Word government derived from

A government is the system to govern a state or community. The word government derives, ultimately, from the Greek verb κυβερνάω [kubernáo] (meaning to steer with gubernaculum (rudder), the metaphorical sense being attested in Plato’s Ship of State).

What Greek word means government by the people?

The word ‘democracy’ has its origins in the Greek language. It combines two shorter words: ‘demos’ meaning whole citizen living within a particular city-state and ‘kratos’ meaning power or rule.

What does government mean in Greek?

From Old French governer, derived from Latin gubernare “to direct, rule, guide, govern”, which is derived from the Greek kybernan (to pilot a ship). There is precedent that the suffix -ment is derived from the latin mente meaning mind in some languages, particularly Old French.

What Greek word does politics come from?

Etymology. The English politics has its roots in the name of Aristotle’s classic work, Politiká, which introduced the Greek term politiká (Πολιτικά, ‘affairs of the cities’).

What does the word human mean in Greek?

Anthropos

What are the 4 types of politics?

Anthropologists generally recognize four kinds of political systems, two of which are uncentralized and two of which are centralized.

• Uncentralized systems. Band society.
• Centralized governments. Chiefdom.
• Supranational political systems.
• Empires.
• Leagues.

What is politics short note?

Politics is the way that people living in groups make decisions. Politics is about making agreements between people so that they can live together in groups such as tribes, cities, or countries. These people are called politicians. Politicians, and sometimes other people, may get together to form a government.

What is party rule?

A party system is a concept in comparative political science concerning the system of government by political parties in a democratic country.

What are examples of office politics?

Examples of office politics

• Backstabbing a colleague.
• Blackmailing a colleague.
• Forming malicious alliances against other colleagues.
• Gossiping or spreading rumors about others.
• Intentionally withholding important information.

How can we stay away from office politics?

10 Ways to Avoid Office Politics

1. Think Long-Term.
2. Identify Backstabbers.
3. Choose Your Friends Carefully.
4. Stay Informed.
5. Don’t Gossip.
6. Communicate with Your Boss.
7. What They Don’t Know Can’t Hurt You.
8. Think Back to High School. In some respects, workplaces are a lot like high school.

How do you identify office politics?

Seven Survival Tips for Office Politics

1. Analyze the Organization Chart. Office politics often circumvent the formal organizational structure.
2. Understand the Informal Network.
3. Build Connections.
4. Develop Your “People Skills”
5. Make the Most of Your Network.
6. Be Brave – but Not Naive.
7. Neutralize Negative Politics.

How do I outsmart my boss?

8 Savvy Ways to Outsmart Your Jerk Boss

1. Learn the difference between a difficult boss and a bully.
2. Know if you’re a typical target.
3. Then make yourself bully-proof.
4. Rally your coworkers’ support.
5. Expose his or her bad side.
6. Don’t go to HR.
7. Instead, complain upwards.
8. Get emotional support so you can quit.

How do you stand up to a rude boss?

Here are four things you can do to deal with a rude boss:

1. Ask why. Perhaps the boss has had a bad day, but it’s possible that he is really cross with you.
2. Be positive. The temptation when someone is being rude is to respond in kind, but that is not advisable with your boss.
3. Learn and adapt – to a point.

What can I say instead of boss?

What is another word for boss?

head	chief
administrator	foreman
master	supervisor
employer	kingpin
overseer	owner

What should you never tell your boss?

10 Things You Should Never Tell Your Boss

• Here Are Some Things Your Boss Never Needs to Know About You or Your Life.
• Keep Personal Info Personal. Discrimination in the workplace is illegal.
• Night Life.
• Religious Beliefs.
• Political Affiliation.
• Spouse’s Income.
• You’re Working Another Job.
• Sexual Orientation.

What should you never say to HR?

10 Things You Should Never Tell HR

• Leaving While on Leave.
• Lying to Get Leave Extensions.
• Lying About Your Qualifications.
• Changes in Your Partner’s Career.
• Moonlighting.
• Lawsuits You’ve Filed Against Employers.
• Health Issues.
• Personal Life Issues.

How do you tell if your boss is sabotaging you?

How do you tell if someone is sabotaging you?

• They make you jump through hoops others don’t have to.
• They talk about you behind your back.
• They tell lies to your boss or your colleagues about your work.
• They steal your ideas or try to take credit for your work.

