiku – Japanese, kielbasa – Polish, murder – French, near – Sanskrit, paprika – Hungarian, pizza – Italian, smorgasbord – Swedish, tamale – Spanish, yo-yo – Tagalog

Loanwords

English has many loanwords. In 1973, a computerized survey of about 80,000 words in the old Shorter Oxford Dictionary (3rd edition) was published in Ordered Profusion by Thomas Finkenstaedt and Dieter Wolff. Their estimates for the origin of English words were as follows:

French, including Old French and early Anglo-French: 28.3%
Latin, including modern scientific and technical Latin: 28.24%
Germanic languages, including Old and Middle English: 25%
Greek: 5.32% •No etymology given or unknown: 4.03%
Derived from proper names: 3.28%
All other languages contributed less than 1%

However, if the frequency of use of words is considered, words from Old and Middle English occupy the vast majority. Examples: Biology, boxer, ozone from German Jacket, yoghurt, kiosh from Turkish Pistol, robot from Czech

Coinage

Coinage is the invention of totally new words. The typical process of coinage usually involves the extension of a product name from a specific reference to a more general one. For example: Kleenex, Xerox, and Kodak. These started as names of specific products, but now they are used as the generic names for different brands of these types of products.

Coinages are words invented by accident or intentionally mainly from no evident source. It should be pointed out that many coinages have come into existence by using brand names instead of the object being referred to. It is common that coinages are regularly called neologisms.
Example: aspirin, escalator, heroin, band-aid, factoid, Frisbee, Google, kerosene, Kleenex, Laundromat, linoleum, muggle, nylon, psychedelic, quark, Xerox, zipper, coalgate

Derivation

In linguistics, derivation is the process of forming a new word on the basis of an existing word. Example: happi-ness and un-happy from happy, or determination from determine. Derivation is the process of forming a new words by means of Affixation (Prefix, Infix and Suffix)

A derivational suffix usually applies to words of one syntactic category and changes them into words of another syntactic category. For example: the English derivational suffix -ly changes adjectives into adverbs (slow → slowly). Examples of English derivational patterns and their suffixes: adjective-to-noun: -ness (slow → slowness) adjective-to-verb: -ise (modern → modernise) in British English or – ize (archaic → archaicize) in American English and Oxford spelling adjective-to-adjective: -ish (red → reddish) adjective-to-adverb: -ly (personal → personally) noun-to-adjective: -al (recreation → recreational) noun-to-verb: -fy (glory → glorify) verb-to-adjective: -able (drink → drinkable) verb-to-noun (abstract): -ance (deliver → deliverance) verb-to-noun (concrete): -er (write → writer)

Compounding

A compound is a lexeme (a word) that consists of more than one other lexeme. It can be categorized in to two i.e. endocentric and exocentric.

An endocentric compound consists of a head, i.e. the categorical part that contains the basic meaning of the whole compound, and modifiers, which restrict this meaning. For example: The English compound doghouse, where house is the head and dog is the modifier, is understood as a house intended for a dog. Endocentric compounds tend to be of the same part of speech (word class) as their head, as in the case of doghouse.

Exocentric compounds do not have a head, and their meaning often cannot be transparently guessed from its constituent parts. For example: The English compound white-collar is neither a kind of collar nor a white thing. In an exocentric compound, the word class is determined lexically, disregarding the class of the constituents. For example: a must-have is not a verb but a noun.

English language allows several types of combinations of different word classes: N + N — lipstick , teapot, A + N — fast food, soft drink ,V + N — breakfast, sky-dive, N + V — sunshine, babysit, N + A –capital-intensive, waterproof, A + A —deaf-mute, bitter-sweet.

Creative respelling:

Creative Respelling is a word formation that employs the strategy of altering letter(s) of a word. The word formed so is an example of Creative respelling. It is a deliberate attempt creating misspelled word. Examples are nite (night), thanx (thanks), lite (light) etc.

Change of spelling is often used in commercials and slogans. For example Kleenex tissues, Mortal Kombat (game), Qwikster (movie-by-mail service). Misspelling quite often gives rise to brand names.

