Word formation in english and russian

КОМИТЕТ ПО ОБРАЗОВАНИЮ
МУНИЦИПАЛЬНОГО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ ГОРОД ДОНСКОЙ
МУНИЦИПАЛЬНОЕ БЮДЖЕТНОЕ ОБЩЕОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНОЕ УЧРЕЖДЕНИЕ
«СРЕДНЯЯ ОБЩЕОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНАЯ ШКОЛА № 14»

ПРОЕКТ

«СЛОВООБРАЗОВАНИЕ»

Выполнена ученицей 9 Б класса
МБОУ «СОШ № 14»
Яблочкиной Татьяной Геннадьевной
Руководитель —
Учитель английского языка
Лоськова Людмила Витальевна

                                                  Донской
                                                     2013

                                 Content

1. Introduction……………………………………………………………3

2. Main part:

2.1 Word-building…………………………………………………….4

2.2Conversion………………………………………………………5-6

2.3Composition…………………………………………………….7-8

2.4 Change in stress in a word and Affixation…………………………..9-10

3. The vocabulary and word-building means in Old English………20-25

4. Conclusion………………………………………..…………………26

       5. Vocabulary……………………………………………………………27

6. References……………………………………………………………28

                                                 1. Introduction

There is no doubt that the English language today is the most widely used language for international communication. Words and expressions are born, live for a short time and then die or find their place in English vocabulary according to the temporary or permanent nature of the phenomena they describe. Indeed, if no new words were to appear, it would be a sign that the language was moribund.

Therefore, the vocabulary of the English language like any other is constantly changing. This happens several ways. First, by borrowing from other languages​​ and, second, with the help of word formation.

That’s why the aim of my work is to learn different ways of forming words and compare them with the methods of forming words in Russian and in Old English.

There are various types of word building processes in English. Let us discuss the most important of them.

                                                         2. Main part

                                       2.1 WORD-BUILDING 

Word-building is the process of forming words by combining root and affixal morphemes according to certain patterns specific for the language (affixation, composition), or without any outward means of word formation (conversion, semantic derivation).

In English, there are several ways of word formation:

1) conversion (the formation of new words without changing their spelling and pronunciation)
2) composition (the formation of a new word by adding two words in one word)
3) change in stress in a word (and receive a new word the other part of speech)
4) affixation (the process of forming a new word by the addition of a morpheme or affix to word)

                                            2.2 Conversion

Conversion is transferring a word from one part of speech to another without the use of an affix. This way of building new words is most typical of English as compared with Russian.

There may be various directions of conversion:

• a verb may come from a noun: word  — to word, bicycle — to bicycle, master — to master, house  — to house , water — to water;
• a noun may come from a verb: a try, a drive, a drive-in; that’s a must;
• an adjective may be converted to a noun: a round, a monthly, the bitter;
• an adjective may be changed to a verb: to empty, to better, to calm down;
• adverb to noun: Yesterday was my birthday;
• a structural word may be converted to a noun: too many ifs and buts;

Compound words and phrases may also be converted: to dog’s-ear — загибать уголки страниц; a would-be president – будущий президент; free-for-all — соревнования, дискуссия и т. п., в которых может участвовать любой; situps — приседания.
 Root conversion takes place in Russian too, but it is not as characteristic there as it is in English, and is usually accompanied by other word building processes. For example, круглый (adj) – круг (n) – кругом (adv) – вокруг (prep) – округлять (v). In this case conversion is used along with stem reduction and affixation. Mostly, conversion in Russian is a process of changing noun to adverb: утром, шагом, осенью; adjective to noun (based on ellipsis): столовая, рабочий, учащиеся; participle to noun: раненный – раненый; noun to grammatical word: в связи с, в заключение, etc.

It should be kept in mind that not all the meanings of a word are carried through into the derivative form. Therefore, a translator should be careful about the equivalent. For example, the noun paper has several equivalents: бумага, газета, научная работа. However, the verb to paper refers only to the first of these, which is manifested in its collocation. Lecturers and editors may paper their rooms. – Преподаватели и редакторы могут оклеивать свои комнаты обоями. But they cannot *paper their audiences and readers. The verb to paper has no equivalent correlating with the second and third meanings of the noun.

                                            2.3 Composition

Composition is a unit of vocabulary which consists of more than one lexical stem functioning as a single item, with its own meaning and grammar.

English compounds are formed mostly in the agglutinative way, that is by joining directly two or more stems: two-year-old, chewing-gum, doorknob, widespread, earthquake. Unfortunately, orthography is not a foolproof criterion to signal a compound.  

The parts of a word may be linked by a hyphen (fire-light), written without a space (moonlight), or stand separately (candle light). Note that American English uses fewer hyphens than does British English: cell yell (loud talking into a cellular telephone), ego wall (wall with framed awards, diplomas, and pictures of a person with famous people).
It is typical of English to make a compound out of a phrase, with subordinate links between the elements: son-in-law, jack-of-all-trades, day-to-day (rare in Russian: сумасшедший); coordinate links: hide-and-seek.        

To translate a new compound, especially one not included in the dictionary, it is necessary to analyze syntactic relations between the compound elements and their meanings. These relations may be as follows:

• subject to verb: earthquake (the earth quakes), headache; землетрясение, снегопад;
• verb to object: scarecrow (scares crows), sightseeing; водомер, бракодел;
• attribute relations: goldfish, postman; чернозём, голубоглазый;
• adverbial relations: much-improved (improved a lot), night-flying (flying at night); вышеупомянутый, долгоиграющий.

When the meaning and grammatical relations of the compound elements are clear, it is possible to look for a proper means of translation. It may be:

• another compound: tax-payer – налогоплательщик; law-abiding – законопослушный;
• analogue: hangman – палач; homesick – ностальгический; childcare – детский сад; air-headed – ветер в голове;
• calque: waterbike – водный мотоцикл; breathtaking – захватывающий дыхание. Compounds with object and adverbial relations between the elements are often translated in the reverted linear order: tax-free – свободный от налогов; far-advanced – продвинутый вперед; home-grown vegetables – овощи, выращенные дома;
• half-calque: pop-star – поп-звезда; surfspeak – язык серфистов;
• explication and extension: flypaper – липкая лента от мух; gravity-challenged – не способный прыгнуть высоко.