What to do if your boss is trying to get you to quit?

What to Do If You Think Your Boss Wants You to Quit

1. Start researching new careers.
2. Don’t blame yourself.
3. Make your time away from work more enjoyable.
4. Visualize the type of work environment you want in the future.
5. Request a meeting with your boss.
6. Remind yourself that this too shall pass.

Can you sue if you are forced to resign?

If you were forced to quit your job because of intolerable working conditions, you may be able to sue. If you quit your job because of intolerable work conditions or treatment, in certain circumstances, your resignation may be considered a termination.

Is my company trying to make me quit?

According to Forbes, signs that a boss might be trying to encourage you to leave include the following: Not assigning new or challenging work to build your skill set. Burying your work so no one else sees what you’ve accomplished. Pointing out to other managers where you stumbled.

Is it legal for a boss to yell at you?

It’s perfectly legal for a boss to yell at his employees. Yelling, insulting and even bullying are legal management methods in all states at the time of writing. If your boss targets you for abuse because you’re a woman or because of your race or religion, that’s another story.

What is a toxic boss?

A bad or “toxic” boss is one who you dread speaking with, the leader who makes you feel small or insignificant, the arrogant, irritable, or inflexible manager, or the boss who has the ability to instantly suck the life and enjoyment from employees by simply entering the room.

Why does my boss make me cry?

1. You’re so Stressed out at Work That You Are Emotional. This is a huge sign that your current job is not working for you—your emotions and body know best, so if you’re feeling the urge to cry or actually are crying at work, take this as a serious sign.

Can I sue my employer for stress and anxiety?

You can file an employment lawsuit if you experience stress and anxiety that is higher than the regular amount for your job. For example, the minor stress of answering emails in a timely and comprehensive manner is normal and expected.

How do you prove emotional distress?

To prove a claim for intentional infliction of emotional distress in California a plaintiff must prove that:

1. The defendant’s conduct was outrageous,
2. The conduct was either reckless or intended to cause emotional distress; and.
3. As a result of the defendant’s conduct the plaintiff suffered severe emotional distress.

Can I sue my job for emotional distress?

When it comes to emotional distress, there are two categories that you can sue an employer for: Negligent Infliction of Emotional Distress (NIED). With this type of emotional distress, you could sue if your employer acted negligently or violated the duty of care to not cause severe emotional stress in the workplace.

What are reasonable accommodations for anxiety?

But an anxiety disorder that puts significant limits on your daily activities is a disability under the ADA. Assuming your anxiety disorder qualifies as a disability, you are entitled to a reasonable accommodation: changes to your job or your workplace to enable you to perform the essential functions of your position.

What is an example of a reasonable accommodation?

Reasonable accommodations may include, but are not limited to: Job restructuring such as altering when and/or how an essential function of a job is performed or reallocating marginal job functions that an employee is unable to perform because of a disability.

Is anxiety covered under 504?

Children and adolescents diagnosed with anxiety disorders may be eligible for services, accommodations, or modifications under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act or Section 504 of the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1973.

Is anxiety and depression protected under the ADA?

Depression and Anxiety as Disabilities If your depression or anxiety makes it hard for you to sleep, work, concentrate, think, regulate your emotions, or care for yourself, for example, then it is a disability under the ADA.

For the executive of parliamentary systems referred to as the government, see Executive (government).

A government is the system or group of people governing an organized community, generally a state.

In the case of its broad associative definition, government normally consists of legislature, executive, and judiciary. Government is a means by which organizational policies are enforced, as well as a mechanism for determining policy. In many countries, the government has a kind of constitution, a statement of its governing principles and philosophy.

While all types of organizations have governance, the term government is often used more specifically to refer to the approximately 200 independent national governments and subsidiary organizations.

The major types of political systems in the modern era are democracies, monarchies, authoritarian and totalitarian regimes.^[1] Historically prevalent forms of government include monarchy, aristocracy, timocracy, oligarchy, democracy, theocracy, and tyranny. These forms are not always mutually exclusive, and mixed governments are common. The main aspect of any philosophy of government is how political power is obtained, with the two main forms being electoral contest and hereditary succession.

