Word groups в английском - Word и Excel - помощь в работе с программами

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Types
of word combinations. Classifications of word-groups.
Free
word groups.
Phraseology
as a subsystem of language.
A
phraseological unit.
Distinction
between free word-groups and phraseological
units.
Classification
of phraseological units.
Sources
of phraseological units.

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1. Types of word combinations. Classifications of word-groups

The
vocabulary of any language consists not only of words but also of
different word groups and expressions.
Words put together to form lexical units make phrases or word-groups.

A word-combination (word-group) is a combination of two or more
words organizes according to the norms of the language. There are
three types of word-groups: 1) free; 2) semi-free (устойчивые);
3) phraseological units.

They are
different structurally and semantically.

2. Free word groups

Free
word combinations
are structurally and semantically unstable, e.g. a
good man;
a
good and reliable man;
a better man,
a
good woman.
They are characterized by the following features:

They are
made up by the speaker; they are productive.
Each word
in a free word combination realizes its own meaning. For example, in
the word-combination a
red rose,
to
write a letter,
extremely
dangerous,
each word has its own meaning, and the meaning of the whole phrase
is the sum of the meanings of its components.
Substitution
is possible in them.

to walk
fast

to
walk
slowly to move fast

forward
to run

backward
to go

in
the park to drive

in
the forest to fly

Semi-free
or
Fixed
combinations
of
words are
structurally and semantically stable and the meaning is understood
from the meanings of the components. That means there is no
transference of meaning of these combinations, e.g. a
man of business;
a
man of letters
(писатель).
They stand midway between free word-combinations and phrasiological
units. They are characterized in the following way:

They are
fixed because they are not made up in speech but are used as
ready-made units.
The
meaning of the whole can be inferred from the meanings of its
components.
They are
transitional, semi-productive.

Examples:
soft
landing,
to
commit suicide,
good
luck,
black
coffee,
Merry
Christmas,
Good
afternoon.

3. Phraseology as a subsystem of language

Phraseology
is
a branch of lexicology which studies different types of fixed
expressions, which like words name various objects and phenomena.
They are not created by the speaker but exist in the language as
ready-made units. These word-groups are characterized by stability of
structure and transferred (перенос)
meaning (take
the bull by the horn
–действовать
решительно,
напрямик
= брать
быка
за
рога);
(to
burn one’s boats –
совершать
решительный
поступок,
бесповоротно
разрывая
с
прошлым
= сжечь
корабли);
(to
eat a bushel of salt with –
очень
долгое
время
общаясь,
хорошо
узнать
кого-либо
= съесть
пуд
соли).

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MODERN ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY Problems of Collocability. Word-groups in English.

Problems for discussion The notion of “collocability” (valency); The notion of “word-group”; The role of lexical and grammatical valency in uniting words into word-groups; The norm of lexical and grammatical valency; Linguistic properties of word-groups: — structure; — meaning; — motivation;

Valency and word-group studies in Linguistics The problems of valency and collocability: С. Д. Кацнельсон Л. Теньер Г. Хельбиг The « word-group theory » : А. А. Шахматов Л. В. Щерба Ф. Ф. Фортунатов Н. С. Трубецкой Дж. Лайонз Ш. Балли В. В. Виноградов В. Г. Гак

What is collocability? Collocability (also valency, distributional characteristics, colligation, collocation ) is the ability of the units of the language — phonemes, morphemes, words — to form units of higher level.

В. Г. Гак: «Сочетаемость – свойство языковых единиц сочетаться при образовании единиц более высокого уровня; одно из фундаментальных свойств языковых единиц, отражающее синтагматические отношения между ними» [ БЭС «Языкознание» , стр. 483 ]

What is a word-group? A word group is the largest two facet lexical unit comprising more than one word. red tape beautiful girl to walk slowly

Words are united into word-groups thanks to the following linguistic factors Lexical valency (collocability) Grammatical valency (collocability)

Lexical valency is the ability of a word to appear in various combinations: vital pressing question urgent But not: sweet question green question

The norm of lexical valency The range (norm) of lexical valency is determined by the semantic agreement – the semes of the combining words should not disagree (violate the logical norms). For example, a verb, denoting an action characteristic of a living being agrees only with an animate noun.

Example 1: a dog barks Dog — an animal kept as a pet, for guarding buildings, or for hunting. to bark — to make the short loud sound that a dog makes

Example 2: a pen barks Pen — an object that you use for writing or drawing with ink Object — a thing that you can see and touch that is not alive and is usually solid an inanimate object can’t produce sounds.

Grammatical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in specific grammatical (syntactic) structures.

The norm of grammatical valency is determined by the part of speech of the word: The property of the object Adj. + N a green apple

The structure of the word-group influences on its meaning: keen + N — keen sight, hearing «острый“ keen + on + N — keen on sports «увлеченный“ keen + inf. — keen to know «сильно желающий“.

Linguistic properties of the word-group structure meaning motivation lexical grammatical lexical structural

Structure of word-groups (1) the order of the components: • a verbal — nominal group : to sew a dress , to read a book ; • a verbal — prepositional — nominal group to look at something ;

Structure of word-groups (2) the criterion of distribution : ( distribution — the sum of contexts of the language unit): • endocentric — hav e one central member functionally equivalent to the whole word-group, while all other members of the group are subordinated to it : I saw a red flower – I saw a flower ; • exocentric — having no central member : become older, side by side ;

Structure of word-groups (3) according to the part of speech of the headword: • nominal ( beautiful garden ); • verbal ( to fly high ); • adjectival ( lucky from birth );

Structure of word-groups (4) according to the syntactic pattern: • predicative — have a syntactic structure similar to that of a sentence ( he went ); • non-predicative are subdivided according to the type of syntactic relations between the components into: (a) subordinative ( modern technology ); (b) coordinative (husband wife).

