способность,
inability
неспособность;
disability
нетрудоспособность
способный, умелый
unable
неспособный
disabled
искалеченный; инвалид
дать возможность
disable
делать неспособным, калечить
умело, искусно
абсурдность
абсурдный
приемлемость
приемлемый
unacceptable
неприемлемый
принимать, соглашаться
доступ
accessibility
доступность
доступный
доступно
случай, случайность
случайный
нечаянно, случайно
действие
actor
актер
actress
актриса
activity
активность
activities
деятельность
acting
представление
активный
acting
действующий, работающей
действовать
активно
достижение
достигать
привычка, приверженность, увлеченность
addict
увлеченный человек, имеющий стойкую привычку
способный вызывать привычку
увлекаться, предаваться
восхищение
восхитительный
восхищаться
восхитительно
совет
рекомендуемый
советовать
притворство, искусственность
affection
привязанность, любовь
притворный
affectionate
любящий
affective
эмоциональный
воздействовать, влиять; притворяться
соглашение, согласие
disagreement
разногласие, несогласие
соответствующий, приятный
соглашаться
disagree
не соглашаться
соответственно
агрессия
aggressor
агрессору зачинщик
агрессивный
нападать
агрессивно
цель
бесцельный
целиться, намереваться
бесцельно
то, что может быть позволено
unaffordable
то, что невозможно себе позволить
позволять себе
развлечение
приятно изумленный
amusing
забавный
развлекать, забавлять
изумленно
внешность; появление
disappearance
исчезновение
появляться
disappear
исчезать
назначение; деловая встреча
disappointment
разочарование, досада
назначенный
disappointed
огорченный
disappointing
разочаровывающий
назначать
disappoint
разочаровывать
одобрение
одобренный
approving
одобрительный
одобрять
одобрительно
соглашение; расположение
приведенный в порядок
приводить в порядок, организовывать
аргумент, довод
argumentation
аргументация
доказуемый (в споре)
argumentative
спорный, конфликтный
утверждать, спорить, ссориться
доказательно
присвоение; ассигнование
подходящий, соответствующий
inappropriate
несоответствущий, неуместный
присваивать, предназначать
соответственно, подходяще
прибытие
прибывать, приезжать
притяжение, привлекательность
привлеченный
attractive
привлекательный
привлекать
привлекательно
избежание, отмена
то, чего можно избежать
unavoidable
неизбежный
избегать
неизбежно
красота; красавица
красивый
украшать
красиво
роды
сносный, допустимый
unbearable
невыносимый
носить; терпеть
невыносимо
вера
вероятный, правдоподобный
unbelievable
невероятный
верить
выгода
выгодный
получать выгоду
зануда
boredom
скука
испытывающий скуку
boring
скучный, надоедливый
надоедать
скучно
дыхание, дуновение
breathing
дыхание
breather
короткая передышка
дышащий
breathless
бездыханный
дышать
затаив дыхание
дело
businessman
деловой мужчина
businesswoman
деловая женщина
занятой
businesslike
деловой, практичный
занимать делом
деловито, по-деловому
забота, уход
заботливый
careless
небрежный
заботиться, любить
заботливо
carelessly
небрежно
празднование
celebrity
знаменитость
знаменитый, прославленный
праздновать, прославлять
определенность
uncertainty
неопределенность, неуверенность
определенный
uncertain
неопределенный
определенно, уверенно
изменение; мелочь, сдача
изменчивый
changed
изменившийся
changeless
неизменный
unchanged
не изменившийся
менять; обменивать(ся)
неизменно
характер
характерный, типичный
характеризовать
выбор
разборчивый
выбирать
ребенок
children
дети
детский; ребяческий
очистка; устранение препятствий
четкий, ясный
очищать, расчищать
четко, ясно
облако
облачный
cloudless
безоблачный
собрание; коллекция
collector
сборщик
коллективный, совокупный
собирать; коллекционировать
колония
колониальный
колонизировать
цвет
цветной
colourless
бесцветный
multi-coloured
разноцветный
раскрашивать
комфорт; утешение
discomfort
беспокойство; неудобство
удобный, комфортабельный
uncomfortable
неудобный
утешать, успокаивать
удобно
uncomfortably
неудобно
община, общество
общественный, коллективный
сообщение
communicator
коммуникатор, переговорщик
использующийся в общении; коммуникативный
сообщать; общаться
сравнение
сравниваемый
comparative
сравнительный
сравнивать
сравнительно, относительно
соревнование; конкуренция
competitor
конкурент, соперник
соревновательный
соревноваться, конкурировать
в форме соревнования, конкуренции
завершение, окончание
законченный
complete
полный, завершенный
incomplete
неполный, назавершенный
заканчивать, завершать
полностью
поздравление
поздравлять
соединение, объединение
связанный, соединенный
соединять
disconnect
разъединять