Definitions and etymology

A government is the system to govern a state or community. The Columbia Encyclopedia defines government as «a system of social control under which the right to make laws, and the right to enforce them, is vested in a particular group in society».^[2] While all types of organizations have governance, the word government is often used more specifically to refer to the approximately 200 independent national governments on Earth, as well as their subsidiary organizations, such as state and provincial governments as well as local governments.^[3]

The word government derives from the Greek verb κυβερνάω [kubernáo] meaning to steer with a gubernaculum (rudder), the metaphorical sense being attested in the literature of classical antiquity, including Plato’s Ship of State.^[4] In British English, «government» sometimes refers to what’s also known as a «ministry» or an «administration», i.e., the policies and government officials of a particular executive or governing coalition. Finally, government is also sometimes used in English as a synonym for rule or governance.^[5]

In other languages, cognates may have a narrower scope, such as the government of Portugal, which is actually more similar to the concept of «administration».

History

Earliest governments

The moment and place that the phenomenon of human government developed is lost in time; however, history does record the formations of early governments. About 5,000 years ago, the first small city-states appeared.^[6] By the third to second millenniums BC, some of these had developed into larger governed areas: Sumer, ancient Egypt, the Indus Valley civilization, and the Yellow River civilization.^[7]

The development of agriculture and water control projects were a catalyst for the development of governments.^[8] On occasion a chief of a tribe was elected by various rituals or tests of strength to govern his tribe, sometimes with a group of elder tribesmen as a council. The human ability to precisely communicate abstract, learned information allowed humans to become ever more effective at agriculture,^[9] and that allowed for ever increasing population densities.^[6] David Christian explains how this resulted in states with laws and governments.

As farming populations gathered in larger and denser communities, interactions between different groups increased and the social pressure rose until, in a striking parallel with star formation, new structures suddenly appeared, together with a new level of complexity. Like stars, cities and states reorganize and energize the smaller objects within their gravitational field.^[6]

Modern governments

Starting at the end of the 17th century, the prevalence of republican forms of government grew. The English Civil War and Glorious Revolution in England, the American Revolution, and the French Revolution contributed to the growth of representative forms of government. The Soviet Union was the first large country to have a Communist government.^[3] Since the fall of the Berlin Wall, liberal democracy has become an even more prevalent form of government.^[10]

In the nineteenth and twentieth century, there was a significant increase in the size and scale of government at the national level.^[11] This included the regulation of corporations and the development of the welfare state.^[10]

Political science

Classification

In political science, it has long been a goal to create a typology or taxonomy of polities, as typologies of political systems are not obvious.^[12] It is especially important in the political science fields of comparative politics and international relations. Like all categories discerned within forms of government, the boundaries of government classifications are either fluid or ill-defined.

Superficially, all governments have an official de jure or ideal form. The United States is a federal constitutional republic, while the former Soviet Union was a federal socialist republic. However self-identification is not objective, and as Kopstein and Lichbach argue, defining regimes can be tricky, especially de facto, when both its government and its economy deviate in practice.^[13] For example, Voltaire argued that «the Holy Roman Empire is neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire».^[14] In practice, the Soviet Union was centralized autocratic one-party state under Joseph Stalin. In practice, the United States is a flawed democracy, since its electoral system has previously negated popular votes; as ruled by the Supreme Court, the winning political party electors must blindly vote for presidential candidate.^[15]

Identifying a form of government is also difficult because many political systems originate as socio-economic movements and are then carried into governments by parties naming themselves after those movements; all with competing political-ideologies. Experience with those movements in power, and the strong ties they may have to particular forms of government, can cause them to be considered as forms of government in themselves.

Other complications include general non-consensus or deliberate «distortion or bias» of reasonable technical definitions to political ideologies and associated forms of governing, due to the nature of politics in the modern era. For example: The meaning of «conservatism» in the United States has little in common with the way the word’s definition is used elsewhere. As Ribuffo notes, «what Americans now call conservatism much of the world calls liberalism or neoliberalism»; a «conservative» in Finland would be labeled a «socialist» in the United States.^[16] Since the 1950s conservatism in the United States has been chiefly associated with right-wing politics and the Republican Party. However, during the era of segregation many Southern Democrats were conservatives, and they played a key role in the conservative coalition that controlled Congress from 1937 to 1963.^[17][a]