In Russian compounds, stems are mostly joined by a linking vowel, —e- or –o-: пароход, дикорастущий, землемер, кораблестроение. An English compound may also have (though not very often) a linking element, mostly the consonant –s- (sportsman, statesman, spokesman), and occasionally vowels –o-, —a-, -i- (washomat, sportsarama, pluridimensional)– though the cases with the linking vowel belong rather to stem reduction than to stem composition.

                        2.4 Change in Stress in a Word and Affixation

Many nouns have the same form with verbs, but differ in emphasis. Usually in nouns emphasis on the first syllable and the relevant verbs — the second: export (экспорт) — to export (экспортировать) present (подарок) — to present (дарить).

There are two major types of word-building affixes in English and Russian:

• prefixes, that is, affixes which occur before the root of a word: re-team, miscommunication, hypermarket;
• suffixes, which occur after the root: rankler, ranklee, shopin, donkey-philes.

A third possible type of affix, infix, occurring within the root, is not used frequently either in English or in Russian. In the Russian language, linguists also single out postfixes, such as affixes after the ending, e.g., -ся (разрастаются).

English does not have affixes in large numbers – only about 50 common prefixes [including international ones, like a- (amoral), pro- (prosocialist), auto- (autobiography), non- (nonfan), etc.], and somewhat fewer suffixes. In Russian, affixation is a predominant way of making new words.

Russian prefixes are most typical of verbs, as they help to specify an aspect modification of the action: вмять, измять, намять, помять, подмять, примять, размять. In English, these verbs mean respectively to dent, rumple, beat, muss, crush, trample down, mash.

The prefixes are attached to the root of the word at the beginning, and the suffixes — at the end. Words formed by prefixes or suffixes, unlike simple words called derivatives.

Prefixes and suffixes can be attached to various parts of speech, changing the basis of the words: happy (счастливый) — unhappy (несчастный) — happiness (счастье) — happily (счастливо); help (помощь) — helper (помощник) — helpful (полезный) — helpless (беспомощный).

The most commonly used prefixes and their meanings:

1. Prefix with value “снова ”,  “вновь”, “пере”:

re-	to construct (строить) — to reconstruct (перестроить), to read (читать) — to reread (перечитать), to write (писать) — to rewrite (переписать)

2. Prefixes that give the opposite meaning to the word:

un-	to dress (одеваться) — to undress (раздеваться), to tie (связывать) — to untie (развязывать)
dis-	to appear (появляться) — to disappear (исчезать)
de-	formation (формирование) — deformation (деформация)
anti-	fascist (фашист) — anti-fascist (антифашист)
counter-	attack (атака) — counterattack (контратака)
contra-	to  contradict (противоречить, возражать)

3. Prefixes that have a negative valure:

a-	amoral (аморальный, безнравственный)
ab-	absent (отсутствующий),  abnormal (ненормальный)
un-	kind (добрый) — unkind (недобрый)
in-	ability (способность) — inability (неспособность)
ir-	regular (регулярный) — irregular (нерегулярный)
il-	legal (легальный) — illegal (нелегальный)
dis-	honest (честный) — dishonest (нечестный)
mis-	to understand (понимать) — to misunderstand (неправильно понять)
non-	interference (вмешательство) — non-interference (невмешательство)

4. Prefixes that are relevant “сверх”, “пере”, “чрезмерно”:

over-	to pay (платить) — to overpay (переплатить)
super-	human (человеческий) — superhuman (сверхчеловеческий)
ultra-	short (короткий) — ultra-short (ультракороткий)
extra-	extraordinary (необычный)

5.        Prefixes that are relevant “между”, “взаимно”:

со-	existence (существование) — co-existence (сосуществование)
inter-	national (национальный) — international (интернациональный)

6.        Prefixes that are translated as

 a) “перед”:

рге-	war (война) — pre-war (довоенный), historic (исторический) — prehistoric (доисторический)
fore-	to foresee (предвидеть)

b)        “после”:

post-

war (война,) — post-war (послевоенный), revolutionary (революционный)

c)        “недостаточно”, “недо-“:

under-

to pay (платить) — to underpay (оплачивать низко, т.е. недостаточно  оплачивать, недоплачивать)

d)        “под”:

sub-	division (разделение) — subdivision (подразделение)

e)        “экс”, “бывший”:

ex-	champion (чемпион) — ex-champion (бывший чемпион)

f)        само-, авто-

auto-

autobiography (автобиография), automatic (автоматический)

g)        полу-

semi-

semifinal (полуфинал), semicircle (полукруг)

h)        через-, транс-

trans-

transatlantic (трансатлантический)

i)        вверх, кверху, наверху

up-	upstairs (вверх по лестнице), upside (верхняя часть)

j)        двойной, два, дважды

bi-	bilingual (двуязычный), bi-monthly (выходящий два раза в месяц)

k)        имеющий дело с книгами

bibli(o)-

bibliography (библиография)

l)        относящийся к жизни

bio-	biography (биография)

m)        второстепенное значение

by-	by-street (переулок, улочка)

n)        много-, мульти-, поли-

multi-	multicolored (многоцветный), multimillionaire (мультимиллионер)
poly-	polyglot (полиглот), polytechnic (политехнический)

o)        второстепенное значение

by-	by-street (переулок, улочка)

7. The prefix verb, with a value of “делать”:

en-	large (большой) — to enlarge (увеличивать, делать больше), force (сила) — to enforce (принуждать, настаивать)

Basic suffixes nouns:

1. Suffix denoting membership in the political direction of the profession and the nation:

-ist	Communist (коммунист), Marxist (марксист}, materialist (материалист);
-an	historian (историк), librarian (библиотекарь), musician (музыкант)
-ian	Russian (русский), Bulgarian (болгарин)

2. Suffix teaching, theory, the quality of:

-ism	marxism (марксизм), heroism (героизм)