внимание; рассмотрение, обсуждение
значительный
considerate
внимательный, деликатный, тактичный
inconsiderate
неосмотрительный; невнимательный к другим
считать, полагать; рассматривать
значительно
совесть
совестливый, добросовестный
conscientiousless
бессовестный
добросовестно
сознание
осознающий
unconscious
без сознания
сознательно, осознанно
консультация
consultant
консультант
консультирующий
консультировать
вместилище, контейнер
содержащий
содержать, вмещать
непрерывность
продолжающийся, длящийся
продолжать
непрерывно
управление, руководство
поддающийся управлению
uncontrollable
неподдающийся управлению
controlled
управляемый
uncontrolled
неуправляемый
управлять, регулировать
бесконтрольно
убеждение
убедительный
convinced
убежденный
убеждать
убедительно
повар
cooker
плита, духовка
переваренный
under-cooked
недоваренный
готовить еду
исправление
corrector
корректор
правильный
incorrect
неправильный
исправлять
правильно
прилавок
discount
скидка
accountant
бухгалтер
исчисляемый
uncountable
неисчисляемый
считать
немеряно, без счета
храбрость
храбрый
encouraged
воодушевленный
encouraging
подбадривающий
discouraged
обескураженный
приободрять, поддерживать
discourage
отговаривать, обескураживать
смело, храбро
создание
creativity
творчество
creator
творец, создатель
creature
творение; живое существо
творческий
создавать, творить
творчески
вера, доверие
вероятный, заслуживающий доверия
incredible
невероятный
вероятно
incredibly
невероятно
критик
criticism
критика
критический; переломный; рискованный
критиковать
критично, критически
культивация, обработка
культивированный, обработанный
обрабатывать
культура
культурный, воспитанный
cultural
культурный (как часть культуры)
культурно
лекарство; лечение
излечимый
incurable
неизлечимый
вылечивать, исцелять
неизлечимо
опасность
опасный
угрожать
опасно
день
ежедневный
ежедневно
обман, заблуждение
обманчивый
deceitful
обманчивый, лживый
обманывать
обманчиво, предательски
решение
определенный, явный
undecided
нерешительный, неясный
decisive
решительный, убежденный, убедительный
решать, принимать решение
решительно, определенно
определение
четкий, определенный
indefinite
неопределенный
определять, давать определение
определенно, ясно
indefinitely
нечетко, неопределенно
восторг, наслаждение
восхитительный
delighted
польщенный
восхищаться
с восторгом
доставка, поставка
доставленный
доставлять
зависимость
independence
независимость
зависимый
independent
независимый
зависеть
независимо
депрессия, подавленность
депрессивный, вызывающий депрессию
depressed
подавленный
подавлять
описание
описательный, наглядный
описывать
проект, дизайн
designer
дизайнер, проектировщик
проектировать
желание, стремление
желательный, желаемый
undesirable
нежелательный
желать, стремиться
желательно
разрушение
разрушенный
разрушать, уничтожать
решительность; определение
решительный
решать, определять
развитие
developer
разработчик
развитой
developing
развивающийся
undeveloped
неразвитый
развивать(ся)
умирающий
умирать
разница, различие
indifference
безразличие
другой, отличающийся
indifferent
безразличный
отличаться
по-другому
indifferently
с безразличием
тревога, беспокойство; нарушение тишины, порядка
обеспокоенный
disturbing
беспокоящий
беспокоить, мешать
сомнение
сомнительный
doubtless
несомненный
undoubted
бесспорный
сомневаться
с сомнением
doubtlessly
не сомневаясь
undoubtedly
без сомнения
легкость, свобода
disease
болезнь
легкий
uneasy
неловкий, тревожный
облегчать, ослаблять
легко
uneasily
неловко
хозяйство
экономический
economical
экономный
экономить
экономически; экономно
воспитатель, педагог
education
образование
образованный
uneducated
необразованный
educative
образовательный
воспитывать, давать образование
следствие, результат
effectiveness
эффективность
эффективный, действующий
производить, выполнять
эффективно, действенно
электричество
electrician
электрик
электрический
электрифицировать
империя
empiror
император
имперский
empiric / empirical
исходящий из опыта, эмпирический
служба, работа
unemployment
безработица
employer
наниматель, работодатель
employee
работающий по найму
нанятый, занятый
unemployed
безработный
нанимать
конец, окончание
бесконечный
unending
нескончаемый
конец, окончание
бесконечно
окружающая среда
природный
развлечение
развлекательный
развлекать
энтузиазм, восторг
enthusiast
энтузиаст, восторженный человек
восторженный
с восторгом
оборудование
снаряженный, оборудованный
снаряжать
сущность
главный, основной
главным образом
экзамен; медосмотр
проэкзаменованный; осмотренный врачом
