Word formation from verb to noun or adjective

ability
способность,
inability
неспособность;
disability
нетрудоспособность able
способный, умелый
unable
неспособный
disabled
искалеченный; инвалид enable
дать возможность
disable
делать неспособным, калечить ably
умело, искусно absurdity
абсурдность absurd
абсурдный acceptability
приемлемость acceptable
приемлемый
unacceptable
неприемлемый accept
принимать, соглашаться access
доступ
accessibility
доступность accessible
доступный accessibly
доступно accident
случай, случайность accidental
случайный accidentally
нечаянно, случайно action
действие
actor
актер
actress
актриса
activity
активность
activities
деятельность
acting
представление active
активный
acting
действующий, работающей act
действовать actively
активно achievement
достижение achieve
достигать addiction
привычка, приверженность, увлеченность
addict
увлеченный человек, имеющий стойкую привычку addictive
способный вызывать привычку addict
увлекаться, предаваться admiration
восхищение admirable
восхитительный admire
восхищаться admirably
восхитительно advice
совет advisable
рекомендуемый advise
советовать affectation
притворство, искусственность
affection
привязанность, любовь affected
притворный
affectionate
любящий
affective
эмоциональный affect
воздействовать, влиять; притворяться agreement
соглашение, согласие
disagreement
разногласие, несогласие agreeable
соответствующий, приятный agree
соглашаться
disagree
не соглашаться agreeably
соответственно aggression
агрессия
aggressor
агрессору зачинщик aggressive
агрессивный aggress
нападать aggressively
агрессивно aim
цель aimless
бесцельный aim
целиться, намереваться aimlessly
бесцельно affordable
то, что может быть позволено
unaffordable
то, что невозможно себе позволить afford
позволять себе amusement
развлечение amused
приятно изумленный
amusing
забавный amuse
развлекать, забавлять amusedly
изумленно appearance
внешность; появление
disappearance
исчезновение appear
появляться
disappear
исчезать appointment
назначение; деловая встреча
disappointment
разочарование, досада appointed
назначенный
disappointed
огорченный
disappointing
разочаровывающий appoint
назначать
disappoint
разочаровывать approval
одобрение approved
одобренный
approving
одобрительный approve
одобрять approvingly
одобрительно arrangement
соглашение; расположение arranged
приведенный в порядок arrange
приводить в порядок, организовывать argument
аргумент, довод
argumentation
аргументация arguable
доказуемый (в споре)
argumentative
спорный, конфликтный argue
утверждать, спорить, ссориться argumentatively
доказательно appropriation
присвоение; ассигнование appropriate
подходящий, соответствующий
inappropriate
несоответствущий, неуместный appropriate
присваивать, предназначать appropriately
соответственно, подходяще arrival
прибытие arrive
прибывать, приезжать attraction
притяжение, привлекательность attracted
привлеченный
attractive
привлекательный attract
привлекать attractively
привлекательно avoidance
избежание, отмена avoidable
то, чего можно избежать
unavoidable
неизбежный avoid
избегать unavoidably
неизбежно beauty
красота; красавица beautiful
красивый beautify
украшать beautifully
красиво bearing
роды bearable
сносный, допустимый
unbearable
невыносимый bear
носить; терпеть unbearably
невыносимо belief
вера believable
вероятный, правдоподобный
unbelievable
невероятный believe
верить benefit
выгода beneficial
выгодный benefit
получать выгоду bore
зануда
boredom
скука bored
испытывающий скуку
boring
скучный, надоедливый bore
надоедать boringly
скучно breath
дыхание, дуновение
breathing
дыхание
breather
короткая передышка breathing
дышащий
breathless
бездыханный breathe
дышать breathlessly
затаив дыхание business
дело
businessman
деловой мужчина
businesswoman
деловая женщина busy
занятой
businesslike
деловой, практичный busy
занимать делом busily
деловито, по-деловому саrе
забота, уход careful
заботливый
careless
небрежный саrе
заботиться, любить carefully
заботливо
carelessly
небрежно celebration
празднование
celebrity
знаменитость celebrated
знаменитый, прославленный celebrate
праздновать, прославлять certainty
определенность
uncertainty
неопределенность, неуверенность certain
определенный
uncertain
неопределенный certainly
определенно, уверенно change
изменение; мелочь, сдача changeable
изменчивый
changed
изменившийся
changeless
неизменный
unchanged
не изменившийся change
менять; обменивать(ся) changelessly
неизменно character
характер characteristic
характерный, типичный characterise
характеризовать choice
выбор choosy
разборчивый choose
выбирать child
ребенок
children
дети childish
детский; ребяческий clearance
очистка; устранение препятствий clear
четкий, ясный clear
очищать, расчищать clearly
четко, ясно cloud
облако cloudy
облачный
cloudless
безоблачный collection
собрание; коллекция
collector
сборщик collective
коллективный, совокупный collect
собирать; коллекционировать colony
колония colonial
колониальный colonise / colonize
колонизировать colour
цвет colourful
цветной
colourless
бесцветный
multi-coloured
разноцветный colour
раскрашивать comfort
комфорт; утешение
discomfort
беспокойство; неудобство comfortable
удобный, комфортабельный
uncomfortable
неудобный comfort
утешать, успокаивать comfortably
удобно
uncomfortably
неудобно community
община, общество communal
общественный, коллективный communication
сообщение
communicator
коммуникатор, переговорщик communicative
использующийся в общении; коммуникативный communicate
сообщать; общаться comparison
сравнение compared
сравниваемый
comparative
сравнительный compare
сравнивать comparatively
сравнительно, относительно competition
соревнование; конкуренция
competitor
конкурент, соперник competitive
соревновательный compete
соревноваться, конкурировать competitively
в форме соревнования, конкуренции completion
завершение, окончание completed
законченный
complete
полный, завершенный
incomplete
неполный, назавершенный complete
заканчивать, завершать completely
полностью congratulation
поздравление congratulate
поздравлять connection
соединение, объединение connected
связанный, соединенный connect
соединять
disconnect
разъединять consideration
внимание; рассмотрение, обсуждение considerable
значительный
considerate
внимательный, деликатный, тактичный
inconsiderate
неосмотрительный; невнимательный к другим consider
считать, полагать; рассматривать considerably
значительно conscience
совесть conscientious
совестливый, добросовестный
conscientiousless
бессовестный conscientiously
добросовестно consciousness
сознание conscious
осознающий
unconscious
без сознания consciously
сознательно, осознанно consultation
консультация
consultant
консультант consulting
консультирующий consult
консультировать container
вместилище, контейнер containing
содержащий contain
содержать, вмещать continuity
непрерывность continuous
продолжающийся, длящийся continue
продолжать continuously
непрерывно control
управление, руководство controllable
поддающийся управлению
uncontrollable
неподдающийся управлению
controlled
управляемый
uncontrolled
неуправляемый control
управлять, регулировать uncontrollably
бесконтрольно conviction
убеждение convincing
убедительный
convinced
убежденный convince
убеждать convincingly
убедительно cook
повар
cooker
плита, духовка over-cooked
переваренный
under-cooked
недоваренный cook
готовить еду correction
исправление
corrector
корректор correct
правильный
incorrect
неправильный correct
исправлять correctly
правильно counter
прилавок
discount
скидка
accountant
бухгалтер countable
исчисляемый
uncountable
неисчисляемый count
считать uncountably
немеряно, без счета courage
храбрость courageous
храбрый
encouraged
воодушевленный
encouraging
подбадривающий
discouraged
обескураженный encourage
приободрять, поддерживать
discourage
отговаривать, обескураживать courageously
смело, храбро creation
создание
creativity
творчество
creator
творец, создатель
creature
творение; живое существо creative
творческий create
создавать, творить creatively
творчески credit
вера, доверие credible
вероятный, заслуживающий доверия
incredible
невероятный credibly
вероятно
incredibly
невероятно critic
критик
criticism
критика critical
критический; переломный; рискованный criticise
критиковать critically
критично, критически cultivation
культивация, обработка cultivated
культивированный, обработанный cultivate
обрабатывать culture
культура cultured
культурный, воспитанный
cultural
культурный (как часть культуры) culturally
культурно cure
лекарство; лечение curable
излечимый
incurable
неизлечимый cure
вылечивать, исцелять incurably
неизлечимо danger
опасность dangerous
опасный endanger
угрожать dangerously
опасно day
день daily
ежедневный daily
ежедневно deception
обман, заблуждение deceptive
обманчивый
deceitful
обманчивый, лживый deceive
обманывать deceitfully
обманчиво, предательски decision
решение decided
определенный, явный
undecided
нерешительный, неясный
decisive
решительный, убежденный, убедительный decide
решать, принимать решение decisively
решительно, определенно definition
определение definite
четкий, определенный
indefinite
неопределенный define
определять, давать определение definitely
определенно, ясно
indefinitely
нечетко, неопределенно delight
восторг, наслаждение delightful
восхитительный
delighted
польщенный delight
восхищаться delightfully
с восторгом delivery
доставка, поставка delivered
доставленный deliver
доставлять dependence
зависимость
independence
независимость dependent
зависимый
independent
независимый depend
зависеть independently
независимо depression
депрессия, подавленность depressive
депрессивный, вызывающий депрессию
depressed
подавленный depress
подавлять description
описание descriptive
описательный, наглядный describe
описывать design
проект, дизайн
designer
дизайнер, проектировщик design