3. Suffix denoting a person, his occupation or job title:

-ег	to teach (учить) — teacher (учитель)
-or	to direct (руководить) — director (руководитель)
-ee	employee (служащий), refugee (беженец, эмигрант)
-eer	auctioneer (аукционер)

 4. Suffix indicating the result of the:

-ment	achievement (достижение), agreement (согласие), government (правительство)
-ade	lemonade (лимонад), blockade (блокада)

5. Suffixes

а)        state:

-hood	brotherhood (братство), childhood (детство), manhood (мужественность)
-ship	dictatorship (диктатура), friendship (дружба), leadership (руководство)
-cy	accuracy (точность)
-acy	infancy (младенчество), supremacy (превосходство)

b)        action:

-age	shortage (нехватка), marriage (брак, супружество), voyage (путешествие)
-ing	hunting (охота),  crossing (пересечение,  перекресток),  living (житье)
-ence	silence (молчание), difference (различие)
-ance	importance (важность), resistance (сопротивление)
-tion	collection (собрание, коллекция), dictation (диктант, диктовка)
-ition,  -ation	competition (соревнование), hesitation (сомнение, колебание)
-sion	decision (решение)
-al	removal ( удаление), arrival (прибытие), refusal (отказ)

c)     quality:

-dom	freedom (свобода), kingdom (королевство), wisdom (мудрость)
-ness	coldness (холод),  darkness  (темнота),  kindness (доброта), weakness (слабость)
-ty	activity (активность), safety (безопасность)

d) occupation or status:

-ery	bakery (булочная), surgery (кабинет хирурга), cookery (кулинаxрия)

f) occupation, branch of science:

-ics	physics (физика), politics (политика)

Basic suffixes adjectives:

1. Suffix forming nouns from adjectives and designating national identity or degree of quality:

-ese	Chinese (китаец, китайский), Japanese (японец, японский)
-ish	red (красный) — reddish (красноватый), child (ребенок) — childish (ребячливый, детский)

2. Suffixes to form adjectives and verbs indicating the presence of quality:

-ive	to act (действовать) — active (активный), to talk (разговаривать) – talkative (разговорчивый)
-ent	to differ (различать) — different (различный)
-ant	to observe (наблюдать, замечать) — observant (наблюдательный)

3. Suffix forming nouns from adjectives and denoting the presence of quality:

-ic	base (основа) — basic (основной), economy (экономика) — economic (экономический)
-al	centre (центр) — central (центральный)
-ful	culture (культура) — cultural (культурный), beauty (красота) — beautiful (красивый)
-ous	peace (мир) — peaceful (мирный), fame (слава) — famous (знаменитый)
-у	cloud (облако) — cloudy (облачный), sun (солнце) — sunny (солнечный)

4. Suffixes forming adjectives from different parts speech and denoting

а)        quality:

-аrу	element (элемент) — elementary (элементарный)
-огу	illusion (иллюзия) — illusory (обманчивый, иллюзорный)

b)        the ability to do anything:

-able	to change (изменить) — changeable (изменчивый)
— ible	to eat (есть) — eatable (съедобный), reason (разум) — reasonable (разумный)

c)        lack of quality:

-less

useless (бесполезный), windless (безветренный)

The main verb suffixes:

-ate	active (активный) — to activate (активизировать)
-en	short (короткий) — to shorten (укоротить)
-fy, -ify	pure (чистый) — to purify (очищать), simple (простой) — to simplify (упрощать)
-ize	character (характер) — to characterize (характеризовать)

Basic adverb  suffixes:

Adverb forming suffixes of

а) adjectives, sometimes — nouns, ordinal numbers and participles:

-ly	bad (плохой) — badly (плохо), part (часть) — partly (частично)

b) nouns and adverbs and indicating the direction of :

-wards	North (север) — northward(s) (к северу, на север), after (после) — afterwards (впоследствии, позже, потом)
-ward	home (дом, домой) — homeward (к дому, по направлению к дому)

3. The vocabulary and word-building means in Old English

(OE English)

The OE vocabulary was almost purely Germanic (PG); except for a small number of borrowings, it consisted of native words inherited from PG or formed from native roots and affixes.

Native words

Native OE words can be subdivided into a number of etymological layers from different historical periods. The three main layers in the native OE words are:

a) common Indo-European (IE)  words;

b) common Germanic words;

c) specifically OE words.

Words belonging to the common IE layer constitute the oldest part of the OE vocabulary. Among these words we find names of some natural phenomena, plants and animals, agricultural terms, names of parts of the human body, terms of kinship, etc.; this layer includes personal and demonstrative pronouns and most numerals. Verbs belonging to this layer denote the basic activities of man; adjectives indicate the most essential qualities.

The common Germanic layer includes words which are shared by most Germanic languages, but do not occur outside the group. Being specifically Germanic, these words constitute an important distinctive mark of the Germanic languages at the lexical level. This layer is certainly smaller than the layer of common IE words. Semantically these words are connected with nature, with the sea and everyday life.

The third etymological layer of native words can be defined as specifically OE, that is words which do not occur in other Germanic or non-Germanic languages. These words are few, if we include here only the words whose roots have not been found outside English: OE clipian ‘call’, OE brid (NE bird) and several others. However, they are far more numerous if we include in this layer OE compounds and derived words formed from Germanic roots in England, e.g. OE wīfman or wimman (NE woman) consists of two roots which occurred as separate words in other OG languages, but formed a compound only in OE.

Foreign elements in the OE vocabulary

Although borrowed words constituted only a small portion of the OE vocabulary – all in all about six hundred words, — they are of great interest for linguistic and historical study. OE borrowings come from two sources: Celtic and Latin.