экзаменовать; осматривать
возбуждение, волнение
возбуждающий
excitable
возбудимый
excited
возбужденный, взволнованный
возбуждать, волновать
взволнованно, возбужденно
ожидание, предчувствие
ожидаемый
unexpected
неожиданный
ожидать, предчувствовать
расход(ы), затраты
дорогой
inexpensive
недорогой
тратить, расходовать
дорого
опыт, опытность
inexperience
неопытность
experiment
эксперимент
опытный
inexperienced
неопытный
experimental
эспериментальный
испытывать
взрыв
explosive
взрывчатое вещество
взрывчатый
взрываться
выражение
выразительный
выражать
выразительно
пространство, степень
длительный,обширный
extensive
обширный
простираться, тянуться
обширно, протяженно
крайняя степень, крайность
крайний, чрезвычайный
крайне
очарование, обаяние
чарующий
fascinated
очарованный
очаровывать
справедливость; порядочность
порядочный, справедливый
unfair
несправедливый
справедливо, честно; довольно-таки
финансы
финансовый
финансировать
финансово
твердость
твердый
утверждать
твердо
физическая форма, физическое состояние
находящийся в хорошей форме; подходящий
unfit
неподходящий
подгонять, подстраивать
следующий
следовать
глупыш, дурак
глупый
обманывать
глупо
забываемый
unforgettable
незабываемый
forgetful
забывчивый
forgotten
забытый
забывать
прощение
прощающий
forgivable
простительный
unforgivable
непростительный
прощать
с прощением
судьба, счастье; богатство, состояние
счастливый
unfortunate
несчастный
к счастью
unfortunately
к сожалению
свобода
свободный; бесплатный
свободно
частота
частый
часто посещать
часто
друг
friendship
дружба
friendliness
дружелюбие
дружеский, дружелюбный
unfriendly
недружеский
дружелюбно
страх, испуг
страшный
frightened
испуганный
frightening
пугающий
пугать, устрашать
страшно; испуганно
щедрость
щедрый
щедро
джентльмен
мягкий, нежный
мягко, нежно
привидение, призрак
похожий на привидение
трава
травяной
привычка, обычай
habitant
обитатель
habitat
естественная среда
habitation
жилище, обиталище
привычный
приучать
обычно
рука; рабочий
handful
горсть
удобный (для использования)
handmade
изготовленный вручную
вручать
счастье
unhappiness
несчастье
счастливый
unhappy
несчастный
счастливо
unhappily
несчастливо
вред
вредный
harmless
безвредный
повредить, навредить
вредно
здоровье
здоровый
unhealthy
нездоровый
дом, жилище
бездомный
честь
почетный
почитать, чтить
почетно
надежда
hopefulness
оптимизм, надежда
надеющийся
hopeless
безнадежный
надеяться
с надеждой
человечество
человеческий
humane
гуманный
inhuman
бесчеловечный
humanitarian
гуманитарный
юмор
юмористический
с юмором
спешка
торопливый, спешащий
hurried
торопливый
торопиться
торопливо
лед
ледяной
важность
важный
unimportant
незначительный
важно
впечатление
впечатленный
impressive
впечатляющий
unimpressed
безучастный
производить впечатление
впечатляюще
улучшение
улучшенный
улучшать
толчок, побуждение
импульсивный
импульсивно
несчастный случай; конфликт, инцидент
случайный
случайно
рост, увеличение
растущий
увеличивать(ся)
с ростом
промышленность
промышленный
industrious
трудолюбивый. усердный
индустриализовать
в промышленном отношении
сообщение, информация
informant
осведомитель
formality
формальность
осведомленный
well-informed
знающий, хорошо информированный
misinformed
неверно информированный
formal
формальный, официальный
informal
неофициальный
информировать
misinform
неверно сообщать; дезинформировать
информационно
интенсивность
интенсивный
интенсифицировать
интенсивно
интерес
заинтересованный
interesting
интересный
интересовать
изобретатель
invention
изобретение
изобретательный
изобретать
изобретательно
приглашение
приглашенный
приглашать
вдохновение
вдохновленный
inspiring
вдохновляющий
вдохновлять
знание
acknowledgement
признание; расписка
признанный
признавать, подтверждать
законность, легальность
юридический, законный
illegal
незаконный, подпольный
легализовать
законно
illegally
незаконно
сходство, подобие
приятный
unlike
непохожий
like
аналогичный
относиться хорошо
dislike
относиться отрицательно
вероятно
unlikely
невероятно
unlike
в отличие
жизнь
living
жизнь
оживленный, веселый
live
актуальный, реальный
жить
оживленно
литература
буквальный
literary
литературный
literate
грамотный
illiterate
неграмотный
буквально
место, поселение
местный
размещать
в определенном месте
одиночество
одинокий; один
удача
удачливый
unlucky
неудачливый, неудачный
к счастью
роскошь
шикарный
большинство
главный, основной
управляющий, руководитель
управленческий
управлять; справляться
женитьба
женатый / замужняя
unmarried
неженатый / незамужняя