Opinions vary by individuals concerning the types and properties of governments that exist. «Shades of gray» are commonplace in any government and its corresponding classification. Even the most liberal democracies limit rival political activity to one extent or another while the most tyrannical dictatorships must organize a broad base of support thereby creating difficulties for «pigeonholing» governments into narrow categories. Examples include the claims of the United States as being a plutocracy rather than a democracy since some American voters believe elections are being manipulated by wealthy Super PACs.^[18]

Forms

Plato in his book The Republic divided governments into five basic types (four being existing forms and one being Plato’s ideal form, which exists «only in speech»):^[19]

• Aristocracy (rule by law and order, like ideal traditional «benevolent» kingdoms that aren’t tyrannical)
• Timocracy (rule by honor and duty, like a «benevolent» military; Sparta as an example)
• Oligarchy (rule by wealth and market-based-ethics, like a free-trading capitalist state)
• Democracy (rule by pure liberty and equality, like a free citizen)
• Tyranny (rule by fear, like a despot)

These five regimes progressively degenerate starting with aristocracy at the top and tyranny at the bottom.^[20]

In his Politics, Aristotle elaborates on Plato’s five regimes discussing them in relation to the government of one, of the few, and of the many.^[21] From this follows the classification of forms of government according to which people have the authority to rule: either one person (an autocracy, such as monarchy), a select group of people (an aristocracy), or the people as a whole (a democracy, such as a republic).

Thomas Hobbes stated on their classification:

The difference of Commonwealths consisteth in the difference of the sovereign, or the person representative of all and every one of the multitude. And because the sovereignty is either in one man, or in an assembly of more than one; and into that assembly either every man hath right to enter, or not every one, but certain men distinguished from the rest; it is manifest there can be but three kinds of Commonwealth. For the representative must needs be one man, or more; and if more, then it is the assembly of all, or but of a part. When the representative is one man, then is the Commonwealth a monarchy; when an assembly of all that will come together, then it is a democracy, or popular Commonwealth; when an assembly of a part only, then it is called an aristocracy. Other kind of Commonwealth there can be none: for either one, or more, or all, must have the sovereign power (which I have shown to be indivisible) entire.^[22]

Basic political systems

According to Yale professor Juan José Linz there a three main types of political systems today: democracies,
totalitarian regimes and, sitting between these two, authoritarian regimes with hybrid regimes.^[23][24] Another modern classification system includes monarchies as a standalone entity or as a hybrid system of the main three.^[25] Scholars generally refer to a dictatorship as either a form of authoritarianism or totalitarianism.^[26][23][27]

Autocracy

An autocracy is a system of government in which supreme power is concentrated in the hands of one person, whose decisions are subject to neither external legal restraints nor regularized mechanisms of popular control (except perhaps for the implicit threat of a coup d’état or mass insurrection).^[28] Absolute monarchy is a historically prevalent form of autocracy, wherein a monarch governs as a singular sovereign with no limitation on royal prerogative. Most absolute monarchies are hereditary, however some, notably the Holy See, are elected by an electoral college (such as the college of cardinals, or prince-electors). Other forms of autocracy include tyranny, despotism, and dictatorship.

Aristocracy

Aristocracy^[b] is a form of government that places power in the hands of a small, elite ruling class,^[29] such as a hereditary nobility or privileged caste. This class exercises minority rule, often as a landed timocracy, wealthy plutocracy, or oligarchy.

Many monarchies were aristocracies, although in modern constitutional monarchies the monarch may have little effective power. The term aristocracy could also refer to the non-peasant, non-servant, and non-city classes in the feudal system.^{[citation needed]}

Democracy

Democracy is a system of government where citizens exercise power by voting and deliberation. In a direct democracy, the citizenry as a whole directly forms a participatory governing body and vote directly on each issue. In indirect democracy, the citizenry governs indirectly through the selection of representatives or delegates from among themselves, typically by election or, less commonly, by sortition. These select citizens then meet to form a governing body, such as a legislature or jury.