Borrowings from Celtic        

There are very few Celtic loan-words in the OE vocabulary, for there must have been little intermixture between the Germanic settlers and the Celtic in Britain. Though in some parts of the island the Celts population was not exterminated during the WG invasion, linguistic evidence of Celtic influence is meager. Abundant borrowing from Celtic is to be found only in place-names. The OE kingdoms Kent, Deira and Bernicia derive their names from the names of Celtic tribes. The name of York, the Downs and perhaps London have been traced to Celtic sources. Various Celtic designations of ‘river’ and ‘water’ were understood by the Germanic invaders as proper names: Ouse, Esk, Exe, Avon; Thames, Stour, Dover also come from Celtic. Many place-names with Celtic elements are hybrids; the Celtic component, combined with a Latin or a Germanic component, makes a compound place-name, e.g.: Celtic plus Latin: Man-chester, Win-chester, Lan-caster; Celtic plus Germanic: York-shire, Corn-wall, Devon-shire, Canter-bury.

Latin influence on the OE vocabulary

Latin words entered the English language at different stages of OE history. Chronologically they can be devided into several layers.

The earliest layer comprises words which the WG tribes brought from the continent when they came to settle in Britain. Contact with the Roman civilization began along time before the Anglo-Saxon invasion. Early OE borrowings from Latin indicate the new things and concepts which the Teutons had learnt from the Romans. They pertain to war, trade, agriculture, building and home life. Among the Latin loan-words adopted in Britain were some place-names made of Latin and Germanic components, e.g. Portsmouth, Greenport, Greenwich. The next period of Latin influence on the OE vocabulary began with the introduction of Christianity in the late 6th c. and lasted to the end of OE. Numerous Latin words which found their way into the English language during these five hundred years clearly fall into two main groups:

1) words pertaining to religion

2) words connected with learning.

The Latin impact on the OE vocabulary was not restricted to borrowing of words. There were also other aspects of influence. The most important of them is the appearance of the so-called “translation-loans” – words and phrases created on the pattern of Latin words as their literal translations. The earliest instances of translation-loans are names of the days of the week found not only in OE but also in other Old Germanic languages. OE Mōnan-dæз (Monday) ‘day of the moon’, L Lunae dies.

Word-building means in Old English

Word Structure

According to their morphological structure OE words fell into three main types:

1) simple words (“root-words”) containing a root-morpheme and no derivational affixes, e.g. land, зōd.

2) derived words consisting of one root-morpheme and one or more affixes, e.g. be-зinnan.

3) compound words, whose stems were made up of more than one root-morpheme, e.g. mann-cynn.

Ways of word-formation

OE employed two ways of word-formation: derivation and word-composition.

Word-derivation

Derived words in OE were built with the help of affixes: prefixes and suffixes; in addition to these principal means of derivation, words were distinguished with the help of sound interchanges and word stress.

Sound interchanges

The earliest source of root-vowel interchanges employed in OE word-building was ablaut or vowel gradation inherited from PG and IE. Ablaut was used in OE as a distinctive feature between verbs and nouns and also between verbs derived from a single root. The gradation series were similar to those employed in the strong verbs: rīdan v – rād n [i:~a:], NE ride, raid. Many vowel interchanges arose due to palatal mutation; the element [i/j] in the derivational suffix caused the mutation of the root-vowel; the same root without the suffix retained the original non-mutated vowel, e.g.:

a) nouns and verbs: fōd – fēdan (NE food – feed)

b) adjectives and verbs: full – fyllan (NE full – fill)

c) nouns and adjectives: long – lenзþu (NE long, length).

Word stress

The role of word accentuation in OE word-building was not great. Like sound interchanges, the shifting of word stress helped to differentiate between some parts of speech being used together with other means. The verb had unaccented prefixes while the corresponding nouns had stressed prefixes, so that the position of stress served as an additional distinctive feature between them.

Prefixation

Genetically, some OE prefixes go back to IE prototypes, e.g. OE un-, a negative prefix. Many more prefixes sprang in PG and OE from prepositions and adverbs, e.g. mis-, be-, ofer-. Prefixes were widely used with verbs but were far less productive with other parts of speech. The most frequent and probably the most productive OE prefixes were: ā-, be-, for-, fore-, зe-, ofer-, un-. The prefix modified the lexical meaning of the word, usually without changing its reference to a part of speech, e.g. spēdiз – unspēdiз. Some prefixes, both verbal and nominal, gave a more special sense to the word and changed its meaning very considerably, e.g.: weorðan – for-weorðan v, forwyrð n (become, perish, destruction). Some prefixes had a very weak of general meaning bordering on grammatical, e.g. зe-, the commonest verb orefix, conveyed the meaning of result or completion and was therefore often used as a marker of the Past Participle – sittan — зe-sett.

Suffixation

Suffixation was by far the most productive means of word derivation in OE. Suffixes not only modified the lexical meaning of the word but could refer it to another part of speech. Suffixes were mostly applied in forming nouns and adjectives, seldom – in forming verbs. Etymologically OE suffixes can be traced to several sources: old stem-suffixes, which had lost their productivity, but could still be distinguished in some words as dead or non-productive suffixes; derivational suffixes proper inherited from PIE and PG; new suffixes which developed from root-morphemes in Late PG and OE in the course of morphological simplification of the word. The old stem-suffixes cannot be regarded as means of derivation in OE. Their application in word derivation can be best shown in reconstructed, pre-written forms of weak verbs.

Noun suffixes are divided into suffixes of “agent nouns” (“nomina agentis”) and those of abstract nouns. Among the suffixes of “agent nouns” there were some dead, unproductive suffixes, e.g.: -a, as in the Masc. a-stem hunta; -end, originally the suffix of the Present Participle, e.g. OE fīend. Later it was replaced by -ere. OE agent nouns in -ere were derived from nouns and verbs: bōcere, fiscere. The nouns in -ere were Masc.; the corresponding suffix of Fem. nouns -estre was less common: spinnestre. Among suffixes of abstract nouns we can trace a productive suffix –nes/-nis: blindnis, beorhtnes. Another productive suffix, -ung/-ing, was used to build abstract nouns from verbs, e.g. earnian – earnung (NE earn, earning). A most important feature of OE suffixation is the growth of new suffixes from root-morphemes. To this group belong OE -dōm, -hād, -lāc and some others, e.g. frēodōm (NE freedom), cīldhād (NE childhood), wedlāc (NE wedlock). Adjectives were usually derived from nouns, rarely from verb stems or other adjectives. The most productive suffixes were -iз, an -isc, e.g. mōdiз ‘proud’(from mōd NE mood); mennisc ‘human’ (from man with the root-vowel [a]).