жениться
встреча; собрание
встречать, знакомиться
память
memorial
мемориал
памятный
заучивать наизусть
нищета
нищенский, ничтожный
месяц
ежемесячный
ежемесячно
движение
неподвижный
показывать жестом
тайна, загадка
таинственный, загадочный
таинственно, загадочно
необходимость
необходимый
unnecessary
ненужный
необходимо
нерв
нервный
нервировать
нервно
число; количество
многочисленный
numerate
умеющий считать
innumerate
неумеющий считать
обозначать цифрами
объект, предмет
objective
цель; возражение
объективный
возражать
объективно
упрямый
упрямо
случай, происшествие
происходить
операция; оперирование, приведение в действие
управлять, действовать
возможность
opportunist
оппортунист
своевременный, подходящий
оппозиция, противостояние
opponent
оппонент, противник
напротив
opposed
противоположный
противопосталять
владелец, хозяин
собственный
владеть
боль
болезненный
painless
безболезненный
болезненно
painlessly
безболезненно
терпение
impatience
нетерпение
patient
пациент
терпеливый
impatient
нетерпеливый
терпеливо
impatiently
нетерпеливо
участник
participation
участие
участвующий
принимать участие
подробности
особенный
особенно
совершенство
совершенный, идеальный
imperfect
несовершенный
совершенствовать, улучшать
отлично, безупречно
период, срок
периодический
периодически
представление; исполнение
performer
исполнитель
исполнять, выполнять, совершать
мир, спокойствие
мирный
мирно
разрешение
permissiveness
вседозволенность
permit
пропуск
позволяющий
позволять
с позволением
удовольствие
приятный
pleased
довольный
displeased
недовольный
доставлять удовольствие
приятно
точка; пункт
остроконечный, нацеленный
pointful
уместный, удачный
pointless
бесцельный
указывать, направлять
остро, по существу
вежливость
вежливый
impolite
невежливый
вежливо
популярность
популярный
unpopular
непопулярный
популяризировать
владение, собственность
possessor
обладатель, владелец
собственнический
владеть, обладать
вероятность, возможность
возможный
impossible
невозможный
возможно
сила, мощь
мощный
powerless
бессильный
уполномочивать
предпочтение
предпочтительный
preferential
пользующийся препочтением
предпочитать
предпочтительно
подготовка
подготовленный
unprepared
неподготовленный
подготовить
с готовностью
престиж
престижный
престижно
профессия
профессиональный
профессионально
выгода
выгодный
unprofitable
не приносящий выгоды
получать выгоду
выгодно
прогресс, продвижение
прогрессивный
продвигаться вперед
постепенно, продвигаясь вперед
предложение
предложенный
делать предложение
процветание
процветающий
процветать
процветающе
общественность
общественный
разглашать
открыто, публично
быстрота
быстрый
убыстрять
быстро
реальность
realization
реализация, осуществление
реальный, настоящий
unreal
нереальный
реализовать, осуществлять
действительно, в самом деле
признание, узнавание
признанный
узнавать; признавать
снижение, понижение
уменьшенный; сниженный
снижать; сбавлять
отдых, расслабление
расслабленный
relaxing
отдыхающий; расслабляющий
отдыхать, расслабляться
расслабленно
надежность
надежный
unreliable
ненадежный
доверять, полагаться
надежно
религия
религиозный
нежелание, неохота
неохотный
неохотно
регулярность
irregularity
нерегулярность
регулярный, правильный
irregular
неправильный; нестандартный
регулировать
регулярно
замечание
замечательный
замечать, отмечать
замечательно
представление
representative
представитель
представительный
представлять
упрек
безупречный
упрекать
с упреком
репутация
имеющий хорошую репутацию, почтенный
disreputable
имеющий плохую репутацию
давать репутацию
disrepute
компрометироватъ
сопротивление
ударопрочный;
irresistible
неотразимый
resistant
прочный
сопротивляться
неотразимо
уважение
уважительный
уважать
с уважением
отдых
беспокойный
отдыхать
беспокойно
награда
стоящий награды
unrewarded
невознагражденный
награждать
богатства
richness
богатство
богатый
обогащать
богато
риск
рискованный
рисковать
грусть
грустный
огорчать
грустно
сейф
safety
безопасность
безопасный
unsafe
опасный
спасать; экономить
безопасно
удовлетворение
dissatisfaction
неудовлетворенность; недовольство
довольный
dissatisfied
недовольный
satisfactory
удовлетворительный
unsatisfactory
неудовлетворительный
удовлетворять
dissatisfy
разочаровывать; огорчать
исследование
искать, осуществлять поиск
безопасность
безопасный
insecure
находящийся в опасности
охранять, гарантировать
безопасно
серьезность
серьезный
серьезно
наука
scientist
ученый
научный
научно
чувство
insensibility
отсутствие чувствительности
чувствительный
insensitive
несочувствующий