проектировать desire
желание, стремление desirable
желательный, желаемый
undesirable
нежелательный desire
желать, стремиться desirably
желательно destruction
разрушение destroyed
разрушенный destroy
разрушать, уничтожать determination
решительность; определение determined
решительный determine
решать, определять development
развитие
developer
разработчик developed
развитой
developing
развивающийся
undeveloped
неразвитый develop
развивать(ся) dying
умирающий die
умирать difference
разница, различие
indifference
безразличие different
другой, отличающийся
indifferent
безразличный differ
отличаться differently
по-другому
indifferently
с безразличием disturbance
тревога, беспокойство; нарушение тишины, порядка disturbed
обеспокоенный
disturbing
беспокоящий disturb
беспокоить, мешать doubt
сомнение doubtful
сомнительный
doubtless
несомненный
undoubted
бесспорный doubt
сомневаться doubfully
с сомнением
doubtlessly
не сомневаясь
undoubtedly
без сомнения ease
легкость, свобода
disease
болезнь easy
легкий
uneasy
неловкий, тревожный ease
облегчать, ослаблять easily
легко
uneasily
неловко economy
хозяйство economic
экономический
economical
экономный economise
экономить economically
экономически; экономно educator
воспитатель, педагог
education
образование educated
образованный
uneducated
необразованный
educative
образовательный educate
воспитывать, давать образование effect
следствие, результат
effectiveness
эффективность effective
эффективный, действующий effect
производить, выполнять effectively
эффективно, действенно electricity
электричество
electrician
электрик electric
электрический electrify
электрифицировать empire
империя
empiror
император empire
имперский
empiric / empirical
исходящий из опыта, эмпирический employment
служба, работа
unemployment
безработица
employer
наниматель, работодатель
employee
работающий по найму employed
нанятый, занятый
unemployed
безработный employ
нанимать end
конец, окончание endless
бесконечный
unending
нескончаемый end
конец, окончание endlessly
бесконечно environment
окружающая среда environmental
природный entertainment
развлечение entertaining
развлекательный entertain
развлекать enthusiasm
энтузиазм, восторг
enthusiast
энтузиаст, восторженный человек enthusiastic
восторженный enthusiastically
с восторгом equipment
оборудование equipped
снаряженный, оборудованный equip
снаряжать essence
сущность essential
главный, основной essentially
главным образом examination / exam
экзамен; медосмотр examined
проэкзаменованный; осмотренный врачом examine
экзаменовать; осматривать excitement
возбуждение, волнение exciting
возбуждающий
excitable
возбудимый
excited
возбужденный, взволнованный excite
возбуждать, волновать excitedly
взволнованно, возбужденно expectation
ожидание, предчувствие expected
ожидаемый
unexpected
неожиданный expect
ожидать, предчувствовать expence(s)
расход(ы), затраты expensive
дорогой
inexpensive
недорогой expend
тратить, расходовать expensively
дорого experience
опыт, опытность
inexperience
неопытность
experiment
эксперимент experienced
опытный
inexperienced
неопытный
experimental
эспериментальный experience
испытывать explosion
взрыв
explosive
взрывчатое вещество explosive
взрывчатый explode
взрываться expression
выражение expressive
выразительный express
выражать expressively
выразительно extent
пространство, степень extended
длительный,обширный
extensive
обширный extend
простираться, тянуться extensively
обширно, протяженно extreme
крайняя степень, крайность extreme
крайний, чрезвычайный extremely
крайне fascination
очарование, обаяние fascinating
чарующий
fascinated
очарованный fascinate
очаровывать fairness
справедливость; порядочность fair
порядочный, справедливый
unfair
несправедливый fairly
справедливо, честно; довольно-таки finance
финансы financial
финансовый finance
финансировать financially
финансово firmness
твердость firm
твердый affirm
утверждать firmly
твердо fitness
физическая форма, физическое состояние fit
находящийся в хорошей форме; подходящий
unfit
неподходящий fit
подгонять, подстраивать following
следующий follow
следовать fool
глупыш, дурак foolish
глупый fool
обманывать foolishly
глупо forgettable
забываемый
unforgettable
незабываемый
forgetful
забывчивый
forgotten
забытый forget
забывать forgiveness
прощение forgiving
прощающий
forgivable
простительный
unforgivable
непростительный forgive
прощать forgivingly
с прощением fortune
судьба, счастье; богатство, состояние fortunate
счастливый
unfortunate
несчастный fortunately
к счастью
unfortunately
к сожалению freedom
свобода free
свободный; бесплатный freely
свободно frequency
частота frequent
частый frequent
часто посещать frequently
часто friend
друг
friendship
дружба
friendliness
дружелюбие friendly
дружеский, дружелюбный
unfriendly
недружеский in a friendly way / manner
дружелюбно fright
страх, испуг frightful
страшный
frightened
испуганный
frightening
пугающий frighten
пугать, устрашать frightfully
страшно; испуганно generosity
щедрость generous
щедрый generously
щедро gentleman
джентльмен gentle
мягкий, нежный gently
мягко, нежно ghost
привидение, призрак ghostly
похожий на привидение grass
трава grassy
травяной habit
привычка, обычай
habitant
обитатель
habitat
естественная среда
habitation
жилище, обиталище habitual
привычный habituate
приучать habitually
обычно hand
рука; рабочий
handful
горсть handy
удобный (для использования)
handmade
изготовленный вручную hand
вручать happiness
счастье
unhappiness
несчастье happy
счастливый
unhappy
несчастный happily
счастливо
unhappily
несчастливо harm
вред harmful
вредный
harmless
безвредный harm
повредить, навредить harmfully
вредно health
здоровье healthy
здоровый
unhealthy
нездоровый home
дом, жилище homeless
бездомный honour
честь honourable
почетный honour
почитать, чтить honourably
почетно hope
надежда
hopefulness
оптимизм, надежда hopeful
надеющийся
hopeless
безнадежный hope
надеяться hopefully
с надеждой humanity
человечество human
человеческий
humane
гуманный
inhuman
бесчеловечный
humanitarian
гуманитарный humour
юмор humorous
юмористический humorously
с юмором hurry
спешка hurrying
торопливый, спешащий
hurried
торопливый hurry
торопиться hurriedly
торопливо ice
лед icy
ледяной importance
важность important
важный
unimportant
незначительный importantly
важно impression
впечатление impressed
впечатленный
impressive
впечатляющий
unimpressed
безучастный impress
производить впечатление impressively
впечатляюще improvement
улучшение improved
улучшенный improve
улучшать impulse
толчок, побуждение impulsive
импульсивный impulsively
импульсивно incident
несчастный случай; конфликт, инцидент incidental
случайный incidentally
случайно increase
рост, увеличение increasing
растущий increase
увеличивать(ся) increasingly
с ростом industry
промышленность industrial
промышленный
industrious
трудолюбивый. усердный industrialise
индустриализовать industrially
в промышленном отношении information
сообщение, информация
informant
осведомитель
formality
формальность informed
осведомленный
well-informed
знающий, хорошо информированный
misinformed
неверно информированный
formal
формальный, официальный
informal
неофициальный inform
информировать
misinform
неверно сообщать; дезинформировать informationally
информационно intensity
интенсивность intensive
интенсивный intensify
интенсифицировать intensively
интенсивно interest
интерес interested
заинтересованный
interesting
интересный interest
интересовать inventor
изобретатель
invention
изобретение inventive
изобретательный invent
изобретать inventively
изобретательно invitation
приглашение invited
приглашенный invite
приглашать inspiration
вдохновение inspired
вдохновленный
inspiring
вдохновляющий inspire
вдохновлять knowledge
знание
acknowledgement
признание; расписка acknowledged
признанный acknowledge
признавать, подтверждать legality
законность, легальность legal
юридический, законный
illegal
незаконный, подпольный legalize
легализовать legally
законно
illegally
незаконно likeness
сходство, подобие likeable
приятный
unlike
непохожий
like
аналогичный like
относиться хорошо
dislike
относиться отрицательно likely
вероятно
unlikely
невероятно
unlike
в отличие life
жизнь
living
жизнь lively
оживленный, веселый
live
актуальный, реальный live
жить in a lively way
оживленно literature
литература literal
буквальный
literary
литературный
literate
грамотный
illiterate
неграмотный literally
буквально location
место, поселение local
местный locate
размещать locally
в определенном месте loneliness
одиночество lonely
одинокий; один luck
удача lucky
удачливый
unlucky
неудачливый, неудачный luckily
к счастью luxury
роскошь luxurious
шикарный majority
большинство major
главный, основной manager
управляющий, руководитель managerial
управленческий manage
управлять; справляться marriage
женитьба married
женатый / замужняя
unmarried
неженатый / незамужняя marry
жениться meeting
встреча; собрание meet
встречать, знакомиться memory
память
memorial
мемориал memorial
памятный memorise
заучивать наизусть misery
нищета miserable
нищенский, ничтожный month
месяц monthly
ежемесячный monthly
ежемесячно motion
движение motionless
неподвижный motion
показывать жестом mystery
тайна, загадка mysterious
таинственный, загадочный mysteriously
таинственно, загадочно necessity
необходимость necessary
необходимый
unnecessary
ненужный necessarily
необходимо nerve
нерв nervous
нервный ennerve
нервировать nervously
нервно number
число; количество numerous
многочисленный
numerate
умеющий считать
innumerate
неумеющий считать number
обозначать цифрами object
объект, предмет
objective
цель; возражение objective
объективный object
возражать objectively
объективно obstinate
упрямый obstinately
упрямо occurrence
случай, происшествие occur
происходить operation
операция; оперирование, приведение в действие operate