Meaning of word-groups T he meaning of a word group is derived (a) from the combined lexical meanings of its components – lexical meaning , (b) from the meaning of the pattern of their arrangement – grammaticalstructural meaning , (c) from the extra-linguistic situation in which word-groups are habitually used by native speakers

Lexical meaning The Lexical meaning of the word-group may be defined as the combined lexical meaning of the component words. Blind man Blind type

Grammatical meaning Grammatical structural meaning is conveyed by the order and arrangement of member words: grammar school grammar

The most frequent patterns of word-groups in English Adj. + N nice cap V + N to built houses V + N + V (Inf. ) to make somebody work V + Prep. + N to rely on somebody V + N +Prep. + N to hold something against somebody V + V (Inf. ) to get to know

Lexical motivation Word-groups are lexically motivated if the combined lexical meaning of the groups is deducible from the meaning of their components : red flower tall boy beautiful carpet

Structural motivation Word-groups are structurally motivated if the meaning of the pattern is deducible from the order and arrangement of the member-words of the group The word-group : yellow bag The pattern : Adj + N The meaning: «quality — substance»

Degree of motivation Complete motivation : Black dress – dress of black colour Partial motivation : Black market – illegal market Non motivated : Black death — a disease that killed millions of people in Europe and Asia in the 14 th century. Its medical name is bubonic plague.

Non-motivated word-groups (set-expressions) Lexically non-motivated word-groups are word-groups in which the constituents do not possess any individual lexical meaning of their own: heavy father — serious or solemn part in a theatrical play.

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Описание презентации по отдельным слайдам:

1 слайд

Word Groups and Phraseological Units

Words put together to form lexical units make up phrases or word-groups.
2 слайд

The main factors active in bringing words together are lexical and grammatical valency of the components of word-groups.
3 слайд

Lexical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in various collocations.

All the words of the language possess a certain norm of lexical valency.
4 слайд

Grammatical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in various grammatical structures.

Restrictions of grammatical valency are to be accounted for by the grammatical structure of the language.
5 слайд

Semantically all word-groups may be classified into motivated and non-motivated. Non-motivated word-groups are usually described as phraseological units.
6 слайд

The same as words phraseological units express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it.

American and British lexicographers call such units «idioms».
7 слайд

Phraseological Units
The border-line between free or variable word-groups and phraseological units is not clearly defined

the existing terms are: set-phrases, idioms, word-equivalents
8 слайд

Phraseological units are habitually defined as non-motivated word-groups that cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made units
9 слайд

The main characteristic features of phraseological units are:

— stability of the lexical components
— lack of motivation

COMPARE: red flower and red tape
10 слайд

Phraseological units can be classified according to the ways they are formed, according to the degree of the motivation of their meaning, according to their structure and according to their part-of-speech meaning.
11 слайд

A.V. Koonin classified phraseological units according to the way they are formed.

He pointed out primary and secondary ways of forming phraseological units.

Primary ways of forming phraseological units are those when a unit is formed on the basis of a free word-group :
12 слайд

1) transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups:
«launching pad» in its terminological meaning is «стартовая площадка» , in its transferred meaning — «отправной пункт»,
«to link up» — «cтыковаться, стыковать космические корабли» in its tranformed meaning it means -«знакомиться»;
13 слайд

2) from free word groups by transforming their meaning,
e.g. «granny farm» — «пансионат для престарелых»,
«Troyan horse» — «компьюторная программа, преднамеренно составленная для повреждения компьютера»;
14 слайд

3) phraseological units can be formed by means of alliteration ,
e.g. «a sad sack» — «несчастный случай»,
«culture vulture» — «человек, интересующийся искусством»,
«fudge and nudge» — «уклончивость».
15 слайд

4) they can be formed by means of distorting a word group,
e.g. «odds and ends» was formed from «odd ends»,
16 слайд

5) they can be formed when we use some unreal image,
e.g. «to have butterflies in the stomach» — «испытывать волнение»,
«to have green fingers» — »преуспевать как садовод-любитель
17 слайд

Other ways:
when a phraseological unit is formed on the basis of another phraseological unit; they are:

1) conversion, e.g. «to vote with one’s feet» was converted into «vote with one’s f eet»;
18 слайд

2) changing the grammar form, e.g. «Make hay while the sun shines» is transferred into a verbal phrase — «to make hay while the sun shines»
19 слайд

3)analogy,
e.g. «Curiosity killed the cat» was transferred into «Care killed the cat»
20 слайд

4) contrast,
e.g. «cold surgery» — «a planned before operation» was formed by contrasting it with «acute surgery»,
«thin cat» — «a poor person» was formed by contrasting it with «fat cat»;
21 слайд

6) shortening of proverbs or sayings
e.g. from the proverb «You can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear» by means of clipping the middle of it the phraseological unit «to make a sow’s ear» was formed with the meaning «ошибаться
22 слайд

7)borrowing phraseological units from other languages
e.g. « living space» (German), « to take the bull by the horns» ( Latin)
23 слайд

Phraseological units sematically are classified according to V.V. Vinogradov :

-phraseological fusions (сращения) kick the bucket
phraseological unities (единства) e.g. the last straw, to ride the high horse
phraseological collocations (сочетания) e.g. to take smth for granted, to have a bite
24 слайд

Structurally:
Verbal: to run for one’s life, to talk through one’s hat, to make a song and dance about smth.
Substantive: dog’s life, white lie, calf love.
Adjectival: high and mighty, brand new, safe and sound.
Adverbial: high and low, by hook or by crook
Interjectional: my God! Good Heavens!

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