Sometimes words are formed by simply changing the spelling of a word that the speaker wants to relate to the new word. Brand or Product names often involve creative respelling, such as Mr. Kleen or Krunch.

Exercise: PROCESSES OF WORD FORMATION

1.Compounding

Compounding is simply the joining of two or more words into a single word, as in hang glider, airstrip, cornflakes, busybody, downpour, cutoff, skywarn, alongside, breakfast, long-haired, devil-may-care, high school.

2. Derivation

Derivation is the forming of new words by combining derivational affixes or bound bases with existing words, as in disadvise, emplane, deplane, teleplay, ecosystem, coachdom, counsellorship, re-ask.

I. Indicate by the first letter the process of formation represented by each of the words below.

Compounding derivation

roughneck _ 6. pop _
codgerhood _ 7. cream puff _
clink (of glasses) _ 8. wheeze _
doodad _ 9. weirdoism _
dacron _ 10. exflux _

3. Clipping

Clipping means cutting off the beginning or the end of a word, or both, leaving a part to stand for the whole: lab, dorm, prof, exam, gym, prom, math, psych, mike…

II Give the original words from which these clipped words were formed.

curio __________
disco __________ 10. memo __________
taxi __________ 11. Fred __________
cab __________ 12. Al __________
deli __________ 13. Tom __________
vibes __________ 14. Joe __________
gin __________ 15. Phil __________
hype __________

III Give the original words from which these clipped words were formed.

sport (game) __________ 6. wig __________
pike (road) __________ 7. cute __________
bus __________ 8. Gene __________
van __________ 9. Beth __________
chute __________ 10. Tony __________

Clipped words are formed not only from individual words but from grammatical units, such as modifier plus noun. Paratrooper, for example, is a clipped form of parachutist trooper.

IV Give the originals of these clipped words.

Amerindian ____________________
maître d’ ____________________
contrail ____________________
taxicab ____________________
moped ____________________
comsat ____________________
agribusiness ____________________

4. Acronym

Acronym is the process whereby a word is formed from the initials or beginning segments of a succession of words. In some cases the initials are pronounced, as in MP (military police, or Member of Parliament). In others the initials and/or beginning segments are pronounced as the spelled word would be. For example, NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization) and radar (radio detecting and ranging).

V Pronounce these acronyms and give their originals.

RV ____________________
NOW ____________________
UNESCO ____________________
OK ____________________
scuba ____________________
OPEC ____________________
WASP ____________________
ICBM ____________________
jeep ____________________
laser ____________________

5. Blending

Blending is the fusion of two words into one, usually the first part of one word with the last part of another, as in gasohol, from gasoline and alcohol.

VI Give the originals of these blends:

flunk _________________
happenstance _________________
stagflation _________________
simulcast _________________
gelignite _________________
smog _________________
dumbfound _________________
telecast _________________
dandle _________________
splatter _________________

VII Give the blends that result from fusing these words.

transfer + resistor = _________________
automobile + omnibus = _________________
escalade + elevator = _________________
blare or blow + spurt = _________________
squall + squeak = _________________

Exercise -1: Identify the process of word formation responsible for each of the following words. Try to determine the process before you consult a dictionary, though it may be necessary for you to do so.

a. curio	h. margarine	o. (the) hereafter	v. boojum
b. (to) laze	i. dystopia	p. amphetamine	w. gaffe-slack
c. (to) network	j. serendipity	q. (a) construct	x. psycho
d. (to) cohere	k. diesel	r. (the) chunnel	y. walkie-talkie
e. (a) sitcom	l. (a) ha-ha	s. guestimate	z. bonfire
f. (the) muppets	m. (to) make up	t. canary	v. boojum
g. (a) what-not	n. (to) total	u. brain-gain	w. gaffe-slack

Exercise -2: The words in column A have been created from the corresponding words in column B. Indicate the word formation process responsible for the creation of each word in column A.