управлять, действовать opportunity
возможность
opportunist
оппортунист opportune
своевременный, подходящий opposition
оппозиция, противостояние
opponent
оппонент, противник opposite
напротив
opposed
противоположный oppose
противопосталять owner
владелец, хозяин own
собственный own
владеть pain
боль painful
болезненный
painless
безболезненный painfully
болезненно
painlessly
безболезненно patience
терпение
impatience
нетерпение
patient
пациент patient
терпеливый
impatient
нетерпеливый patiently
терпеливо
impatiently
нетерпеливо participant
участник
participation
участие participating
участвующий participate
принимать участие particulars
подробности particular
особенный particularly
особенно perfection
совершенство perfect
совершенный, идеальный
imperfect
несовершенный perfect
совершенствовать, улучшать perfectly
отлично, безупречно period
период, срок periodical
периодический periodically
периодически performance
представление; исполнение
performer
исполнитель perform
исполнять, выполнять, совершать peace
мир, спокойствие peaceful
мирный peacefully
мирно permission
разрешение
permissiveness
вседозволенность
permit
пропуск permissive
позволяющий permit
позволять permissively
с позволением pleasure
удовольствие pleasant
приятный
pleased
довольный
displeased
недовольный please
доставлять удовольствие pleasantly
приятно point
точка; пункт pointed
остроконечный, нацеленный
pointful
уместный, удачный
pointless
бесцельный point
указывать, направлять pointedly
остро, по существу politeness
вежливость polite
вежливый
impolite
невежливый politely
вежливо popularity
популярность popular
популярный
unpopular
непопулярный popularise
популяризировать possession
владение, собственность
possessor
обладатель, владелец possessive
собственнический possess
владеть, обладать possibility
вероятность, возможность possible
возможный
impossible
невозможный possibly
возможно power
сила, мощь powerful
мощный
powerless
бессильный empower
уполномочивать preference
предпочтение preferable
предпочтительный
preferential
пользующийся препочтением prefer
предпочитать preferably
предпочтительно preparation
подготовка prepared
подготовленный
unprepared
неподготовленный prepare
подготовить preparedly
с готовностью prestige
престиж prestigious
престижный prestigiously
престижно profession
профессия professional
профессиональный professionally
профессионально profit
выгода profitable
выгодный
unprofitable
не приносящий выгоды profit
получать выгоду profitably
выгодно progress
прогресс, продвижение progressive
прогрессивный progress
продвигаться вперед progressively
постепенно, продвигаясь вперед proposal
предложение proposed
предложенный propose
делать предложение prosperity
процветание prosperous
процветающий prosper
процветать prosperously
процветающе public
общественность public
общественный publicise
разглашать publicly
открыто, публично quickness
быстрота quick
быстрый quicken
убыстрять quickly
быстро reality
реальность
realization
реализация, осуществление real
реальный, настоящий
unreal
нереальный realize
реализовать, осуществлять really
действительно, в самом деле recognition
признание, узнавание recognised
признанный recognise
узнавать; признавать reduction
снижение, понижение reduced
уменьшенный; сниженный reduce
снижать; сбавлять relaxation
отдых, расслабление relaxed
расслабленный
relaxing
отдыхающий; расслабляющий relax
отдыхать, расслабляться relaxedly
расслабленно reliability
надежность reliable
надежный
unreliable
ненадежный rely
доверять, полагаться reliably
надежно religion
религия religious
религиозный reluctance
нежелание, неохота reluctant
неохотный reluctantly
неохотно regularity
регулярность
irregularity
нерегулярность regular
регулярный, правильный
irregular
неправильный; нестандартный regulate
регулировать regularly
регулярно remark
замечание remarkable
замечательный remark
замечать, отмечать remarkably
замечательно representation
представление
representative
представитель representative
представительный represent
представлять reproach
упрек irreproachable
безупречный reproach
упрекать reproachingly
с упреком reputation
репутация reputated
имеющий хорошую репутацию, почтенный
disreputable
имеющий плохую репутацию repute
давать репутацию
disrepute
компрометироватъ resistance
сопротивление resistible
ударопрочный;
irresistible
неотразимый
resistant
прочный resist
сопротивляться irresistibly
неотразимо respect
уважение respectful
уважительный respect
уважать respectfully
с уважением rest
отдых restless
беспокойный rest
отдыхать restlessly
беспокойно reward
награда rewarding
стоящий награды
unrewarded
невознагражденный reward
награждать riches
богатства
richness
богатство rich
богатый enrich
обогащать richly
богато risk
риск risky
рискованный risk
рисковать sadness
грусть sad
грустный sadden
огорчать sadly
грустно safe
сейф
safety
безопасность safe
безопасный
unsafe
опасный save
спасать; экономить safely
безопасно satisfaction
удовлетворение
dissatisfaction
неудовлетворенность; недовольство satisfied
довольный
dissatisfied
недовольный
satisfactory
удовлетворительный
unsatisfactory
неудовлетворительный satisfy
удовлетворять
dissatisfy
разочаровывать; огорчать research
исследование search
искать, осуществлять поиск security
безопасность secure
безопасный
insecure
находящийся в опасности secure
охранять, гарантировать securely
безопасно seriousness
серьезность serious
серьезный seriously
серьезно science
наука
scientist
ученый scientific
научный scientifically
научно sense
чувство
insensibility
отсутствие чувствительности sensitive
чувствительный
insensitive
несочувствующий
sensible
разумный
insensible
нечувствительный, неосознающий sense
ощущать sensitively
чувствительно
sensibly
разумно service
услуга, обслуживание
servant
слуга served
обслуженный; поданный на стол serve
служить, обслуживать, подавать на стол significant
значительный
insignificant
незначительный signify
иметь значение significantly
значительно similarity
сходство, похожесть similar
похожий, подобный similarly
похоже, подобно sincerity
искренность sincere
искренний
insincere
неискренний sincerely
искренне shorts
шорты short
короткий shorten
укорачивать shortly
кратко sleep
сон
sleeper
спящий; спальный вагон sleeping
спящий
sleepless
бессонный sleep
спать sleeplessly
без сна solution
решение; раствор solved
решенный; растворенный solve
решать; находить выход; растворять speciality
специальность; фирменное блюдо
specialty
особенность special
особенный; специальный
specific
специфический specify
точно определять
specialize
специализировать(ся) specially
специально
specifically
специфично strength
сила strong
сильный strengthen
укреплять strongly
сильно stress
стресс stressful
стрессовый stress
ударять, ставить ударение stressfully
в состоянии стресса success
успех successful
успешный
unsuccessful
безуспешный succeed
преуспевать successfully
успешно sufñcience
достаточность
insufñcience
недостаточность sufficient
достаточный
insufficient
недостаточный suffice
быть достаточным sufficiently
достаточно suitable
подходящий
unsuitable
неподходящий suit
подходить, устраивать suggestion
предложение suggest
предлагать suspect
подозреваемый suspicious
подозрительный suspect
подозревать suspiciously
подозрительно swimmer
пловец
swimming
плавание swimming
плавающий, плавательный swim
плавать sympathy
сочувствие, понимание sympathetic
сочувствующий sympathize
сочувствовать sympathetically
с пониманием; сочувственно sureness
уверенность sure
уверенный
unsure
неуверенный
assured
обеспеченный; уверенный
self-assured
уверенный в себе ensure
обеспечивать; гарантировать
assure
уверять, обеспечивать surely
конечно; уверенно
assuredly
с уверенностью surrounding
окружение surrounded
окруженный surround
окружать talk
беседа, разговор talkative
разговорчивый talk
беседовать taste
вкус
distaste
отсуствие вкуса tasteful
сделанный со вкусом; обладающий вкусом
tasteless
безвкусный taste
пробовать tastefully
со вкусом
tastelessly
без вкуса terror
террор
terrorist
террорист terrible
ужасный
terrific
потрясающий
terrifying
ужасающий
terrified
напуганный terrify
ужасать terribly
ужасно
terrifically
потрясающе thirst
жажда thirsty
испытывать жажду tights
колготки tight
плотный, тесный tighten
сжимать, натягивать tightly
тесно, плотно thought
мысль thoughtful
задумчивый
thoughtless
бездумный think
думать, иметь мнение thoughtfully
задумчиво tragedy
трагедия tragic
трагичный
tragical
трагический tragically
трагично travelling
путешествие
traveller
путешественник travelling
путешествующий travel
путешествовать truth
правда
untruth
неправда true
правильный; настоящий
untrue
неверный, не соответствующий действительности
truthful
правдивый truly
по-настоящему, искренне
truthfully
правдиво value
ценность valued
ценимый
valuable
ценный value
ценить, оценивать variety
разнообразие
variability
изменчивость, непостоянство variable
изменяемый
invariable
неизменный vary
менять, разнообразить invariably
неизменно year
год yearly
ежегодный yearly
ежегодно understanding
понимание
misunderstanding
непонимание; недоразумение understandable
понятный understand
понимать use
польза
misuse
неправильное использование;
usage
использование useful
полезный
useless
бесполезный
used
использованный
unused
неиспользованный use
использовать, пользоваться usefully
полезно
uselessly
бесполезно week
неделя weekly
еженедельный weekly
еженедельно width
ширина wide
широкий widen
расширять widely
широко will
воля, желание; завещание willing
жаждущий, желающий
unwilling
не желающий will
проявлять волю, желать willingly
охотно, с удовольствием
unwillingly
неохотно wind
ветер windy
ветренный
windless
безветренный wisdom
мудрость wise
мудрый
unwise
неблагоразумный wisely
мудро
unwisely
неблагоразумно worth
стоимость, ценность worthy
достойный
worthless
не имеющий ценности