Word-composition

Word-composition was a highly productive way of developing the vocabulary in OE. As in other OG languages, word-composition in OE was more productive in nominal parts of speech than in verbs.

The pattern “noun plus noun” was probably the most efficient type of all: mann-cynn (NE mankind). Compound nouns with adjective-stems as the first components were less productive, e.g. wīd-sǽ ‘ocean’ (wide sea). Compound adjectives were formed by joining a noun-stem to an adjective: dōm-зeorn (“eager for glory”). The most peculiar pattern of compound adjectives was the so-called “bahuvruhi type” – adjective plus noun stem as the second component of an adjective, e.g. mild-heort ‘merciful’.

                                   4.  Conclusion

In my work I have learnt that English language like any other language has different types of word building.

• The most widespread is affixation.
• The least used is change in stress.
• There is no conversion and change in stress in Russian.
• There is affixation and word building like in Russian.
• There are less ways of affixation in English than in Russian.
• Russian prefix “не”has several variants in English.
• Some prefixes in English have several meanings in Russian.
• Compound words in English have differences from Russian ones.
• Modern ways of word building preserve the old forms.

                                       Vocabulary

Words	Synonyms	Translation
moribund	dying, expiring	умирающий
correlating		корреляция
functioning	running, operational	функционирующий
agglutinative	gluing, agglutinant	агглютинативный
directly	direct, immediately	непосредственно
chewing-gum		жевательная резинка
earthquake	quake, temblor, seism	землятрясение
beginning	outbreak, origin, rise	начало
commonly	commonly, ordinarily	обычно
subdivided	disaggregete	подразделяется
agricultural	farm, rural	сельскохозяйственный
semantically		семантически
loan-words		заимствованные слова
chronologically		хронологически
settle	lodge, settle down	поселиться
civilization	culture	цивилизация
invasion	inroad, irruption	вторжение
interchanges	exchange	обмениваться
peculiar	sui generis, idiomatic	своеобразный

                                        References

1. http://www.ranez.ru
2. http://www.translationjournal.net/journal/
3. rushkolnik.ru

The vocabulary of any language is constantlyExpanding at the expense of new lexical units. Word formation is the main way to replenish it. This process has its own characteristics and types. The basic ways of word formation are individual for each specific language. It depends on the structure, characteristics and compatibility of parts of speech.

The concept of

By word formation is understood the emergence of newlexical units by means of suffixation, prefixation, and also other methods. A person who knows the ways of word formation in languages ​​can quickly replenish his lexical stock, and also read and understand phrases without having to use a dictionary.

There are several classifications of methodsword formation. Some linguists use the concept of synchrony and diachrony to typologize, but the most common variant is the distribution of this process to morphemic and non-morphogenic subspecies. Classification also depends on the language where word formation takes place. The table below illustrates the features of this process for the Russian language.

Morphemic	Nemorfemny
Affixation Suffixing Prefixing Prefix-suffix and its combinations Abbreviation Addition	Morphological-syntactic Lexico-syntactic Lexico-Semantic

Each subspecies has its own characteristics and characteristics.

Word formation with the help of morphemes

Morphemic way is characterized by the fact that newwords in the language appear due to the use of already existing lexical units and specific affixes. This type has its own basic ways of word formation:

• The suffix.
• Prefix.
• Different combinations of prefix, suffix and postfix types.
• Addition.
• Abbreviation.

Each variant has distinctive characteristics, features and certain rules of education.

Suffix type

The basic way of word formation for Russianlanguage is the process of suffixation. In this case, new lexical units appear by adding to the basis of the word suffix of the word-formative type. For example, learn, teacher. Suffixation covers almost all parts of speech, but the most common word formation is nouns, adverbs and adjectives.

This process is accompanied by a variety of morphemic changes, which are divided into several subspecies:

• Alternation of morphemes: friend — to be friends (Ms).
• Truncation of the producing morpheme: high — height.
• The imposition of several morphemes: pink — pinkish.
• Change of stress: green — greens.

This is not a complete list of changes that word formation can lead to. The suffixes also affect other morphemic characteristics. The level of change depends on the specific language.

Prefix Type

If a new word is formed by addingto the basis of the corresponding prefix, then we are talking about the process of prefixation. Unlike the suffix, the prefix usually forms new lexical units within one part of the speech. For the Russian language, the word-formation of verbs is traditional with the help of this method. For example: cook — cook — prepare; write — sign — unsubscribe, etc.

Despite the sufficient prevalence of this type, most often prefixation is used in parallel with other types of word formation. Quite often this is suffixation, postfixation, etc.

The combination of suffixing, prefixing and postfixation

Modern word formation is characterized bypresence of words with simultaneous use of suffixation, prefixation and other similar options, as well as a variety of their combination. In Russian, the following methods are distinguished:

• Prefix-suffix. A new word is formed simultaneously with the help of a prefix and a suffix. For example, the road is plantain; border — foreign.
• Postfixical. The emergence of a new word by adding postfix: -sa, -or-, -tow, -a, etc. For example, who is — anyone — anyone.
• Prefix-postfix. In this case, a new word is formed using the prefix and the postfix at the same time. Most often, such a variant is present in the same part of the speech. Accordingly, in this way, the word formation of adjectives, nouns, verbs, etc. is possible. For example, to call — to call; sleep — get enough sleep, etc.
• Suffix-postfix. The word appears simultaneously with the help of the suffix and postfix. For example, fuss — fuss; the crowd is crowded. Word formation of verbs is the only sphere in the Russian language where this method is used.
• Prefix-suffix-postfix. This option is characterized by the formation of a new word with the help of simultaneous suffixation, prefixation and postfixation. For example, whispering — whispering; talk — talk.

These types of word formation are very active not only in Russian, but also in many other languages.