sensible
разумный
insensible
нечувствительный, неосознающий
ощущать
чувствительно
sensibly
разумно
услуга, обслуживание
servant
слуга
обслуженный; поданный на стол
служить, обслуживать, подавать на стол
значительный
insignificant
незначительный
иметь значение
значительно
сходство, похожесть
похожий, подобный
похоже, подобно
искренность
искренний
insincere
неискренний
искренне
шорты
короткий
укорачивать
кратко
сон
sleeper
спящий; спальный вагон
спящий
sleepless
бессонный
спать
без сна
решение; раствор
решенный; растворенный
решать; находить выход; растворять
специальность; фирменное блюдо
specialty
особенность
особенный; специальный
specific
специфический
точно определять
specialize
специализировать(ся)
специально
specifically
специфично
сила
сильный
укреплять
сильно
стресс
стрессовый
ударять, ставить ударение
в состоянии стресса
успех
успешный
unsuccessful
безуспешный
преуспевать
успешно
достаточность
insufñcience
недостаточность
достаточный
insufficient
недостаточный
быть достаточным
достаточно
подходящий
unsuitable
неподходящий
подходить, устраивать
предложение
предлагать
подозреваемый
подозрительный
подозревать
подозрительно
пловец
swimming
плавание
плавающий, плавательный
плавать
сочувствие, понимание
сочувствующий
сочувствовать
с пониманием; сочувственно
уверенность
уверенный
unsure
неуверенный
assured
обеспеченный; уверенный
self-assured
уверенный в себе
обеспечивать; гарантировать
assure
уверять, обеспечивать
конечно; уверенно
assuredly
с уверенностью
окружение
окруженный
окружать
беседа, разговор
разговорчивый
беседовать
вкус
distaste
отсуствие вкуса
сделанный со вкусом; обладающий вкусом
tasteless
безвкусный
пробовать
со вкусом
tastelessly
без вкуса
террор
terrorist
террорист
ужасный
terrific
потрясающий
terrifying
ужасающий
terrified
напуганный
ужасать
ужасно
terrifically
потрясающе
жажда
испытывать жажду
колготки
плотный, тесный
сжимать, натягивать
тесно, плотно
мысль
задумчивый
thoughtless
бездумный
думать, иметь мнение
задумчиво
трагедия
трагичный
tragical
трагический
трагично
путешествие
traveller
путешественник
путешествующий
путешествовать
правда
untruth
неправда
правильный; настоящий
untrue
неверный, не соответствующий действительности
truthful
правдивый
по-настоящему, искренне
truthfully
правдиво
ценность
ценимый
valuable
ценный
ценить, оценивать
разнообразие
variability
изменчивость, непостоянство
изменяемый
invariable
неизменный
менять, разнообразить
неизменно
год
ежегодный
ежегодно
понимание
misunderstanding
непонимание; недоразумение
понятный
понимать
польза
misuse
неправильное использование;
usage
использование
полезный
useless
бесполезный
used
использованный
unused
неиспользованный
использовать, пользоваться
полезно
uselessly
бесполезно
неделя
еженедельный
еженедельно
ширина
широкий
расширять
широко
воля, желание; завещание
жаждущий, желающий
unwilling
не желающий
проявлять волю, желать
охотно, с удовольствием
unwillingly
неохотно
ветер
ветренный
windless
безветренный
мудрость
мудрый
unwise
неблагоразумный
мудро
unwisely
неблагоразумно
стоимость, ценность
достойный
worthless
не имеющий ценности
Test 1. Add a prefix
to the verb and put it in a proper tense. appoint
Attempts to
communicate in a foreign language can easily misfire.
My friend is always
___ (1) by his attempts to speak French. understand
Once a waiter in Paris
___ (2) what he wanted and instead of
beetroots brought him
potatoes. He ___ (3) potatoes but when like
he asked a waiter to
___ (4) them with beetroots the waiter smiled, place
and ___ (5) with a
plate of aubergines. The waiter also ___ (6) turn
my friend attitude
towards everyone he meets and when my take
friend complained that
they had ___ (7) the meat, Paul (that was his cook
name if my friend
isn’t ___ (8)) grinned. To cap it all my friend take
___ (9) the bill and
accused the waiter of ___ (10) him. It was just my read
friend’s awful
French again! charge
Test 2. Add a correct
prefix to the following adjectives.
1. dependent; 2.
polite; 3. logical; 4. historic; 5. Atlantic; 6. moral; 7. national;
8. relevant; 9. regular; 10. direct
Test 3. Add a
prefix de-, ex-, multi-, semi-, sub– to the following words. You
can use each of them more than once.
1. final; 2. partner;
3. standard; 4. national; 5. section; 6. ethnic; 7. zero; 8.
regulate; 9. wife; 10. code
Test 4. Complete
the chart with the correct noun. Words in bold will help you.
Test 5. Fill in the
spaces in the following text using a suitable form of the words given
at the end of the lines to form nouns.