Some governments combine both direct and indirect democratic governance, wherein the citizenry selects representatives to administer day-to-day governance, while also reserving the right govern directly through popular initiatives, referendums (plebiscites), and the right of recall. In a constitutional democracy the powers of the majority are exercised within the framework of a representative democracy, but the constitution limits majority rule, usually through the provision by all of certain universal rights, e.g. freedom of speech, or freedom of association.^[30][31]

Republics

A republic is a form of government in which the country is considered a «public matter» (Latin: res publica), not the private concern or property of the rulers, and where offices of states are subsequently directly or indirectly elected or appointed rather than inherited. The people, or some significant portion of them, have supreme control over the government and where offices of state are elected or chosen by elected people.^[32][33]

A common simplified definition of a republic is a government where the head of state is not a monarch.^[34][35] Montesquieu included both democracies, where all the people have a share in rule, and aristocracies or oligarchies, where only some of the people rule, as republican forms of government.^[36]

Other terms used to describe different republics include democratic republic, parliamentary republic, semi-presidential republic, presidential republic, federal republic, people’s republic, and Islamic republic.

Federalism

Federalism is a political concept in which a group of members are bound together by covenant with a governing representative head. The term «federalism» is also used to describe a system of government in which sovereignty is constitutionally divided between a central governing authority and constituent political units, variously called states, provinces or otherwise. Federalism is a system based upon democratic principles and institutions in which the power to govern is shared between national and provincial/state governments, creating what is often called a federation.^{[citation needed]} Proponents are often called federalists.

Branches

Governments are typically organised into distinct institutions constituting branches of government each with particular powers, functions, duties, and responsibilities. The distribution of powers between these institutions differs between governments, as do the functions and number of branches. An independent, parallel distribution of powers between branches of government is the separation of powers. A shared, intersecting, or overlapping distribution of powers is the fusion of powers.

Governments are often organised into three branches with separate powers: a legislature, an executive, and a judiciary; this is sometimes called the trias politica model. However, in parliamentary and semi-presidential systems, branches of government often intersect, having shared membership and overlapping functions. Many governments have fewer or additional branches, such as an independent electoral commission or auditory branch.^[37]

Party system

Presently, most governments are administered by members of an explicitly constituted political party which coordinates the activities of associated government officials and candidates for office. In a multiparty system of government, multiple political parties have the capacity to gain control of government offices, typically by competing in elections, although the effective number of parties may be limited.

A majority government is a government by one or more governing parties together holding an absolute majority of seats in the parliament, in contrast to a minority government in which they have only a plurality of seats and often depend on a confidence-and-supply arrangement with other parties. A coalition government is one in which multiple parties cooperate to form a government as part of a coalition agreement. In a single-party government a single party forms a government without the support of a coalition, as is typically the case with majority governments,^[38][39] but even a minority government may consist of just one party unable to find a willing coalition partner at the moment.^[40]

A state that continuously maintains a single-party government within a (nominally) multiparty system possesses a dominant-party system. In a (nondemocratic) one-party system a single ruling party has the (more-or-less) exclusive right to form the government, and the formation of other parties may be obstructed or illegal. In some cases, a government may have a non-partisan system, as is the case with absolute monarchy or non-partisan democracy.

Maps

Democracy is the most popular form of government with more than half of the nations in the world being democracies-97 of 167 nations as of 2021.^[41] However the world is becoming more authoritarian with a quarter of the world’s population under democratically backsliding governments.^[41]

See also

Notes

References

Bibliography

Further reading

• de Mesquita, Bruce Bueno; Smith, Alastair (2012). The Dictator’s Handbook: Why Bad Behavior is Almost Always Good Politics. New York: PublicAffairs. ISBN 9781610390446. OCLC 1026803822.
• de Mesquita, Bruce Bueno; Smith, Alastair; Siverson, Randolph M.; Morrow, James D. (2003). The Logic of Political Survival. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN 9780262025461. OCLC 475265120.
• Dobson, William J. (2013). The Dictator’s Learning Curve: Inside the Global Battle for Democracy. New York: Anchor. ISBN 978-0307477552. OCLC 849820048.
• Friedrich, Carl J.; Brzezinski, Zbigniew K. (1966) [1965]. Totalitarian Dictatorship and Autocracy (2nd ed.). New York: Frederick A. Praeger. ISBN 9780674895652. OCLC 826626632.
• Krader, Lawrence (1968). Formation of the State. Foundations of Modern Anthropology. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0133294900. OCLC 266086412.

late 14c., “act of governing or ruling;” 1550s, “system by which a thing is governed” (especially a state), from Old French governement “control, direction, administration” (Modern French gouvernement), from governer “to steer, be at the helm of; govern, rule, command, direct,” from Latin gubernare “to direct, rule, …

What is the word for mind control?