	Column A	Column B
a.	stagflation	stagnation + inflation
b.	nostril	nosu + thyrl ‘hole’ (in Old English)
c.	bookie	bookmaker
d.	van	caravan
e.	Amerindian	American Indian
f.	CD	compact disc
g.	RAM	random access memory
h.	televise	television
i.	xerox	xeroxography
j.	telathon	television + marathon
k.	sci-fi	science fiction
l.	elect	election
m.	deli	delicatessen
n.	scuba	self-contained underwater breathing apparatus
o.	scavenge	scavenger
p.	hazmat	hazardous material

Exercise- 3: Identify the syntactic pattern in each of the following compounds and express it in a lexical rule. Example: gravedigger N + V + -er > N

a. hovercraft	g. setback	m. dugout	s. badmouth	y. lukewarm
b. dairyman	h. meltdown	n. hardhearted	t. redhead	z. law-abiding
c. bath-towel	i. blackout	o. homesick	u. birth control	aa. far-reaching
d. goldfish	j. stand-in	p. proofread	v. breakfast	bb. homemade
e. inroads	k. turnout	q. overqualified	w. thoroughgoing	cc. clean-cut
f. bystander	l. money-hungry	r. overachieve	x. quick-change	dd. fighter-bomber
ee. earthenware	ff. snowplow	gg. baking powder	hh. drip-coffee	ii. wisecrack

Exercise- 4: The following words are compounds which also include derivational affixes. Analyze the words, identifying the roots and their parts of speech, as well all the affixes and their function as nominalizer, verbalizer, adjectivalizer, or adverbializer.Example: housekeeper

house (root – noun) + keep (root – verb) + -er (nominalizer)

a. flightworthiness	e. handicraft	i. antiaircraft
b. chatterbox	f. broken-hearted	j. machine-readable
c. owner-occupied	g. safety-tested	k. chartered accountant
d. freedom-loving	h. worldly-wise	i. antiaircraft

Exercise- 5: Analyze the following words into morphs using the model given below:

Word	Prefix(es)	Root	Suffix(es)
inequality	in-	equal	-ity

a. hospitalization	e. transcontinental	i. unforgettable	m. postcolonial	q. hypersensitivity
b. invisibly	f. ungrammatical	j. impropriety	n. unlikelihood	r. unfriendliness
c. uninteresting	g. reinforcement	k. disfunctional	o. relationship	s. interdependence
d. undercooked	h. prototypical	l. inconsiderate	p. asymmetrical	t. monotheism

Exercise- 6: Underline examples of COMPOUNDING and AFFIXATION:

Headhunters are invading university campuses in search of fresh talents among undergraduates.
The price of oil reached its all-time-high yesterday.
Joblessness rallies as the economy slows down.
Governments have responded to tax-flight in many different ways.
New mega-mergers are expected in the media-world.
Consumers everywhere have been merrily spending with their credit cards.

Exercise- 7: CLIPPING: give the entire word of the following clipped forms and translate them:

lab ……………………………………………………………………

Dems ……………………………………………………………………..

flu ……………………………………………………………………

ads ………………………………………………………………………

Inc. ……………………………………………………………………

rev ………………………………………………………………………

The Fed …………………………………………………………………..

Feds ………………………………………………………………………

Exercise- 8: BLENDING: give the two words forming the following blends and translate them:

Sci-fi ……………………………

e-tailing ………………………

hi-fi ……………………………

stagflation …………………

brunch ………………………

AMEX ………………………

medicare ……………………

econometric ………………

Exercise- 9: ACRONYMS: give the extended phrase and the Italian/English equivalents of the following abbreviations:

OECD ………………………………………………………………………………………………

POW …………………………………………………………………………………………………

GDP ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

MEPs ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

IVA ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

OMC ………………………………………………………………………………………….

Exercise- 10: Write the original words against the clipped words.