Addition

Quite common for the Russian languageis the presence of addition as a way of word formation. In this case, a new lexical unit appears as a result of combining two or more separate words into one whole. Depending on which words are combined and in which way, the following basic ways of word formation are distinguished by addition:

• The basis. New lexical units appear after the addition of two or more words with the application of the interfix. The main component is the last component of the combination. For example, fertilize, everyday, etc.
• Addition of two or more words, which is characterized by the presence of meaningful equality. For example, a sofa bed, a prime minister, etc.

Addition is actively used in Russian and other languages ​​and is most often responsible for the word formation of nouns and verbs.

Abbreviation

The method of formation, which isthe construction of new tokens by splicing parts of other words is called an abbreviation. Depending on the method of combination and features of the parts of the word used, the following abbreviations are distinguished:

• Initsialnaya. In this case, new words appear by using separate sounds or letters. Accordingly, the initial abbreviation can be sound (for example, MKhAT, high school) or alphabetic (for example, UFO, CIS, etc.).
• Syllable. This type involves the use of separate parts of different words (for example, department store, trade union committee, etc.).
• Mixed. This type is a combination of the initial part of one lexical unit and the other unit completely (for example, salary, trade union, etc.).

The abbreviation is especially relevant in modern lexicology, as there is a worldwide trend towards ensuring maximum accuracy and shortness of the language.

Nemorfemnye word formation

As for the construction of new lexical units without the use of morphemes, the following basic ways of word formation are distinguished:

• Lexico-syntactic.
• Morphological-syntactic.
• Lexico-semantic.

In such cases new words appear due to the transition of one part of speech to another, the splicing or dismemberment of the lexical meaning of the word into separate components.

The lexico-syntactic method

This option is also called fusion,Since new words in this case are formed by merging a specific word combination. This leads to the fact that not only the lexical meaning of the word changes, but also its syntactic role. For example, forever green — evergreen: crazy — crazy, etc.

Most often a dependent lexical unitspeaks an adverb, and the fusion itself is often the word-formation of adjectives or participles. From synonyms, such lexical units differ in that they have an accent and a strict order of arrangement of all their parts.

Morphological-syntactic method

This option is characterized by the formation of new words by moving one part of the speech to another. There are the following subspecies of this method:

• Substantivization. The transition of one part of speech into a noun. For example, a leading specialist and host show, a wounded fighter and a silent wounded, etc.
• Adjectivation. The transition of parts of speech into an adjective. For example, a novice singer, a painted table, etc.
• Adverbialization. The transition of a noun into an adverb. For example, in the winter morning — come in the morning.

There are also other variants of the morphological-syntactic method. Each language has its own characteristics, variants of compatibility and distinctive features.

Lexical and semantic method

In this case, the new lexical unitsappear after a particular word splits its base value and receives additional ones. For example, the satellite — as a companion and as a heavenly body; titanium — a mythical giant and metal and many others. Thus, the composition of the vocabulary of the language varies due to the variation of the semantics of the word.

For word-formation in a similar way, certain conditions and the similarity of two phenomena or objects are necessary. This often requires a fairly large amount of time.

Word formation in English

Construction of new words in Englishis carried out in different ways. Traditionally, linguists distinguish composing and word-production as word formation in English. The table below illustrates this:

Synthesis	Derivation
Noun + noun (toothpaste) Adjective + noun (high way) Preposition + noun (underworld) Noun + verb (to babysit) Adverb + noun (to downgrade)	Conversion Change stress Alternating sounds Affixation

As for the composition, this methodis also characteristic of the Russian language. Similarly, in English almost any part of speech is formed. For example, to blackmail, girlfriend, dark-blue, somebody, etc. Word-production is characterized by the formation of some lexical units from others. This can be done by converting one part of the speech into another (answer-to answer), changing the place of stress (conflict-to conflict), alternating sounds (advice-to advise) or affixing using suffixes and prefixes. Combination and transition is the foundation that word formation in English has. This table demonstrates.

The main way to expand the dictionary is toword formation, which has its own types, as well as features, depending on the part of speech. The process of formation of new lexical units never stops and has its own distinctive features in different languages.

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The Russian language is an infinite, dynamic phenomenon. He instantly reacts to what is happening around. New words constantly form in the language, the old concepts go away, and then they can return to the language, having a new meaning. This happened, for example, with the word cab. It left the language together with the disappearance of thisprofession. However, in perestroika times, when the private taxi began to develop, the word returned to spoken language. Today in many cities they call illegal taxi drivers.

How are words formed in Russian? Ways of word formation are different. In Russian there are four main ways, each of which has its own gradations and features.

1. The most productive not only in Russian, but also in all Slavic languages ​​is the morphological way. It means creating new words with the help of morphemes. Within it are several types of word formation with the help of morphemes. Morphoma is also called the significant minimal unit of language that is part of a word that has its own meaning. From this point of view, the morphological way of word formation is divided into:

• Binding when the affix precedes the root. (Always — forever, pretty — pretty, go — leave, light — dawn).
• The suffix. Affix stands after the root, but joins its base. (Work — working, writing — writing, weaver — weaving, good — pretty).
• The prefix-suffixal ways of word-formation, as the name suggests, form a new word by simultaneously attaching the prefix and postfix to the basis. (Window — window sill, write — sign, fall — autumnal). The most common are verbs (walk), nounssnow — snowdrop).
• The non-suffix way of word-formation is that the word «dumps» the ending and the suffix. Most often this is how verbal nouns are formed. (Heat — heat, scold — abuse). But other options are also possible (Broad — wide, black — mobile).
• Addition. Words can be formed by adding whole words (a sofa bed, a pay phone), the foundations of the word (salary, gym), with the help of connecting vowels (steelmaker, tracker), from the initial letters (MSU, STSI, Theater of Youth, Moscow Art Theater).

There are other ways of word formation.

2. Lexico-semantic. In this case, one known word is split into homonyms (different in meaning, but similar in pronunciation or spelling of a word). This method is a vivid confirmation of the dynamic nature of language as a phenomenon. The semantics of the word changes, because over time, different meanings of multi-valued words are removed or their connection is lost. (Boxer — sportsman and dog, ether — gas and the term of telecasting, braid — tool, river spit, female hairdo, sponge — class of invertebrates, foam product).