In a
sentence or text you have to change the form of a word, e.g. from a noun to an
adjective, or from a verb to a noun. For example:

The
_____ was very nervous. (sing)

You
have to complete the sentence with the person noun (singer). You change
the verb (sing) into the person noun (singer).

·        
Look at the word you have to change. Which words do you know that
are in the same word family?

·        
The beginning of the word is often the same and the end of the
word changes.

·        
What form is the new word? A verb? A noun? An adjective? An
adverb?

·        
Nouns often end: -ment, -ion, -ness, -ity.

·        
People nouns often end: -er, -or, -ist, -ian.

·        
Adjectives often end: -able, -ible, -ive, -al, -ic, -ed, -ing.

·        
Some verbs end: -ise, -ate, -en.

·        
Adverbs often end: -ly.

·        
Is the new word negative? If so, you may need a prefix, e.g. un- (unhappy),
im- (impolite), in- (inexperienced), dis- (dishonest),
etc.

·        
If you don’t know the new word, guess. You
may be right!

There are many word beginnings (prefixes) and word
endings (suffixes) that can be added to a word to change its meaning or its
word class. The most common ones are shown here, followed by examples of how
they are used in the process of word formation. More can be found in the
Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English.

Verb Formation

The endings ize and ify can be added to nouns and
adjectives to form verbs.

Noun + ize = Verb

American + ize = Americanize Legal + ize = legalize

This will make the factory more modern. This will
modernize the factory. Adjective + ize = Verb

 False + ify = Falsify Humid + ify = humidify

These tablets make the water pure. They purify the
water.

Adverb Formation

The ending ly can be added to most adjectives to form
adverbs.

Adjective + ly = Adverb

Easy + ly = easily His behaviour was stupid. He
behaved stupidly

Noun Formation

The endings er, ment, and ation can be added to many
verbs to form nouns.

Verb + er = Noun Fasten + er = faster Open
+ er = opener

John drives a bus. He is a bus driver.

Amaze + ment = amazement Retire + ment = retirement

Children develop very quickly. Their development is
very quick.

Admire + ation = admiration Organize + ation =
organization

The doctor examined me. The doctor gave me an
examination.

The endings ity/ty and ness can be added to many
adjectives to form nouns.

 Stupid + ity = stupidity Don’t be so cruel. I hate
cruelty

Adjective Formation

The endings y, ic, ical, ful, and less can be added to
many nouns to form adjectives. The ending able can be added to many verbs to
form adjectives.

Noun + y = Adjective Dirt + y = dirty

That was an awful smell. It was very smelly.

Atom + ic = atomic That was a book of poetry. It was a
poetic book.

Hope + ful = hopeful His broken leg caused pain. It
was very painful.

Care + less = careless The operation didn’t cause
pain. It was painless.

Verb + able = Adjective Love + able = lovable You can
wash this coat.

It’s washable Opposites Prefixes added to the front of
many words can produce an opposite meaning. un + fortunate = unfortunate I’m
not very happy. In fact I’m very unhappy.

 Put the correct
form of the word in brackets into the blank .

1. The results were very strange! In fact,
they were ___________________ ! (BELIEVE)

2. He has an unfortunate
___________________ to understand people’s feelings (ABLE)

3. Due to the clerk’s
______________________ we missed the train (STUBBORN)

4. What we saw was beyond all
______________________ (EXPECT)

5. She is a student of the
______________________ (HUMAN)

6. The book contains some great
______________________ (ILLUSTRATE)

7. Please give us details of your present
______________________ (OCCUPY)

8. What is the ______________________ of
the Danube River (LONG)

9. The ______________________ of our
agriculture is important if we want to produce more food (MECHANIC)

10. Drug ______________________ is a
problem causing great concern (ADDICT)

11. The ______________________ of the
awards is scheduled for next Friday (PRESENT)

12. I have been sworn to
______________________ so I can’t say a word (SECRET)

13. After losing her job she was
______________________ for a month (EMPLOY)

14. Pushing into a queue is considered to
be extremely ______________________ (POLITE)

15. The audience gave the violinist a
round of ______________________ (APPLAUD)

16. He isn’t happy with his job because he
feels he is ______________________ (PAY)

17. We have just been shown another
example of ______________________ killing (SENSE)

18. My sister’s ______________________
makes hers social life difficult (SHY)

19. I’m not sure at all I really can’t say
with ______________________ (CERTAIN)

20. My ______________________ is the
history of Elizabethan England (SPECIAL)

21. The police were told by their
______________________ where to find the criminal (INFORM)

22. He received many medals for his acts
of ______________________ during the war (HERO)

23. The ______________________ of the
company is said to be dangerous to small firms (EXPAND)

24. For all of us, Marilyn Monroe was the
______________________ of beauty (PERSON)

25. I can guarantee the ______________________
of our new product (RELY)

26. The government is encouraging heavy
______________________ (INVEST)

27. People who suffer from
______________________ should buy themselves a pet (LONELY)

28. George and I have been friends since
______________________ (CHILD)

29. Everybody is worried about the
______________________ of the rain forest (DESTROY)

30. Some MPs are calling for
______________________ without trial (DETAIN)

31. My grandfather was given a medal for ______________________
(BRAVE)

32. My father takes great
______________________ in his work (PROUD)

33. This bag contains all my photographic
______________________ (EQUIP)

34. ______________________ is probably the
most useful form of energy (ELECTRIC)

35. John turned up on the wrong day
because of a ______________________ (UNDERSTAND)

36. Jake had another
______________________ with his boss (AGREE)

37. The bank robbers were sentenced to
twelve years of ______________________ (PRISON)

38. Mary suddenly felt sick, so we needed
a ______________________ for her part in the play (REPLACE)

39. Failure to apply in time may result in
a ______________________ of benefits (LOSE)

40.
Pat was accused of stealing some ______________________ documents (CONFIDENT)

 Put the correct
form of the word in brackets into the blank.

1. In the future the public will have a
wider __________________ of television programs. (CHOOSE)

2. Looking after the health of 700
children is heavy ______________________ . (RESPONSIBLE)

3. The town spent more money on
__________________ and health than ever before (HOUSE)

4. Do you have any particular
__________________ where we sit? (PREFER)

5. There’s a __________________ contrast
between what he does and what he says. (STRIKE)

6. The party turned out to be a huge
______________________ (DISAPPOINT)

7. He was fined and __________________ for
reckless driving (QUALIFY).

8. Is it possible to remove the smell from
the books that have been in _______________ for such a long time? (STORE)

9. Many people are interested in job
__________________ more than in earning large amount of money (SATISFY).

10. I hadn’t made a __________________ ,
so I just got on the first flight available. (RESERVE)

11. The anti-doping association believes
that all sports must be free of drug __________________ (USE).

12. The country is facing a population
__________________ . (EXPLODE)

13. It is __________________ to fasten
your seat-belts before take-off (ADVISE)

14. She claimed __________________ benefit
for over six months. (EMPLOY)

15. Tax __________________ is one of the
biggest problems that face the new country. (EVADE)

16. You can basically wear what you want
but there is an _____________ law that says you must not wear jeans. (WRITE)

17. The __________________ course is being
paid for by the company. (MANAGE)

18. It’s a __________________ shame that
she didn’t have a better chance in life. (CRY)

19. The farm house we stayed in was
completely off the __________________ track. (BEAT)

20. The police searched the house
_______________________ . (SYSTEM)

21. He is a __________________ -paid
senior executive. (HIGH)

22. A full-scale ____________________ of
our company is urgently needed (ORGANIZE)

23. Are we going to be saved
__________________ by our oil supplies? (ECONOMY)

24. Experts have tried to find a
__________________ to the personnel problems. (SOLVE)

25. She’s a specialist in psychology and
human __________________ . (BEHAVE)

26. The __________________ of the most
important port of the country eliminated all trade. (BLOCK)

27. The __________________ system of some
countries used to be based on gold. (MONEY)

28. He recovered from his injuries in the
__________________ hospital (NAVY)

29. He has loved her __________________
ever since they first met. (PASSION)

30. The importance of this
__________________ has been extremely overrated. (INVENT)

31. He is a convinced __________________
of Chinese communism (FOLLOW)

32. Jane’s party was more of an
__________________ test than anything else. (ENDURE)

33. The government has committed itself to
developing __________________ sources of energy. (NEW)

34. He took a job as a sales
__________________ in a big department store. (ASSIST)

35. The potential benefits of this
treatment __________________ the risks. (WEIGH)

36. Make sure the hairdryer is
__________________ before you fix the switch. (CONNECT)

37. They say that travel
__________________ the mind. (BROAD)

38. Without his teacher’s __________________
he would have given up long ago. (ENCOURAGE)

39. Dickens’s last novel was
__________________ The Mystery of Edwin Drood. (TITLE)

40.
She has known me for two years now but she still __________________ my name. (PRONOUNCE)

Very often we form many words from one and the same root, e.g. friend, friendship, friendly, unfriendly, friendless, friendliness, and befriend. A study of the formation of words is, therefore, not only interesting but also fruitful. Here is list of Noun words, Verb words and Adjective words to learn, how to form Nouns from Verbs, Verbs from Noun, Nouns from Adjectives, Adjectives from Nouns, Verbs from Adjectives, Adjectives from Verbs, Abstract Nouns from Concrete Nouns:

Formation of Nouns from Verb Words

Verb Words	Noun Words
Abide	Abode
Abound	Abundance
Accuse	Accusation
Achieve	Achievement
Acquaint	Acquaintance
Add	Addition
Admire	Admiration
Admit	Admission
Agree	Agreement
Allot	Allotment
Amuse	Amusement
Apply	Application
Appoint	Appointment
Approve	Approval
Arrive	Arrival
Ascend	Ascent
Assure	Assurance
Attend	Attention
Attract	Attraction
Bear	Birth
Behave	Behavior
Believe	Belief
Belong	Belonging
Bite	Bite, bit
Bless	Blessings
Break	Breakage
Bury	Burial
Carry	Carriage
Choose	Choice
Civilizes	Civilization
Collect	Collection
Compare	Comparison
Compel	Compulsion
Compete	Competition
Complete	Completion
Conceal	Concealment
Confer	Conference
Confine	Confinement
Confirm	Confirmation
Consider	Consideration
Convert	Conversion
Cooperative	Cooperation
Create	Creation
Criticize	Criticism
Decide	Decision
Defend	Defence
Define	Definition
Deliver	Delivery
Deny	Denial
Depart	Departure
Describe	Description
Destroy	Destruction
Determine	Determination
Die	Death
Digest	Digestion
Direct	Ditch
Discover	Direction
Disturb	Disturbance
Divide	Division
Do	Deed
Drive	Driver
Educate	Education
Enjoy	Enjoyment
Enter	Entry
Entreat	Entreaty
Envelop	Envelope
Erect	Erection
Examine	Examination
Exceed	Excess
Exist	Existence
Expand	Expansion
Expect	Expectation
Expel	Expulsion
Expire	Expiry
Explain	Explanation
Express	Expression
Extent	Extension
Fail	Failure
Feed	Food
Flow	Flood,
Fly	Flight
Forgive	Forgiveness
Furnish	Furniture
Give	Gift
Govern	Government
Grieve	Grief
Grow	Growth
Hate	Hatred
Hold	Hilt, Hold
Imagine	Imagination
Increase	Increment
Inherit	Inheritance
Injure	Injury
Inquire	Inquiry
Inspect	Inspection
Inspire	Inspiration
Intend	Intention
Introduce	Introduction
Investigate	Investigation
Invite	Invitation
Irrigate	Irrigation
Join	Joint
Judge	Judge, Justice
Know	Knowledge
Laugh	Laughter
Learn	Learning
Lend	Loan
Lose	Loss
Mix	Mixture
Move	Movement
Multiply	Multiplication
Obey	Obedience
Object	Objection
Oblige	Obligation
Occupy	Occupation
Offend	Offence
Omit	Omission
Oppose	Opposition
Pass	Passage
Pay	Payment
Perform	Performance
Please	Pleasure
Populate	Population
Pray	Prayer
Prefer	Preference
Prepare	Preparation
Preserve	Preservation
Press	Pressure
Proclaim	Proclamation
Produce	Production
Project	Protection
Prophesy	Prophecy
Propose	Proposal
Prosper	Prosperity
Prove	Proof
Provide	Provision
Qualify	Qualification
Rebel	Rebellion
Receive	Receipt
Recite	Recitation
Recommend	Recommendation
Recover	Recovery
Reduce	Reduction
Refer	Reference
Refresh	Refreshment
Refuse	Refusal
Relieve	Relief
Remain	Remainder
Remove	Removal
Repeat	Repetition
Repent	Repentance
Revolve	Revolution
Satisfy	Satisfaction
See	Sight
Sell	Sale
Serve	Service
Settle	Settlement
Sew	Shock
Shake	Seed
Sing	Song
Sit	Tale
Slay	Seat
Solve	Slaughter
Speak	Solution
Spell	Speech, Speaker
Steal	Spelling
Strike	Stealth
Subtract	Stroke
Succeed	Subtraction
Supervise	Success
Tell	Supervision
Thieve	Theft
Think	Thought
Translate	Translation
Treat	Treatment
Try	Trial
Unite	Unity, Union
Vacate	Vacancy
Vary	Variety
Wed	Wedding
Weigh	Weight
Withdraw	Withdraw

Formation of Verbs from Noun Words

Noun Words	Verb Words
Advice	Advise
Beauty	Beautify
Blood	Bleed
Circle	Encircle
Class	Classify
Colony	Colonies
Courage	Encourager
Custom	Accustom
Danger	Endanger
Depth	Deepen
Difference	Differ
Fame	Defame
Force	Enforce
Freight	Frighten
Friend	Befriend
Glass	Glaze
Glory	Glorify
Gold	Gild
Grass	Graze
Hand	Handle
Haste	Hasten
Height	Heighten
Heir	Inherit
Horror	Horrify
Joy	Enjoy
Knot	Knit
Length	Lengthen
Life	Live
Magnet	Magnetise
Memory	Momorise
Nation	Nationalize
Necessity	Necessitate
Office	Officiate
Peril	Imperil
Power	Empower
Practice	Practise
Publicity	Publish
Radio	Radiate
Slave	Enslave
Society	Associate
Spark	Sparkle
Strength	Strengthen
Sympathy	Sympathise
System	Systematize
Table	Tabulate
Television	Televise
Terror	Terrify
Vapour	Evaporate
Vigour	Invigorate

Formation of Nouns from Adjective Words

Adjective Words	Noun Words
Able	Ability
Absent	Absence
Accurate	Accuracy
Active	Activity
Brave	Bravery
Brutal	Brutality
Busy	Business
Civil	Civility
Coward	Cowardice
Decent	Decency
Difficult	Difficulty
Diligent	Diligence
Dry	Drought
Durable	Durability
Efficient	Efficiency
Foolish	Folly
Frank	Frankness
Free	Freedom
Lame	Lameness
Lazy	Laziness
Loyal	Loyalty
Merry	Merriment
Moist	Moisture
Moral	Morality
Mortal	Mortality
Noble	Nobility
Neutral	Neutrality
Novel	Novelty
One	Oneness
Patient	Patience
Perfect	Perfection
Pious	Piety
Polite	Politeness
Popular	Popularity
Poor	Poverty
Possible	Possibility
Present	Presence
Prior	Priority
Private	Privacy
Proud	Pride
Prudent	Prudence
Punctual	Punctuality
Frugal	Frugality
Gallant	Gallantry
Gay	Gaiety
Generous	Generosity
Great	Greatness
Happy	Happiness
Holy	Holiness
Honest	Honesty
Hospitable	Hospitality
Hot	Heat
Human	Humanity
Important	Importance
Inferior	Inferiority
Innocent	Innocence
Insane	Insanity
Jealous	Jealousy
Pure	Purity
Quick	Quickness
Rapid	Rapidity
Rival	Rivalry
Sacred	Sacredness
Safe	Safety
Scarce	Scarcity
Secret	Secrecy
Senior	Seniority
Sever	Severity
Short	Shortage
Silent	Silence
Slow	Slowness
Solitary	Solitude
Special	Specialty
Splendid	Splendor
Supreme	Supremacy
Sure	Surety
TRUE	Truth
Uniform	Uniformity
Vain	Vanity
Weak	Weakness
Wise	Wisdom
Young	Youth

Formation of Adjective Words from Noun Words

Noun Words	Adjective Words
Accident	Accidental
Advantage	Advantageous
Adventure	Adventurous
Advice	Advisable
Affection	Affectionate
Air	Airy
America	American
Angel	Angelic
Anger	Angry
Arabia	Arabian
Asia	Asiatic
Atmosphere	Atmospheric
Autumn	Autumnal
Beauty	Beautiful
Blood	Bloody
Body	Bodily
Book	Bookish
Boy	Boyish
Brass	Brazen
Brother	Brotherly
Brute	Brutal
Center	Central
Ceremony	Ceremonial
Cheer	Cheerful
Child	Childish
China	Chinese
Circle	Circular
Clay	Clayey
Colony	Colonial
Comfort	Comfortable
Contempt	Contemptible
Crime	Criminal
Custom	Customary
Danger	Dangerous
Day	Daily
Earth	Earthen
Ease	Easy
East	Eastern
Economy	Economical
Emperor	Imperial
Enemy	Inimical
England	English
Essence	Essential
Example	Exemplary
Expense	Expensive
Fable	Fabulous
Faith	Faithful
Fame	Famous
Fate	Fateful
Father	Fatherly
Fault	Faulty
Favour	Faveourable
Fever	Feverish
Fiction	Fictitious
Fire	Fiery
Flower	Flowery
Fog	Foggy
Fool	Foolish
Force	Forceful
France	French
Friend	Friendly
Frost	Frosty
Fruit	Fruitful
Fury	Furious
Gas	Gaseous
Germany	German
Ghost	Ghostly
Gift	Gifted
Glass	Classy
Gloom	Gloomy
Glory	Glorious
God	Godly
Gold	Golden
Grass	Grassy
Greed	Greedy
Habit	Habitual
Hair	Hairy
Hand	Handy
Harm	Harmful
Harmony	Harmonious
Haste	Hasty
Haze	Hazy
Heart	Hearty
Heaven	Heavenly
Heredity	Hereditary
Hero	Heroic
Hill	Hilly
Holland	Dutch
Home	Homely
Honour	Honourable
Horror	Horrible
Hour	Hourly
Hunger	Hungry
Ice	Icy
Ignorance	Ignorant
India	Indian
Industry	Industrial
Japan	Japanese
Joke	Jocular
Joy	Joyful
King	Kingly
Labour	Laborious
Land	Landed
Language	Linguistic
Law	Lawful
Life	Lifelike
Limit	Limited
Lord	Lordly
Love	Lovely
Machine	Mechanical
Man	Manly
Medicine	Medicinal
Memory	Memorable
Merchant	Mercantile
Mercy	Merciful
Merit	Meritorious
Might	Mighty
Military	Martial
Milk	Milky
Miracle	Miraculous
Moment	Momentary
Money	Monetary
Month	Monthly
Mother	Motherly
Mystery	Mysterious
Nation	National
Nature	Natural
Navy	Naval
Need	Needy
Neighbor	Nieghbouring
Notice	Noticeable
Number	Numeral
Ocean	Oceanic
Office	Official
Oil	Oily
Origin	Original
Ornament	Ornamental
Pakistan	Pakistani
Palace	Palatial
Passion	Passionate
Peace	Peaceful
Persia	Persian
Picture	Pictorial
Play	Playful
Population	Populous
Practice	Practical
Price	Percious
Pride	Proud
Profit	Profitable
Quarrel	Quarrelsome
Question	Questionable
Red	Reddish
Ruin	Ruinous
Russia	Russian
Sand	Sandy
Science	Scientific
Sense	Sensible
Silk	Silken
Silver	Silvery
Slave	Slavish
Smoke	Smoky
Society	Social
Space	Spacious
Spain	Spanish
Spark	Sparking
Sponge	Spongy
Star	Starry
Stone	Stony
Storm	Stormy
Study	Studious
Success	Successful
Sun	Sunny
Sympathy	Sympathetic
System	Systematic
Talk	Talkative
Taste	Tasty
Terror	Terrible
Thirst	Thirsty
Thought	Thoughtful
Tribe	Tribal
Trouble	Troublesome
Turkey	Turkish
Type	Typical
Use	Useful
Value	Valuable
Velvet	Velvety
Vice	Vicious
Vigour	Vigorous
Virtue	Virtuous
Voice	Vocal
War	Warlike
Water	Watery
Will	Willing
Wind	Wincy
Winter	Wintry
Woman	Womanly
Wood	Wooden
Wool	Woolen
World	Worldly
Worth	Worthy
Wretch	Wretched
Year	Yearly
Youth	Youthful
Zeal	Zealous