Clipped Word	Original Word	Clipped Word	Original Word	Clipped Word	Original Word
ad (marketing)		groom		pub (bar)
bro		hippo		ref (library)
butt		lab (dog)		sci-fi
cig		lunch		script (medicine)
con (prison)		math		spec (detail)
copter		pants		still (alcohol)
dorm		perk (benefit)		van (vehicle)
gas (fuel)		piano		vet (military)
abs		doc (movies)		phone
amp (music)		fan (sports)		quad (campus)
app (technology)		gator		rehab
cab (taxi)		hack (taxi)		rep (status)
chemist		lab (science)		scram
clerk		limo		sub (nautical)
coke (drug)		narc		trump (cards)
demo (construction)		perk (coffee)		uni (school)
ammo		congrats		mag
blog		deb		meth
bop (music)		deke (sports)		mum (flower)
bot		exam		photo
		fab (awesomeness)		sax
cab (wine)		Fed		trig
bye		bye		razz (sound)
calc (math)		calc (math)		repo
canter		canter		rev (engine)
champ		champ		rhino
comp (theatre)		comp (theatre)		sitcom
dis		dis		super (apartment)
gab		gab		ump
grad (student)		grad (student)		ute (truck)
bronc		intercom		reb (US Civil War)
cab (train)		lav (bathroom)		reverb
chute		lude		sub (teaching)
cop (police)		mod (trendy)		tec (police)
fax		Net (technology)		varsity
fess		pop (music)		vet (medicine)
hood (location)		quack (medicine)		wig
improv		quake		za

Источник

Conversion
consists
in making a new word from some existing word by changing the category
of a part of speech: the morphemic shape of the original word remains
unchanged. The new word has a meaning which differs from that of the
original one though it can more or less be easily associated with it.
It has also a new paradigm peculiar to its new category as a part of
speech.

nurse, n	>		to nurse, v

	-s, pl.		-s, 3rd p. sg.
Substantive paradigm	-`s, possesive, sg. —s`, possesive, pl.	Verbal paradigm	-ed, past s., past participle —ing, pres. part, gerund

Conversion is accepted as one of the major ways
of enriching English vocabulary with new words. One of the major
arguments for this approach to conversion is thesemantic
changethat regularly accompanies each instance of conversion.
Normally, a word changes its syntactic function without any shift in
lexical meaning. E.g. both inyellow leaves and in The
leaves were turning yellow the adjective denotes colour. Yet, inThe leaves yellowed the converted unit no longer denotes
colour, but the process of changing colour, so that there is an
essential change in meaning.

The change of meaning is even more obvious in
such pairs as hand > to hand, face > to face, to go > a
go, etc.

The other argument is the regularity and
completeness with which converted units develop a paradigm of their
new category of part of speech. As soon as it has crossed the
category borderline, the new word automatically acquires all the
properties of the new category, so that if it has entered the verb
category, it is now regularly used in all the forms of tense and it
also develops the forms of the participle and the gerund.

Conversion is not only a highly productive but
also a particularly English way of word-building. Its immense
productivity is considerably encouraged by certain features of the
English language in its modern stage of development. The
analytical structure of Modern Englishgreatly facilitates
processes of making words of one category of parts of speech from
words of another. So doesthe simplicity of paradigms of English
parts of speech. A great number ofone-syllable words is
another factor in favour of conversion.

One should guard against thinking that every
case of noun and verb (verb and adjective, adjective and noun, etc.)
with the same morphemic shape results from conversion. There are
numerous pairs of words (e.g. love n – to love v, work n – to
work v, etc.) which did not occur due to conversion but coincided
as a result of certain historical processes (dropping of endings,
simplification of stems) when before they had different forms.

The two categories of parts of speech
aspecially affected by conversion are nouns and verbs. Verbs made
from nouns are the most numerous amongst the words produced by
conversion: e.g. to hand, to back, to face, to screen, to
blackmail, and very many others.

Nouns are frequently made from verbs: do,
make, walk, etc.

Verbs can also be made from adjectives: to
pale, to cool, to yellow, etc.

Other parts of speech are not entirely
unsusceptible to conversion: to down, to out.