3. Morphological-syntactic, in which the word «changes» part of the speech. (ATanna (adj.) room — bathroom (n.), ice cream, cake).

4. Lexical-syntactic, which allows to form a new word by merging two «old» (frost-resistant, now, momentary).

All listed ways of word formationare characteristic for the Russian and Slavic languages, they serve as a tool for replenishing the vocabulary. However, not only the newly formed words supplement the lexicon.

It is worth mentioning such a phenomenon as borrowingfrom other languages. This phenomenon, on the one hand, has nothing to do with word formation. On the other hand, new words are often derived from words that have been borrowed with the help of these word formation methods (especially in colloquial speech). So there were computer (from the computer), a flash card (from a flash card).

Word formation, like all other layers of the language, is clearly normalized. Norms are fixed in dictionaries, textbooks, codes of rules.

The concept of language ideology is most obviously relevant in the context of language policies and language planning. In my paper, I would like to consider its applicability to the analysis of historical/comparative linguistics, reflecting on how the Fenno-Ugric language family has been conceptualized in the history of the Fenno-Ugric studies – with special focus on the Finn-element. Throughout much of the history of the field, Finns and the Finnish language tended to feature as one of the central or model representatives of the group. This is reflected by the onomastic tradition: of all competing pre-modern terms like “Scythian” or “Chude”, it was eventually “Finnic” that prevailed, later to be complemented by the “Ugric” in what became the international standard term. The existence of related terms like “Baltic Finns”, the obsolete “Volga/Permian Finns” or the Finnish suomensukuinen, indicates a continuity of this tradition, and numerous explicit statements from various times suggest there may be more to it than just superficial glotto- and ethnonymy. (To name just a few: in 1700, Daniel Juslenius called Finnish the “parent language” of “Estonian, Lappish and Bjarmian”; in 1853, Eduard Ahrens called Estonian a “daughter of Finnish”; in 1876, Sakari Topelius stated proudly that “the Finnish language […] stands in the forefront of its own great department of Finnic languages”; in 1909, Mathias Johann Eisen wrote about the languages nowadays known as Baltic Finnic: “Finnish is the largest in the group, therefore the entire family is called Finnic or Common Finnic [Ühis-Soome]. Science thus does not put Estonian, but Finnish on the forefront, because it is used by a larger group of people”.) The trend can thus be traced back at least to the early18th century. However, much of its spread corresponds with the rise of Finnish nationalism (starting in the early 19th century) and with the parallel development of Fenno-Ugric studies in Finland (following closely). The Fennoman movement was arguably the most successful among the three national movements aimed to mobilize Fenno-Ugric speaking communities. It was also the one most determined to integrate the notion of “language kinship” into its own national narrative, creating a strong bond between Fenno-Ugric studies and the Finnish cause (Hungarian nationalism was rather reluctant to embrace Fenno-Ugricity, while in Estonia the Fenno-Ugric idea owed much of its initial impetus to Finnish inspiration). As a result, the Fennocentricism of the terminology goes along with and seems to reinforce, a Fennocentric bias of perception on the part of many scholars and national activists. My plan is to discuss the usages and scopes of the term “Finn(ic)” and their possible links with the development of language ideologies and national self-images in Finland and other “Fenno-Ugric countries”.

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Описание презентации по отдельным слайдам:

• 

  1 слайд

  Word Formation
  Why study word-formation processes?

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  Questions
  1)What do you know about segmentation of words into morphemes? What is the principle of the analysis into immediate constituents suggested by L. Bloomfield?
  2)What are the principles of classification of suffixes?

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  3 слайд

  QUESTIONS
  3) What is the difference between frequency and productivity of affixes?)
  4) What is the most productive way of word formation in English, Kazakh, Russian? Are they different?

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  The structure of English words and its specific features
  Word formation: affixation, conversion, composition, abbreviation and other types of word- formation.
  Major types of word building in English: affixation, conversion, composition, abbreviation. Various types of abbreviated words. Other types of word-building: sound imitation, reduplication, back-formation.

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  5 слайд

  Word-formation processes
  Constituent morphemes.
  Various devices which are used in English to build up new words from existing ones.

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  Affixation

  Adding affixes to an existing word is a common way of creating new words. The agentive suffix -er (nouns upper and downer, which were invented in connection with drugs but have extended their meaning to anything that lifts or dampens one’s spirits). More commonly, -er is suffixed to verbs (V): runner, campaigner, and designer.

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  COMPUTE + …
  Computerite, and computernik, along with compiterize, computerizable, computerization, are all derived by affixation from computer and its derivatives.
  Computer is derived by affixing the agentive suffix -er to the verb compute.

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  Prefixes
  Prefixes like un-, pre-, and dis- serve to change the meaning of words, though not usually their part of speech.
  un- added to an adjective (opposite meaning), unpopular, unsuccessful, untrue, and unfavorable.
  dis- added to a verb derives a verb with the opposite meaning: disobey, disappear, dishonor, and displace.

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  Prefixes
  Pre- serves as a prefix to several classes of words. It can be prefixed to verbs, as in preaffirm, preplan, prewash. It can also be prefixed to adjectives (precollegeate, precultural, presurgical) and to nouns (preantiquity, preaffirmation, preplacement).

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  suffixes
  Suffixes in English usually operate differently from prefixes. They often change the part of speech of a word. (-ment, displacement, arrangement, agreement).
  -ation : resignation, implementation, observation, and reformation.
  Suffixes are widely exploited in the other languages of the world as well as in English. The Indonesian suffix -kan changes a noun to a verb(‘to cause to become X): budakkan ‘to enslave’ from budak ‘slave’+ -kan, or rajakan ‘to crown’
  penjarakan ‘imprison’ from penjara ‘prison’ + -kan).