It is no exaggeration
to say that the world has become а global
village. Modern
methods of ___ (1) have made the world much communicate
smaller and the
problems we face such as ___ (2) are not restricted pollute
to one country. The
___ (3) of the rainforests in Brazil is destroy
everyone’s problem
and the ___ (4) which is common in starve
many African countries
is а challenge for Europe too.
The ___ (5) of rare
species is а tragedy for the planet as а extinct
whole and the ___ (6)
of oil supplies will shake the ___ (7) exhaust
of the world’s
economy. The ___ (8) of the environment found
is the responsibility
of all nations, rich and poor. protect
However, uncontrolled
economic ___ (9) between strong compete
and weak nations leads
to the ___ (10) of greater inequality create
between the rich and
poor nations of the world.
Test 6. Fill in the
spaces in the following sentences with the suitable adjectives formed
from given words.
1. It is a very ___
road. danger
2. It was so ___ that
she couldn’t see anything. fog
3. Everyone knows this
actress. She is very ___. attract
4. This case is very
___. comfort
5. He is a ___
politician. fame
6. Great Britain is an
___ country. industry
7. She plays the
guitar and she is very ___. music
8. Her mother is very
___. She economy
always tries to save
money.
9. The shop is in the
___ part of the city. centre
10. The people were
very ___ and knowledge
answered all her
questions.
Test 7. Fill in the
spaces in the following text using a suitable negative prefix of the
words given at the end of the lines.
The British government
has decided to take the ___ (1) decision
to ban smoking in a
lot of public places. Though a popular
lot of people find
smoking ___ (2), and though experts please
all agree it is ___
(3) and that it costs the state a lot health
to treat victims of
smoking, it is also ___ (4) that many people deny
get pleasure from the
habit and find smoking resist
___ (5) when they are
in company. However, it is now ___ (6) to possible
deny the antisocial
nature of the habit. As advertising
has proved ___ (7)
with many smokers, the government effect
has now made smoking
___ (8) in most public places. legal
Smokers who are ___
(9) to stop smoking may feel the ability
new measures are
unjust, but for the passive smokers for
whom a room full of
smoke is ___ (10) they will come as bear
a breath of fresh air.
Test 8. Fill in the
spaces in the following text using a suitable form of the words given
at the end of the lines.
Speaking English Well
I have a Dutch friend
who speaks English ___ (1). I have always beauty
wondered how the Dutch
manage to learn languages
so ___ (2). The Dutch,
like the Germans, often success
speak English ___ (3)
than some native-speakers or well
at least they seem to
speak the language more ___ (4) than correct
some English people.
Wilfred says that if you
want to speak English
___ (5) with a reasonable fluency
accent, you should
listen to tapes as ___ (6) as frequency
possible. If you can
afford ___ (7) to go to an occasion
English speaking
country, you should go but you should
also study the rules
of English ___ (8), especially if care
you want to speak ___
(9). Wilfred also feels accuracy
very ___ (10) that
there are no magic solutions strength
but that you simply
have to work at the new language.
Test 9. Fill in the
spaces in the following text using a suitable form of the words given
at the end of the lines.
Memorial Day in the
USA
Honoring the dead has
been a practice of many ___ (1). civil
The ancient Druids,
Greeks, and Romans ___ (2) decoration
the graves of their
loved ones with flowers.
In the United States,
the ___ (3) have been death
honored on Memorial
Day since the time of the Civil
War. In 1967 a ___ (4)
of President Johnson proclaim
and a ___ (5)
congressional resolution officially join
recognized Waterloo as
‘the birthplace of Memorial
Day’. And the
Memorial Day is ___ (6) on observation
the last Monday of
May. Each year the President of
the US issues a
special Memorial Day ___ (7) which proclaim
includes a call for
___ (8) to observe the city
occasion as a day of
prayer for ___ (9). peaceful
Memorial Day
observances are by no means ___ (10) limit
to the big ___ (11)
cemeteries. In towns and cities,
across the land,
veterans’ groups, civic ___ (12), nation
family groups, and
individuals decorate graves organize
with flowers or with
small American flags. In many
communities there are
parades. Parade ___ (13) include participate
veterans and armed
forces and a lot of other
people. Memorial Day
has also ___ (14) marked tradition
the ___ (15) of
summer. begin
Test 10. Fill in the
spaces in the following text using a suitable form of the words given
at the end of the lines.
This ___ (1) was built
in the 1920s and became showcase for ___ (2). neighbour, architecture
Each architect had one
plot on which to ___ (3) one house. In spite of this, builder
the area has a ___ (4)
unified style. Look, for example, at these wonderful
houses on our left. At
that time very few people lived in their owner
___ (5) apartments;
those flats had no ___ (6) water, bathrooms and other run, convenient
___ (7). And here was
a ___ (8) building project which attempted mass
both to show the ___
(9) styles in which apartments could be difference
built, and to improve
___ (10) conditions. live
Test 11. Fill in the
spaces in the following text using a suitable form of the words given
at the end of the lines.