What is another word for mind-control?

brainwashing	inculcation
indoctrination	propagandization

When was the word government first used?

1550s

Does the word government mean?

noun. the political direction and control exercised over the actions of the members, citizens, or inhabitants of communities, societies, and states; direction of the affairs of a state, community, etc.; political administration: Government is necessary to the existence of civilized society.

What is the meaning of the word Gubernare?

late 13c., “to rule with authority,” from Old French governer “steer, be at the helm of; govern, rule, command, direct” (11c., Modern French gouverner), from Latin gubernare “to direct, rule, guide, govern” (source also of Spanish gobernar, Italian governare), originally “to steer, to pilot,” a nautical borrowing from …

What does it mean to govern something?

transitive verb. 1a : to exercise continuous sovereign authority over especially : to control and direct the making and administration of policy in The country was governed by a king. b : to rule without sovereign power and usually without having the authority to determine basic policy.

What does the term Vassalism mean?

1. the feudal system of lands held in fee and of mandatory vassaltenant homage, fealty, and service. 2. the condition of a person owing homage and fealty to a superior; vassalage.

What is government as an art of governing?

Government is referred to as an art of governing because it is a body vested with the supreme power of the affairs of a state. A government is vested with the power of maintaining peace and security by putting in place machinery for that purpose.

Where is the word government derived from?

Definitions and etymology A government is the system to govern a state or community. The word government derives, ultimately, from the Greek verb κυβερνάω [kubernáo] (meaning to steer with gubernaculum (rudder), the metaphorical sense being attested in Plato’s Ship of State).

What is it called when a government controls everything?

Totalitarian — a government that seeks to subordinate the individual to the state by controlling not only all political and economic matters, but also the attitudes, values and beliefs of its population.

How many different governments are there?

The governance of nations differs significantly based on who has power. This lesson will differentiate five forms of government: monarchy, democracy, oligarchy, authoritarianism, and totalitarianism.

What country has a junta government?

The most famous junta nowadays is that of Myanmar, but Myanmar is not the only country that is ruled by a junta now, Thailand is another example. Some autonomous regional governments in Spain are also called junta.

What is the theocracy?

Theocracy, government by divine guidance or by officials who are regarded as divinely guided. In many theocracies, government leaders are members of the clergy, and the state’s legal system is based on religious law. … Contemporary examples of theocracies include Saudi Arabia, Iran, and the Vatican.

What type of government is ruled by a king or queen?

monarchy

Is autocracy the same as monarchy?

The main difference between Monarchy and Autocracy is that the Monarchy is a system of government where the head of state position is inherited within family and Autocracy is a system of government. … In contrast, elective monarchies require the monarch to be elected.

What is the power of a king?

Powers of the monarch In an absolute monarchy, the monarch rules as an autocrat, with absolute power over the state and government—for example, the right to rule by decree, promulgate laws, and impose punishments. In a constitutional monarchy, the monarch’s power is subject to a constitution.

What are the 2 types of monarchy?

Different types of monarchs exist. A monarchy may be a limited monarchy, a constitutional monarchy, or an absolute monarchy. A limited monarchy is one in which the royalty have only ceremonial powers.

What is monarchy example?

The best example of an absolute monarchy is Saudi Arabia. While the government follows Basic Law of Saudi Arabia, it does not have a constitution. The executive powers of the government are hereditary, and the judicial and legislative branches are appointed by royal decree.

Is Britain a monarchy?

Monarchy is the oldest form of government in the United Kingdom. The British Monarchy is known as a constitutional monarchy. … This means that, while The Sovereign is Head of State, the ability to make and pass legislation resides with an elected Parliament.

What countries are monarchy?

What countries are monarchies?

Country	Monarch	Type of monarchy
Brunei	Sultan Haji Hassanal Bolkiah	Constitutional
Cambodia	King Norodom Sihamoni	Constitutional
Denmark	Queen Margrethe II	Constitutional
Japan	Emperor Akihito	Constitutional

Who is the oldest monarchy in the world?

Japan