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  CONVERSION

  Conversion is also called affixless derivation or zero-suffixation. The term conversion — Henry Sweet New English Grammar in 1891. Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky treats conversion as a morphological way of forming words when one part of speech is formed from another part of speech by changing its paradigm: to dial from the noun dial; to jump – a jump

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  12 слайд

  Morphological-syntactical word-building
  A. Marchand. The Categories and Types of Present-day. (not only the change of the paradigm, but also the change of the syntactic function) e.g. I need some good paper for my room. (an object in the sentence). I paper my room every year. (paper is the predicate in the sentence).

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  COMPOSITION.
  COMPOUND WORDS

  Composition is the way of word building when a word is formed by joining two or more stems to form one word. The structural unity of a compound word depends upon:
  a) the unity of stress
  b) solid or hyphenated spelling,
  c) semantic unity,
  d) unity of morphological and syntactical functioning

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  Stress
  As a rule, English compounds have one uniting stress (usually on the first compo­nent), e.g. “hard-cover, ‘best-seller.
  a double stress ‘blood-,vessel. (main, secondary)
  The main stress can be on the second component, e.g., ,snow-‘white, ,sky-‘blue.
  . a special type of compound words — block compounds:’air piracy, ‘cargo module, ‘coin change, ‘penguin suit (one uniting stress but are spelt with a break)

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  According to the way components are joined together compounds are subdivided into:

  a) neutral, which are formed by joining together two stems, e.g. ball-point, to windowshop (without any joining morpheme);
  b) morphological, e.g. astro­ space. handicraft, sportsman: (a linking element)
  c) syntactical, e.g. here-and-now, free-for-all, do-or-­die (form-word stems).

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  Types
  A) subordinative compounds where one of the components is the semantic centre and the structural centre and the second component is subordinate; these subordinative relations can be different:
  honey-sweet, eggshell-thin, goldfish (comparison); dog-cheap (emphatic relations) love-sick (cause relation); raincoat,bathrobe, textbook (functional relations ); she-dog, he-goat, Tom-cat (sex relations).
  B) Coordinative compounds: where both components are semantically independent.
  a) e.g. secretary-stenographer,woman-doctor (2 functions) Oxbridge, Anglo-Saxon (additive).

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  Shortening of words
  Minor types of word-formation

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  Shortening of words is substitution of a part for a whole.
  Shortening of various sorts is a popular means of increasing the word stock of a language. Shortening of a word is also called clipping.
  Result: a new lexical unit where either the lexical meaning (fancy and fantasy, fence and defence) or the style (lab, exam) is different from the full form of the word.

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  The general accepted classification of clipped words is based on the position of the clipped part,
  it may be initial clipping (apheresis from Gr. aphaeresis “taking away”): story (history), copter (helicopter), chute (parachute)
  Final clipping – cutting off (apocope Gr. “apokopto “cut off): disco, intro, prof.
  A combination: cutting off the beginning and final parts of a word retaining the middle part of it: flu (influenza), van (avanguard), tec (detective).

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  Sometimes the middle of the word is clipped, e.g. mart (market),
  maths (mathematics); ma’am (madam), fancy (fantasy). Such abbreviations are called syncope (“syncope” Gr. a cutting up).
  Sometimes shortening influences the spelling of the word, e.g. “c” can be substituted by “k” before “e” to preserve pronunciation, e.g. mike (microphone), coke (coca-cola)

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  Abbreviation
  Besides regular shortenings there are graphical abbreviations or they may be called acronyms or alphabetism.
  Alphabetism – a word formed from the initial letters of successive words and pronounced as sequences of letters.
  Acronyms – alphabetisms pronounced as words.
  Abbreviations are formed by shortening and compounding; UNESCO, NATO. Abbreviation is achieved by omission of letters from one or more parts of the whole: bldg (building), abbr (abbreviation), B.A. Bachelor of Arts, ll (lines), pp ( shows plural form),.

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  A specific type of abbr. a.m. (Lat. Aute meridieum – in the morning; cf. (Lat. conferre) – compare; e.g. (Lat example gratia; ib (id) (Lat. Ibidem) – in the same place; i.e. ( Lat. Id est) – that is, loc.cit (Lat. Locus citato) – in the passage cited; ob ( Lat. Obit) – he (she) died, q.v. (Lat. Quod vide) – which see; p.m ( Lat. Post meridium); viz (Lat. Vide licet) – namely.

  Types of abbreviations

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  Types of abbreviations

  Specifically English word pattern – with initial abbreviations in which the first element is a letter and the second is a complete word. A- bomb, H-test (hydrogen bomb), T-shirt. All kinds of shortening are very productive in Modern English.

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  There are also acronyms in which the initials of a phrase are joined together and pronounced as a word: radar ( from radio detecting and ranging); yuppy (young urban professional t-y,) laser stands for light amplification by stimulated omission radiation.
  Besides shortening there are other ways of making new words such as: blending, sound interchange,(stress interchange), sound imitation (onomatopoeia or echoism), back-formation, reduplication.

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  Blending
  Combination of two clipped words is another way of word-bulding.
  Blending – creating new words by combining parts of existing words. Among the better-known blends are smog(smoke + fog), modem (modulator and demodulator), glasphalt(glass + asphalt), motel (motor and hotel).

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  Sound interchange – words or word forms are differentiated due to an alternation in the phonemic composition of the root: foot – feet, strong – strength.

  Sound imitation – reproduction of a sound associated with it: bubble, flush, splash, gurgle, cock-a-doodle-doo.

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  27 слайд

  Back-formation
  Back-formation – derivation of new words by subtracting a real or supposed affix from existing words through misinterpretation of their structure (Arnold): computer – compute (a new verb meaning to use a computer), typewrite (typewriter), baby-sit – babysitter, beg – (beggar).

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  28 слайд

  Reduplication in the morphological process by which a morpheme is repeated, thereby creating a word with a different meaning or a different word class. There are two types of reduplication: partial reduplication, which reduplicates only part of the morpheme, and full reduplication, in which the entire morpheme is reduplicated ping-pong, bye-bye, walkie-talkie, riff-raff (низкие слои общества).

  Reduplication

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