*
* *

It was mentioned that a word made by conversion
has a different meaning from that of the word from which it was made
though the two meanings can be associated. For instance, in the group
of verbs made from nouns some of the regular semantic associations
are as indicated in the following list:

The
noun is the name of a tool, the verb denotes an action performed by
the tool: to
hammer, to nail, to comb, to brush.
The
noun is the name of an animal, the verb denotes an action or aspect
of behaviour considered typical of this animal: to
dog (преследовать),
to wolf (пожирать), to monkey (дразнить), to rat
(предать).
The
name of a part of the human body – an action performed by it: to
hand, to eye (разглядывать),
to elbow (толкать локтем), to nose (нюхать).
The
name of a profession or occupation – an activity typical of it: to
nurse, to cook.
The
name of a place – the process of occupying the place or of putting
smth./smb. in it: to
room (занимать
комнату),
to place, to table (класть на стол).
The
name of a container – the act of putting smth. within the
container (to
can, to bottle (разливать
по
бутылкам)).
The
name of a meal – the process of taking it (to
lunch, to supper).

The suggested groups do not
include all the great variety of verbs made from nouns by conversion.
They just represent the most obvious cases and illustrate the great
variety of semantic interrelations within so-called converted pairs.

Answer these questions.

What are the main ways of enriching the
English vocabulary?
What
are the principal productive ways of word-building in English?
What
do we mean by derivation?
What
is the difference between frequency and productivity of affixes?
Give examples.
Give
examples of your own to show that affixes have meanings.
Prove
that the words a
finger and
to finger (“to
touch or handle with the fingers”) are two words and not one word
finger
used
either as a noun or as a verb.
What
features of Modern English have produced the high productivity of
conversion?
Which
categories of parts of speech are especially affected by conversion?

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Q: What kind of word is made from parts of other words?

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Types of Word Formation Processes

Compounding
Compounding forms a word out of two or more root morphemes. The words
are called compounds or compound words.

In Linguistics, compounds can be either native or borrowed.

Native English roots are
typically free morphemes, so that means native compounds are made out of
independent words that can occur by themselves. Examples:

mailman (composed of free root mail and free root man)
mail carrier
dog house
fireplace
fireplug (a regional word for ‘fire hydrant’)
fire hydrant
dry run
cupcake
cup holder
email
e-ticket
pick-up truck
talking-to

Some compounds have a preposition as one of the component words as in the
last 2 examples.

In Greek and Latin, in contrast to English, roots do not typically stand
alone. So compounds are composed of bound roots. Compounds formed in
English from borrowed Latin and Greek morphemes preserve this
characteristic. Examples include photograph,
iatrogenic, and many thousands of other classical words.

Note that compounds are written in various ways in English:
with a space between the elements; with a hyphen between the
elements; or simply with the two roots run together with no separation.
The way the word is written does not affect its status as a
compound. Over time, the convention for writing compounds can change,
usually in the direction from separate words (e.g. email used to be written with a hyphen.
In the 19th century, today and tomorrow were sometimes still written to-day and to-morrow. The to originally was the preposition to with an older meaning ‘at [a particular period of time]’.
Clock work changed
to clock-work and finally to one word with no break
(clockwork). If you read older literature you might see some
compound words that are now written as one word appearing
with unfamiliar spaces or hyphens between the components.

Another thing to note about compounds is that they can combine words
of different parts of speech. The list above shows mostly noun-noun
compounds, which is probably the most common part of speech
combination, but there are others, such as adjective-noun (dry
run, blackbird, hard drive), verb-noun (pick-pocket,
cut-purse, lick-spittle) and even verb-particle (where
‘particle’ means a word basically designating spatial expression that
functions to complete a literal or metaphorical path), as in
run-through, hold-over. Sometimes these compounds are
different in the part of speech of the whole compound vs. the part of
speech of its components. Note that the last two are actually nouns,
despite their components.

Some compounds have more than two component words. These are formed
by successively combining words into compounds, e.g. pick-up truck,
formed from pick-up and truck , where the first component,
pick-up is itself a compound formed from
pick and up. Other examples are ice-cream
cone, no-fault insurance and even more complex compounds like
top-rack dishwasher safe.

There are a number of subtypes of compounds that do not have to do
with part of speech, but rather the sound characteristics of the
words. These subtypes are not mutually exclusive.