Formation of Verbs from Adjective Words

Adjective Words	Verb Words
Able	Enable
Base	Debase
Bitter	Embitter
Black	Blacken
Board	Broaden
Brief	Abbreviate
Certain	Ascertain
Cheap	Cheapen
Civil	Civilizes
Clean	Cleanse
Clear	Clarify
Dark	Darken
Dear	Endear
Deep	Deepen
Dense	Condense
Different	Differentiate
Double	Duplicate
Equal	Equalize
False	Falsify
Familiar	Familiarize
Fast	Fasten
Fertile	Fertilise
Fine	Refine
Flat	Flatten
General	Generalize
Glad	Gladden
Hard	Harden
Humble	Humiliate
Just	Justify
Large	Enlarge
Little	Belittle
Local	Localize
Long	Lengthen
Low	Lower
Mad	Madden
Moist	Moisten
New	Renew
Noble	Ennoble
Poor	Impoverish
Popular	Popularize
Public	Publish
Pure	Purify
Quick	Quicken
Real	Realize
Red	Redden
Rich	Enrich
Right	Rectify
Sad	Sadden
Safe	Save
Satisfactory	Satisfy
Sharp	Sharpen
Short	Shorten
Sick	Sicken
Soft	Soften
Special	Specialize
Specific	Specify
Stable	Stabilize
Strong	Strengthen
Sure	Assure
Sweet	Sweeten
Thick	Thicken
Weak	Weaken
White	Whiten
wide	Widen

Formation of Adjective Words from Verbs

Verb Words	Adjective Words
Abound	Abundant
Accomplish	Accomplished
Act	Active
Admit	Admissible
Advise	Advisable
Affect	Effective
Apologise	Apologetic
Authorize	Authoritative
Beautify	Beautiful
Believe	Believable
Bless	Blessed
Break	Breakable
Compel	Compulsory
Decide	Decisive
Die	Deadly
Exceed	Excessive
Excel	Excellent
Favour	Favourable
Fill	Full
Furnish	Furnished
Grieve	Grievous
Heal	Healthy
Ignore	Ignorant
Labour	Laboriorus
Learn	Learned
Limp	Lame
Love	Lovely
Marry	Marriageable
Move	Movable
Need	Needy
Note	Notable
Obey	Obedient
Object	Objectionable
Offend	Offensive
Oppose	Opposite
Please	Pleasing
Project	Protective
Quarrel	Quarrelsome
Rely	Reliable
Rot	Rotten
Ruin	Ruinous
Serve	Serviceable
Shake	Shaky
Steal	Stealthy
Strike	Striking
Study	Studious
Trace	Traceable
Urge	Urgent
Use	Useful
Vacate	Vacant
Vary	Various
weigh	Weighty

Formation of Abstract Nouns from Concrete Nouns

Concrete Nouns	Abstract Nouns
Agent	Agency
Baby	Babyhood
Boy	Boyhood
Broker	Brokerage
Brother	Brotherhood
Cart	Cartage
Chairman	Chairmanship
Chemist	Chemistry
Child	Childhood
Christian	Christianity
Coin	Coinage
Collector	Collection
Cook	Cookery
Coward	Cowardice
Creature	Creation
Dictator	Dictatorship
Enemy	Enmity
Father	Fatherhood
Favourite	Favouritism
Friend	Friendship
Hero	Heroism
Infant	Infancy
Judge	Justice
King	Kingship
Man	Manhood
Martyr	Martyrdom
Member	Membership
Monarch	Monarchy
Mother	Motherhood
Neighbor	Neighborhood
Owner	Ownership
Patriot	Patriotism
Patron	Patronage
Pilgrim	Pilgrimage
Regent	Regency
Servant	Service
Slave	Slavery
Speaker	Speech
Stateman	Statesmanship
Young	Youth

It’s
a process of creating new words from material available in the
language after a certain structural and semantic formulas and
pattern, forming words by combining root & affix morphemes.

2 Types of word formation:

1)
Compounding (словосложение)

2)
Word – derivation

Within
the types further distinction may be made between the ways of forming
words. The basic way of forming words is word-derivation affixation
and conversion apart from this shortening and a number of minor ways
of formal words such as back-forming, blending, sound imitation are
traditionally referred to formation.

Different types of word
formation:

Affixation
is
the formation of new words by means of suffixes and prefixes to
stemsbasis.

Affixes may be grouped

1) according to their
linguistic origin. We distinguish affixes of Germanic origin (full,
less), of Romanic origin (ion), of Greek origin (ise, izm);

2) according to the parts of
speech. We distinguish noun forming, adj. forming and verb forming
affixes;

3)
according to semantic functions. They may denote persons, quality,
negation. Many suffixes originated from separate words: hood
originated for the noun hood, which meant state or condition; full –
полный
(adj. In O.E) now it is suffix. Suffixes may change the part of
speech: critic (al).

All
suffixes are divided into lexical
and grammatical.

Lexical
suffixes build new word. Productive
affixes. For
ex: read-readable, happy-happiness, act-actor.

Grammatical
suffixes change the grammatical form of a word. Often used to create
neologisms and nonce-words (I
don’t like Sunday evenings: I feel so mondayish).

For ex: finish-finished, say-says, rose-roses.

Some
productive suffixes:

Noun
forming – er,
ing, is, ist, ance

Adj
– forming – y,
ish, ed, able, less

Adv
– forming – ly

Verb – forming — Ize, /ise,
ate

Prefixies
—
Un, die, re

Conversion
(zero derivation) it is one of the major ways of enriching EV &
referrers to the numerous cases of phonetic identity of word forms of
2 words belonging to different part of speech.. The new word has a
meaning which differs from that of original one though it can ><
be associated with it. nurse
(noun) to nurse – to feed

A certain stem is used for the
formation of a categorically different word without a derivative
element being added.

Bag
– to bag, Back – to back , Bottle – to bottle This
specific pattern is very productive in English

The
most popular types are noun →verb or verb→noun To
take off – a take off

Conversion
can be total
or partial.
Partial: the then
president (тогдашний).
An adverb is used as an adjective, only in this particular context.
Total: work
– to work

Conversion
may be the result of shading of English endings. The historical
changes may be briefly outlined as follows: in O.E. a verb and a noun
of the same root were distinguished by their endings. For ex: the
verb ‘to love’ had a form (Old Eng.) ‘lufian’. This verb had
personal conjunctions. The noun ‘love’ had the form ‘lufu’
with different case endings. But in the course of time, the personal
and case endings were lost. There are numerous pairs of words (e. g.
love, n. — to love, v.; work, n. — to work, v.; drink, n. — to
drink, v., etc.) which did, not occur due to conversion but coincided
as a result of certain historical processes (dropping of endings,
simplification of stems) when before that they had different forms
(e. g. O. E. lufu, n. — lufian, v.).

The
two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion
are nouns and verbs. Verbs made from nouns are the most numerous
amongst the words produced by conversion: e. g. to
hand, to back, to face, to eye, to mouth, to nose, to dog, to wolf,
to monkey, to can, to coal, to stage, to screen, to room, to floor,
to blackmail, to blacklist, to honeymoon,
and very many others.

Nouns
are frequently made from verbs: do (e. g. This
is the queerest do I»ve ever come across.
Do — event, incident), go (e. g. He
has still plenty of go at his age.
Go — energy), make,
run, find, catch, cut, walk, worry, show, move,
etc. Verbs can also be made from adjectives: to
pale, to yellow, to cool, to grey, to rough
(e. g. We
decided to rough it in the tents as the weather was warm),
etc.

Other
parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion as the
following examples show: to
down, to out (as in a newspaper heading Diplomatist Outed from
Budapest), the ups and downs, the ins and outs, like, n, (as in the
like of me and the like of you).

Compounding
& word comparison. Compound
words are made of 2 derivational stems. The types of structure of CW:
neutral,
morphological &syntactic.