Life used to be ___
(1) for teenag ers. They used to have money to funny
spend, and ___ (2)
time to spend it in. They used to wear ___ (3) freedom
clothes, and meet in
coffee bars and discos. Some of them still teenager
do. But for many young
people, life is harder now. Jobs are ___ (4) to find. difficulty
There’s not so much
money around. Teachers say that students work ___ (5) hard
than they used to.
They are ___ (6) interested in politics, little
and more interested in
___ (7) exams. They know that good exams pass
may get them ___ (8)
jobs. Most young people worry more about good
money than their
parents did twenty years ago. They try to spend little
___ (9) and save ___
(10). They want to be able to get many
homes of their own one
day. Three quarters of ___ (11) young Britain
people do more or less
what their parents did. They did their ___ (12) good
at school, find some
kind of work in the end, and get married in
their early ___ (13).
They get on well with their parents and twenty
enjoy their ___ (14).
They eat fish and chips, watch football on live
TV, go the pub and
like ___ (15). After all, if they didn’t, they read
wouldn’t be British,
would they?
Test 12. Fill in the
spaces in the following text using a suitable form of the words given
at the end of the lines.
As your children move
towards ___ (1) it is ___ (2) to make depend
sure that they
understand what decent values are. To importance
prevent children from
becoming ___ (3) and ___ (4) you should spoil
not indulge them too
much. To make sure that they grow up greed
well– ___ (5) they
should be taught to be ___ (6) from an manner
early age. Children
should be scolded for bad ___ (7), politeness
which will be an
effective way of helping ___ (8) to distinguish behave
right from wrong. You
need to reward your ___ (9) when they they
do things well to give
them a sense of ___ (10) but you must child
be careful not to
overdo it or they may become ___ (11). proud
You should try to make
your children ___ (12) and respectful conceit
of other peoples
beliefs by exposing them to ___ (13) tolerate
races and cultures.
Parents should try to place great difference
___ (14) on setting a
good example to their children, important
because children’s
behaviour is often an ___ (15) of that imitate
of their parents.
Test 13. Fill in the
spaces in the following text using a suitable form of the words given
at the end of the lines.
The ___ (1) of
children starts as soon as they are born. Boys are educate
allowed to make more
___ (2), to play with guns and cause more noisy
trouble. Such
education prepares boys for ___ (3) in the world powerful
but for little else.
But all boys are ___ (4). Some boys are differen
good at ___ (5) and
poetry whereas others are good at football cook
or maths. Boys aren’t
just ___ (6) and rebels, ‘machos’ and conform
‘wimps’. If we can
___ (7) them that all these types are okay, assurance
it may help to reduce
the ___ (8) of those boys who are the least macho. bully
Test 14. Fill in the
spaces in the following text using a suitable form of the words given
at the end of the lines.
The ___ (1) of
fingerprints reached Britain in 1901 and systematize
proved ___ (2). In
1930, Scotland Yard set up its first use
___ (3) system to
enable officers to compare fingerprints found on classify
the scene of the crime
with those of ___ (4) known to the crime
police. Fingerprint
technology has advanced ___ (5) since then. great
Different types of
powder are used to ___ (6) the impression of the strength
fingerprint before it
is taken. Another ___ (7) revolutionary
has been in the way
that fingerprints are identified. Today, the
first ___ (8) is done
by the computer, which then produces searching
a ___ (9) of possible
matches. The final ___ (10) however is select
done by police
experts. identify
Test 15. Fill in the
spaces in the following text using a suitable form of the words given
at the end of the lines.
In the past, any
mother would be ___ (1) if her children were pride
round and slightly
fat. Those days are gone. ___ (2) have now research
reached the ___ (3)
that too much fat and sugar in children’s conclude
diets are a major
factor in the ___ (4) of heart diseases and develop
other ___ (5) when
they are older. However, growing children need ill
to eat a wide range of
foods, and their general health could be
___ (6) by cutting out
particular ones. Psychologists say that the danger
___ (7) is not to
change eating habits too fast, but to do it ___ (8), solve
so that children do
not lose muscle in addition to fat. Parents should care
present food a little
___ (9), spread butter thinly and avoid difference
putting sugar on the
table. Children should also be ___ (10) to courage
take part in sports:
this way they will be using the calories
that they have eaten.
Test 16. Fill in the
spaces in the following sentences using a suitable form of the words
given at the end of the lines.
1. What can we do to
reduce the ___ of the atmosphere? pollute
2. The change in the
climate has produced ___ floods. disaster
3. Many rare species
are threatened with ___. extinct
4. Many of the gases
produced by factories are ___ to our health. harm
5. Exhaust fumes have
___ effects on the environment. damage
6. Many countries must
try and control the growth of the ___. populate
7. Protecting the
environment is essential to our ___. survive
8. The protection of
the environment is everyone’s ___. responsible
9. While some
countries get richer, the ___ in others get worse. poor
10. Millions of people
in the world are threatened with ___. Starve
13. EXAM PRACTICE
Test 1
1. Read the text and
put the words at the end of each line into the correct form.