Rhyming compounds (subtype of compounds)
These words are compounded from two rhyming words. Examples:

lovey-dovey
chiller-killer

There are words that are formally very similar to rhyming compounds,
but are not quite compounds in English because the second element is
not really a word—it is just a nonsense item added to a root word to
form a rhyme. Examples:

higgledy-piggledy
tootsie-wootsie

This formation
process is associated in English with child talk (and talk addressed
to children), technically called hypocoristic language. Examples:

bunnie-wunnie
Henny Penny
snuggly-wuggly
Georgie Porgie
Piggie-Wiggie

Another word type that looks a bit like rhyming compounds
comprises words that are formed of
two elements that almost match, but differ in their vowels.
Again, the second element is typically a nonsense form:

pitter-patter
zigzag
tick-tock

riffraff
flipflop

Derivation
Derivation is the creation of words by modification of a root without
the addition of other roots. Often the effect is a change in part of
speech.

Affixation (Subtype of Derivation)
The most common type of derivation is the addition of one or more affixes to a
root, as in the word derivation itself. This process is called
affixation, a term which covers both prefixation and suffixation.

Blending
Blending is one of the most beloved of word formation processes in
English. It is especially creative in that speakers take two words
and merge them based not on morpheme structure but on sound structure.
The resulting words are called blends.

Usually in word formation we combine roots or affixes along their
edges: one morpheme comes to an end before the next one starts. For example, we
form derivation out of the sequence of morphemes
de+riv+at(e)+ion. One morpheme follows the next and each one has
identifiable
boundaries. The morphemes do not overlap.

But in
blending, part of one word is stitched onto another word, without any
regard for where one morpheme ends and another begins. For example,
the word swooshtika ‘Nike swoosh as a logo symbolizing
corporate power and hegemony’
was formed from swoosh and swastika. The swoosh
part remains whole and recognizable in the blend, but the tika part is
not a morpheme, either in the word swastika or
in the blend. The blend is a perfect merger of form, and also of
content. The meaning contains an implicit analogy between the
swastika and the swoosh, and thus conceptually blends them into one
new kind of thing having properties of both, but also combined
properties of neither source. Other examples include glitterati (blending
glitter and literati) ‘Hollywood social set’, mockumentary (mock and
documentary) ‘spoof documentary’.

The earliest blends in English only go back to the 19th century, with
wordplay coinages by Lewis Carroll in Jabberwocky. For example, he
introduced to the language slithy, formed from lithe and
slimy, and galumph, (from gallop and
triumph. Interestingly galumph has survived as a word in
English, but it now seems to mean ‘walk in a stomping, ungainly way’.

Some blends that have been around for quite a while include brunch
(breakfast and lunch), motel (motor hotel), electrocute (electric and
execute), smog (smoke and
fog) and cheeseburger (cheese and hamburger).
These go back to the first half of the twentieth
century. Others, such as stagflation (stagnation and inflation),
spork (spoon and fork), and carjacking (car and hijacking) arose
since the 1970s.

Here are some more recent blends I have run across:

mocktail (mock and cocktail) ‘cocktail with no alcohol’
splog (spam and blog) ‘fake blog designed to attract hits and
raise Google-ranking’
Britpoperati (Britpop and literati) ‘those knowledgable about current British pop music’

Clipping
Clipping is a type of abbreviation of a word in which one part is
‘clipped’ off the rest, and the remaining word now means essentially the same
thing as what the whole word means or meant. For example, the word
rifle is a fairly modern clipping of an earlier compound
rifle gun, meaning a gun with a rifled barrel. (Rifled means
having a spiral groove causing the bullet to spin, and thus making it
more accurate.) Another clipping is burger, formed by clipping
off the beginning of the word hamburger. (This clipping could
only come about once hamburg+er was reanalyzed as ham+burger.)

Acronyms

Acronyms are formed by taking the initial letters of a phrase
and making a word out of it. Acronyms provide a way of turning a phrase into a word. The classical acronym is also
pronounced as a word. Scuba was formed
from self-contained underwater breathing apparatus. The
word snafu was originally WW2 army slang for Situation
Normal All Fucked Up. Acronyms were being used more and more by
military bureaucrats, and soldiers coined snafu in an
apparent parody of this overused device. Sometimes an acronym uses not just the first letter, but the first syllable of a component word, for example radar, RAdio Detection And Ranging and sonar, SOund Navigation and Ranging. Radar forms an analogical model for both sonar and lidar, a technology that measures distance to a target and and maps its surface by
bouncing a laser off it. There is some evidence that lidar was not coined as an acronym, but instead as a blend of light and radar. Based on the word itself, either etymology appears to work, so many speakers assume that lidar is an acronym rather than a blend.