In
neutral
compound
the process is released without any linking elements sunflower.
There
are three types of neutral compounds simple compounds went a compound
consist of a simple affixes stems.

Derivate/
derivational compound
— has affixes babysitter.

Contracted
–
has a shorten stems. TV-set

Morphological
C –
few
in number. This type is non productive. Represented by words, where 2
stems are combined by a linking vowel/ consonant Anglo-Saxon,
statesman, craftsmanship.

Syntactic
C
– formed of segments of speech preserving articles, prepositions,
adverbs. Mother-in-law

Reduplication.
New
word are made by stem ether without any phonetic changes Bye-Bye
or variation of a root vowel or consonant ping-pong

Shortening.
There
are 2 ways of producing them:

1.
The word is formed from the syllable of the original word which in
term may loose its beginning –phone,
its ending vac
(vacation) or
both
fridge.

2.
The word is formed from the initial letter of a word group BB,
bf – boyfriend. Acronyms are
shorten words but read as one UNO
[ju:nou]

TYPES OF WF

Sound
imitation – words
are made by imitating different links of sounds that may be produced
by animals, birds…bark
– лаять,
mew – мяукать…some
names of animals, birds & insects are made by SI coo-coo
– кукушка,
crow – ворона.

To
glide, to slip are
supposed to convey the very sound of the smooth easy movement over a
slippery surface.

Back
formation a
verb is produced from a noun by subtraction (вычитание)
bagger
– to bag, babysitter – to babysit

Blending
— Is
blending part of two words to form one word (merging into one word),
combining letters/sounds they have in common as a connecting element.
Smoke
+ fog = smog, Breakfast + lunch = brunch, Smoke + haze = smaze
(дымка)

—
addictive type: they are transformable into a phrase consisting of
two words combined by a conjunction “and” smog
→ smoke & fog

—
blending of restrictive type: transformable into an attributive
phrase, where the first element serves as modifier of a second.
Positron
– positive electron,
Medicare
– medical care

Borrowings.
Contemporary
English is a unique mixture of Germanic & Romanic elements. This
mixing has resulted in the international character of the vocabulary.
In the comparison with other languages English possesses great
richness of vocabulary.

All languages are mixtures to
a greater or lesser extent, but the present day English vocabulary is
unique in this respect.

A brief look on various
historical strata of the English vocabulary:

1) through cultural contacts
with Romans partly already on the continent and all through the
influence of Christianity a very early stratum of Latin-Greek words
entered the language.

Their origin is no longer felt
by the normal speaker today in such word: pound, mint, mustard,
school, dish, chin, cleric, cheese, devil, pepper, street, gospel,
bishop.

The
same can be said about some Scandinavian words (from about the 10^th
century) that today belong to the central core of the vocabulary.

It
means that their frequency is very high. They,
their, them, sky, skin, skill, skirt, ill, dies, take… They
partly supersede the number of OE words OE
heofon – heaven (sky) Niman – take
Steorfan – die

A
more radical change & profound influence on the English
vocabulary occurred on 1066 (Norman Conquest). Until the 15^th
cent., a great number of French words were adopted. They belong to
the areas of court,
church, law, state.

Virtue, religion,
parliament, justice, noble, beauty, preach, honour…

The
influx of the words was the strongest up to the 15^th
cent., but continued up to the 17^th
cent.

Many French borrowings
retained their original pronunciation & stress

Champagne,
ballet, machine, garage…

Separate, attitude,
constitute, introduce…

Adjectives in English –
arrogant, important, patient

Sometimes with their
derivatives:

Demonstrative –
demonstration

Separate – separation

17-18 cc. due to the
establishing of cultural, trade relations many words were borrowed
from Italian, Spanish, Dutch, French.

Italian:
libretto,
violin, opera

Spanish:
hurricane, tomato, tobacco

Dutch:
yacht,
dog, landscape

French:
bouquet,
buffet

From the point of view of
their etymology formal words are normally of classical Romanic
origin, informal – Anglo-Saxon.

Nowadays many Americanisms
become familiar due to the increase of transatlantic travel & the
influence of broadcast media.

Even
in London (Heathrow airport) “baggage”
instead of “luggage”

The present day English
vocabulary is from being homogeneous.

6.
Neologisms new
word expressions are created for new things irrespective of their
scale of importance. They may be all important and concern some
social relationships (new form/ state)
People’s republic. Or
smth threatening the very existence of humanity nuclear
war
or the thing may be short lived. N
is
a newly coined word, phrase/ a new meaning for an existing word / a
word borrowed from another language.

The
development of science and industry technology: black
hole, internet, supermarket.

The
adaptive lexical system isn’t only adding new units but readjust
the ways & means of word formation radio
detection and ranging – RADAR

The
lex. System may adopt itself by combining several word-building
processes face-out
(noun) – the radioactive dust descending through the air after an
anatomic explosion. This
word was coined by composition/ compounding & conversion.

Teach
–in (n) –a student conference/ series of seminars on some burning
issue of the day, meaning some demonstration on protest. This
pattern is very frequent lis–in
, due-in
means protest demonstration when fluking traffic. Bionies
– the
combination of bio & electron.

Back
formation:
air-condion
– air-conditioner – air-conditioning

Semi-affixes
(могут
быть
как
самостоятельные
слова)
chairman
used
to be not numerous and might be treated as exceptions now, evolving
into separate set.

Some
N abscessed with smth and containing the elements mad
& happy: powermad, moneymad, auto-happy.

Conversion, composition,
semantic change are in constant use when coining N

The
change of meaning rather an introduction of a new additional meaning
may be illustrated by the word NETWORK
– stations for simultaneous broadcast of the same program.

Once
accepted N may become a basis for further word formation. ZIP
– to zip – zipper –
zippy.

The
lex. System is unadaptive system, developing for many centuries and
reflecting the changing needs, servicing only in special context.
Archaism
& historisms.

Archaism
–
once common but are now replaced by synonyms. Mostly they are poetic:
morn
– arch, morning – new word, hapless – arch, unlucky – modern.

Historism
– when
the causes of the word’s disappearance are extralinguistic, eg. The
thing named is no longer used. They are very numerous as names for
social relations, institutions, objects of material culture of the
past, eg. many types of sailing craft belong to the past: caravels,
galleons.A
great many of
H
denotes various types of weapons in historical novels: blunderbuss
— мушкетер,
breastplate. Many
of them are in Voc in some figurative meaning: shiel
– щит,
sword. – меч.

7.
Homonymy.
Different
in meaning, but identical in sound or spelling form

Sources:

1.
The result of split of polysemy capital
– столица,
заглавная
буква

Homonymy
differs from polysemy because there is no semantic bond (связь)
between homonyms; it has been lost & doesn’t exist.

2.
as the result of leveling of grammar in flections, when different
parts of speech become identical in their forms. Care
(in OE) — caru(n), care (OE) – carian (v)

3.
By conversion
slim – to slim, water – to water

4.
With the help of the same suffix fro the same stem. Reader
– the person who reads/a book for reading.

5.
Accidentally. Native words can coincide in their form beran
– to bear, bera (animal) – to bear

6.
Shortening of different words. Cab
(cabriolet, cabbage, cabin)

Homonyms can be of 3 kinds:

1.
Homonyms proper (the sound & the spelling are identical)
bat – bat
— flying
animal (летучая
мышь)
— cricket bat (бита,
back — part of body, away from the front, go to back

2.
Homophones (the same sound form but different spelling)
flower – flour, sole – soul, rain – reign, bye-by-buy

3.
Homographs (the same spelling)
tear [iə] – tear [εə, lead [i:] – lead [e]

Homonyms in English are very
numerous. Oxford English Dictionary registers 2540 homonyms, of which
89% are monosyllabic words and 9,1% are two-syllable words.

So,
most homonyms are monosyllabic words. The trend towards
monosyllabism, greatly increased by the loss of inflections and
shortening, must have contributed much toward increasing the number
of homonyms in English.

Among the other ways of
creating homonyms the following processes must be mentioned:

From
the viewpoint of their origin homonyms are sometimes divided into
historical and etymological. Historical
homonyms are those which result from the breaking up of polysemy;
then one polysemantic word will split up into two or more separate
words. Etymo1ogiсal
homonyms are words of different origin which come to be alike in
sound or in spelling (and may be both written and pronounced alike).

Borrowed
and native words can coincide in form, thus producing homonyms (as in
the above given examples). In other cases homonyms are a result of
borrowing when several different words become identical in sound or
spelling. E.g. the Latin vitim — «wrong», «an immoral
habit» has given the English vice — вада
«evil conduct»; the Latin vitis -«spiral» has
given the English »vice» — тиски
«apparatus with strong jaws in which things can be hold
tightly»; the Latin vice — «instead of», «in
place of» will be found in vice — president.

8.
Synonymy.

A
synonym – a word of similar or identical meaning to one or more
words in the same language. All languages contain synonyms but in
English they exist in superabundance. There no two absolutely
identical words because connotations, ways of usage, frequency of an
occurrence are different. Senses of synonyms are identical in respect
of central semantic trades (denotational meaning) but differ in
respect of minor semantic trades (connotational). In each group of S
there’s a word with the most general meaning, with can substitute
any word of the group. TO
LOOK AT — to glance – to stare

Classification:

Weather the different in
denotational/ connotational component

1.
Ideographic
synonyms. They
bear the same idea but not identical in their referential content,
different shades of meaning or degree. BEAUTIFUL
– fine, handsome – pretty,
to
ascent – to mount – to climb.