A German example that strings together the initial syllables of the
words in the phrase, is Gestapo , from GEheime STAats POlizei
‘Sectret State Police’. Another is Stasi, from STAats
SIcherheit ‘State Security’.

Acronyms are a subtype of initialism. Initialisms also include words made from the initial letters of a Phrase but NOT pronounced as a normal word — it is instead pronounced as a string of letters. Organzation names aroften initialisms of his type. Examples:

NOW (National Organization of Women)
US or U.S., USA or U.S.A. (United States)
UN or U.N. (United Nations)
IMF (International Monetary Fund)

Some organizations ARE pronounced as a word:
UNICEF
MADD (Mothers Against Drunk Driving)

The last example incorporates a meaning into the word that fits the nature of the organization. Sometimes this type is called a Reverse Acronym or a Backronym.

These can be thought of as a special case of acronyms.

Memos, email, and text messaging (text-speak) are modes of communication
that give rise to both clippings and acronyms, since these
word formation methods are designed to abbreviate.
Some acronyms:

NB — Nota bene, literally ‘note well’. Used by scholars making notes
on texts. (A large number of other scholarly acronyms from Latin are
used, probably most invented in the medieval period or Renaissance,
not originally in Latin)
BRB — be right back (from 1980s, 90s)
FYI — for your information (from mid 20th century)

LOL — laughing
out loud (early 21st century) — now pronounced either /lol/ or /el o
el/; has spawned compounds like Lolcats).
ROFL — rolling on the floor laughing
ROFLMAO — rolling on the floor laughing my ass off

Reanalysis
Sometimes speakers unconsciously change the morphological boundaries of a word, creating a new morph or making an old one unrecognizable. This happened in hamburger, which was originally Hamburger steak ‘chopped and formed steak in the Hamburg style, then hamburger (hamburg + er), then ham + burger

Folk etymology
A popular idea of a word’s origin that is not in accordance with its real origin.

Many folk etymologies are cases of reanalysis in which the word is not only reanalysis but it changes under the influence of the new understanding of its morphemes. The result is that speakers think it has a different origin than it does.

Analogy
Sometimes speakers take an existing word as a model and form other words using some of its morphemes as a fixed part, and changing one of them to something new, with an analogically similar meaning. Cheeseburger was formed on the analogy of hamburger, replacing a perceived morpheme ham with cheese.
carjack and skyjack were also formed by analogy.

Novel creation
In novel creation, a speaker or writer forms a word without starting
from other morphemes. It is as if the word if formed out of ‘whole
cloth’, without reusing any parts.

Some examples of now-conventionalized words that were novel creations
include blimp, googol (the mathematical term),
bling, and possibly slang, which emerged in the last 200
years with no obvious etymology. Some novel creations seem to display
‘sound symbolism’, in which a word’s phonological form suggests its
meaning in some way. For example, the sound of the word bling
seems to evoke heavy jewelry making noise. Another novel creation whose sound seems
to relate to its meaning is badonkadonk, ‘female rear end’, a
reduplicated word which can remind English speakers of the repetitive
movement of the rear end while walking.

Creative respelling
Sometimes words are formed by simply changing the spelling of a word
that the speaker wants to relate to the new word. Product names
often involve creative respelling, such as Mr. Kleen.

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Classification[edit]

Morphotactic classification[edit]

Total blends[edit]

Partial blends[edit]

Morphonological classification[edit]

Overlapping blends[edit]

Non-overlapping blends[edit]

Morphosemantic classification[edit]

Attributive blends[edit]

Coordinate blends[edit]

Blending of two roots[edit]

Lexical selection[edit]

Use[edit]

See also[edit]

Notes[edit]

References[edit]

External links[edit]

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Types of Word Formation Processes