2.
Stylistic
synonyms. Different
in emotive and stylistic sphere.

child girl happiness	Infant maid bliss	Kid
neutral	elevated	colloquial
To die	To kick the bucket

Eat
— Devour (degradation),
Face
— muzzle
(морда)

Synonymic condensation is
typical of the English language.

It
refers to situations when writers or speakers bring together several
words with one & the same meaning to add more conviction, to
description more vivid. Ex.:
Lord & master, First & foremost, Safe & secure,
Stress & strain, by force & violence

Among
synonyms there’s a special group of words –
euphemism used
to substitute some unpleasant or offensive words. Drunk
– marry

According to interchangability
context S are classified

3.
Total
synonyms
An extremely rare occurrence. Ulman: “a luxury that language
can hardly afford.” M. Breal spoke about a law of distribution in
the language (words should be synonyms, were synonyms in the past
usually acquire different meanings and are no longer
interchangeable). Ex.: fatherland
— motherland

4.
Contextual
synonyms.
Context can emphasize some certain semantic trades & suppress
other semantic trades; words with different meaning can become
synonyms in a certain context. Ex.: tasteless
– dull, Active – curious, Curious – responsive

Synonyms can reflect social
conventions.

Ex.:

clever	bright	brainy	intelligent	Dever-clever
neutral	Only speaking about younger people by older people	Is not used by the higher educated people	Positive connotation	Stylistically remarked

5.
Dialectical
synonyms.
Ex.:
lift – elevator, Queue – line, autumn – fall

6.
Relative
some
authors classify group like:
like – love – adore, famous- celebrated – eminentthey
denote different degree of the same notion or different shades of
meanings and can be substituted only in some context.

Antonymy.
Words
belonging to the same part of speech identical in speech expressing
contrary or contradictory notion.

Комиссаров
В.Н.
classify them into absolute/
root (late/early)they
have different roots
,
derivational (to
please-to
displease) the
same root but different affixes. In most cases “-“ prefixes from
antonyms an,
dis, non.
Sometimes they are formed by suffixes full
& less.
But they do not always substitute each other selfless
– selfish, successful – unsuccessful .the
same with “-“ prefixes
to appoint – to disappoint.

The
difference is not only in structure but in semantic. The DA
express
contradictory notions, one of then excludes the other active
– inactive. The
AA
express
contrary notion: ugly
–
plain – good-looking – pretty –
beautiful

Antonimy
is
distinguished from complementarily
by being based on different logical relationshipd for pairs of
antonyms like
good – bad, big – small.
He
is good (not bad). He is not good (doesn’t imply he is bad).
The negation (отрицание)
of one term doesn’t implies the assertion of the other.

John
Lines suggests proper
hot-warm
– tapped – cold &
complementary antonyms only
2 words negative and assertion not
male — female.

There’s
also one type of semantic opposition conversives
words
denote one reference as viewed from different points of view that of
the subject & that of the object.
Bye
– sell, give — receive

Conversness
is
minor image relations of functions husband
– wife, pupil – teacher, above – below, before — after

9.
Phraseology.
Phrasiological units/ idioms – motivated word group. They are
reproduced as readymade units. Express a singe notion, used in
sentence as one part of it.

Idiomaticy
—
PU when the meaning of the whole
is
not deducible from the sum of the meanings of the parts. Stability
of PU implies that it exist as a readymade linguistic unit, which
doesn’t allow of any variability of its lexical component of gr.
Structure.

In
ling. literature the term
Phraseology is
used for the expressions where the meaning of one element is depended
on the other. Vinogradov: “irrespective of structure and properties
of the units”. Smernitsky: “it denotes only such set expressions
which do not possess expressiveness or emotional coloring”. Arnold:
“it says that only denotes such set expressions that are
imaginative, expressive and emotional”. Ammosova call them fixed
context units – we
can’t substitute an element without changing the meaning of the
whole. Ahmanova insists on the semantic intearity of such phrases:
“prevailing over the structural separates of their element”.
Kuning lays stress on the structural separatness of the elements in
the PU on the change of meaning in the whole as compared with its
elements taken separately with its elements and on a certain minimum
stability.

Phraseology
(Webster’s
dictionary) mode of expression peculiarities of diction. That is
choice and arrangement of words and phrases characteristic of some
author.there are difficult terms. Idioms word equivalents & these
difficult units or terminology reflects certain differences in the
main criteria used to distinguish.

The
features: 1.
lack of semantic motivation 2. Lexical & grammatical stability

Semantic
classification:2
criteria: 1). The degree of semantic isolation 2). The degree of
disinformation

1.
Opaque in meaning (трудный
для
понимания)
the meaning of the individual words can’t be summed together to
produce the meaning of the whole.to
kick the bucket = to die It
contains no clue to the idiomatic meaning of this expression.The
degree of semantic isolation is the highest.

The 3 typesof PU:

1.
Phraseological fusions. The degree of motivation is very low. one
component preserves its direct meaning Ex.:
to pass the buck = to pass responsibility – свалить
ответственность,

2.
Phraseological unities. Clearly motivated. Transparent both
components in their direct meaning but the combination acquires
figurative sense to
see the light = to understand, old salt — морской
волк

3.
Phraseological combinations. There is a component used in its
direct meaning. There are lots of idioms (proverbs, saying). To
be good at smth.:
Curiosity
killed the cat, but satisfaction brought it back
Idioms institutionalized formulas of politeness:How
do you do?Good-bye (God be with you) How about a drink?

Structural classification
of PU

Prof. A.I. Smirnitsky worked
out structural classification of phraseological units, comparing them
with words. He points out one-top units which he compares with
derived words because derived words have only one root morpheme. He
points out two-top units which he compares with compound words
because in compound words we usually have two root morphemes.

Among
one-top units he
points out three structural types;

a)
units of the type «to give up» (verb + postposition type), e.g. to
art up, to back up, to drop out, to nose out, to buy into, to
sandwich in etc.;

b)
units of the type «to be tired» . Some of these units remind the
Passive Voice in their structure but they have different prepositions
with them, while in the Passive Voice we can have only prepositions
«by» or «with», e.g. to
be tired of, to be interested in, to be surprised at etc.
There are also units in this type which remind free word-groups of
the type «to be young», e.g. to be akin to, to be aware of etc.
The difference between them is that the adjective «young» can be
used as an attribute and as a predicative in a sentence, while the
nominal component in such units can act only as a predicative. In
these units the verb is the grammar centre and the second component
is the semantic centre;

c)
Prepositional- nominal phraseological units. These units are
equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions,
adverbs, that is why they have no grammar centre, their semantic
centre is the nominal part, e.g.
On the doorstep (quite near), on the nose (exactly), in the course
of, on the stroke of, in time, on the point of
etc. In the course of time such units can become words, e.g.
tomorrow,
instead etc.

Among
two-top units
A.I. Smirnitsky points out the following structural types:

a) attributive-nominal such
as: a month of Sundays, grey matter, a millstone round one’s neck
and many others. Units of this type are noun equivalents and can be
partly or perfectly idiomatic. In partly idiomatic units (phrasisms)
sometimes the first component is idiomatic, e.g. high road, in other
cases the second component is idiomatic, e.g. first night. In many
cases both components are idiomatic, e.g. red tape, blind alley, bed
of nail, shot in the arm and many others.

b) verb-nominal phraseological
units, e.g. to read between the lines , to speak BBC, to sweep under
the carpet etc. The grammar centre of such units is the verb, the
semantic centre in many cases is the nominal component, e.g. to fall
in love. In some units the verb is both the grammar and the semantic
centre, e.g. not to know the ropes. These units can be perfectly
idiomatic as well, e.g. to burn one’s boats,to vote with one’s
feet, to take to the cleaners’ etc.

Very close to such units are
word-groups of the type to have a glance, to have a smoke. These
units are not idiomatic and are treated in grammar as a special
syntactical combination, a kind of aspect.

c) phraseological repetitions,
such as : now or never, part and parcel , country and western etc.
Such units can be built on antonyms, e.g. ups and downs , back and
forth; often they are formed by means of alliteration, e.g cakes and
ale, as busy as a bee. Components in repetitions are joined by means
of conjunctions. These units are equivalents of adverbs or adjectives
and have no grammar centre. They can also be partly or perfectly
idiomatic, e.g. cool as a cucumber (partly), bread and butter
(perfectly).

Phraseological units the same
as compound words can have more than two tops (stems in compound
words), e.g. to take a back seat, a peg to hang a thing on, lock,
stock and barrel, to be a shaddow of one’s own self, at one’s own
sweet will.

Syntactical classification
of PU

Phraseological
units can be classified as parts of speech. This classification was
suggested by I.V. Arnold. Here we have the following groups:

a) noun phraseologisms
denoting an object, a person, a living being, e.g. bullet train,
latchkey child, redbrick university, Green Berets,

b) verb phraseologisms
denoting an action, a state, a feeling, e.g. to break the log-jam, to
get on somebody’s coattails, to be on the beam, to nose out , to
make headlines,

c) adjective phraseologisms
denoting a quality, e.g. loose as a goose, dull as lead ,

d) adverb phraseological
units, such as : with a bump, in the soup, like a dream , like a dog
with two tails,

e) preposition phraseological
units, e.g. in the course of, on the stroke of ,

f) interjection phraseological
units, e.g. «Catch me!», «Well, I never!» etc.

In I.V.Arnold’s
classification there are also sentence equivalents, proverbs, sayings
and quatations, e.g. «The sky is the limit», «What makes him
tick», » I am easy». Proverbs are usually metaphorical, e.g. «Too
many cooks spoil the broth», while sayings are as a rule
non-metaphorical, e.g. «Where there is a will there is a way».