The Bald Eagle
In 1782, soon after
the United States won its independence, the bald
eagle ___ (1) as the
national bird of the new country. American choose
leaders wanted the
eagle to be а symbol of ___ (2) country because it they
is one of the ___ (3)
birds. Today the bald eagle strong
almost ___ (4) from
the country. In 1972 there ___ (5) only 3,000 disappear be
bald eagles in the
entire United States. The reason for the
bird’s ___ (6)
population was pollution of rivers by pesticides. Pesticides decrease
poison the fish.
Eagles eat these fish and then the eggs eagles
lay have very thin
shells and ___ (7). Today, the American government not hatch
and the American
people ___ (8) to protect the bald eagle. The try
number of bald eagles
slowly ___ (9). The American increase
national bird ___
(10), and remains а symbol of strength and courage. survive
2. Read the text. Use
the word given at the end of each line to form a word that fits the
space in the same line.
Our ___ (1) in New
York was spectacular. Its skyscrapers and the arrive
Statue of Liberty make
а ___ (2) sight. New York has а ___ (3) beauty
of over seven million
and it is probably the world’s most populate
famous city. The ___
(4) of the ‘Big Apple’ come from many inhabit
different countries.
There are more ___ (5) in New York than in any nation
other place on earth.
It also has more ___ (6) than any tour
other city except
London, ___ (7) in the summer. ___ (8) special
come from all over the
world and have а ___ (9) time. There visit
are so many sights for
them to get ___ (10) about wonder
whether it’s some of
the best museums in the world or the enthusiasm
charming little
streets of Greenwich Village.
3. Choose the most
suitable word for each space.
Viewed from the
outside, the Houses of Parliament give а firm impression of all
those ___ (1) which we are supposed to value in the British form of
government. The architecture gives the place а ___ (2) look, and the
buildings are sandwiched between а busy square and the river making
them а ___ (3) between the country house of an eccentric duke and а
Victorian railway station. You have only to learn that the ___ (4)
refer to each other as ‘The Honourable Member for So and So’ to
complete the picture of а dignified gentlemen’s club, with of
course а few ladies to ___ (5) the numbers. Sadly, over the past few
years first radio, and now television, have shown the general ___ (6)
what in fact goes on when bills are ___ (7) and questions are asked.
The first obvious fact is that the chamber is very rarely full, and
there may be only а ___ (8) of members present, some of ___ (9) are
quite clearly asleep, telling jokes to their neighbour, or engaged in
shouting like badly-behaved schoolchildren. There is not enough ___
(10) for them all in the chamber in any case, which is а second
worrying point. Of course, television does not follow the work of ___
(11) which are small discussion groups that do most of the real work
of the House. But the ___ (12) impression that we as ___ (13) receive
of the workings of government is not а good one. To put it bluntly,
parliament looks disorganised, is clearly behind the times and seems
to be ___ (14) with bores and comedians. This is presumably why
members resisted for so long the efforts of the ВВС to broadcast
parliamentary ___ (15) on television.
1. a) views b)
appearances c) identities d) features
2. a) fashionable b)
traditional c) close-up d) notorious
3. a) mixture b)
combination c) cross d) match
4. a) members b)
candidates c) delegates d) senators
5. a) take away b)
bring about c) make up d) set in
6. a) situation b)
public с) interest d) rule
7. a) paid b)
determined c) voted d) discussed
8. a) handful b)
majority c) few d) number
9. a) these b) whom с)
them d) others
10. a) seats b) places
c) room d) around
11. a) elections b)
those c) everyone d) committees
12. a) overall b)
visual c) positive d) striking
13. a) audience b)
often c) voters d) well
14. a) working b)
inevitably c) filled d) much
15. a) matters b)
committees c) speeches d) debates
Test 2
1. Read the text and
put the words at the end of each line into the correct form.
Tricks on April Fool’s
Day In 1698, a number of Londoners received invitations
to see the lions
washed in the Thames. This event ___ (1) in news describe
papers. However, the
same trick ___ (2) in 1860, and again a lot of repeat
curious Londoners ___
(3) to enjoy the lions washed. In 1957 BBC come
Television played an
even ___ (4) joke on its viewers. It showed hilarious
a film about a
spaghetti crop ___ (5) in Southern Switzerland. grow
Agricultural workers
___ (6) long strands of spaghetti from bushes pick
and the presenter of
the film ___ (7) on the uniform length of the comment
spaghetti and on the
successful cultivation of ‘these vegetables’. After be
the programme there
___ (8) a lot of calls from people who not get
___ (9) the joke and
wanted to know where they ___ (10) buy spaghetti bushes. can
2. Read the text. Use
the word given at the end of each line to form a word that fits the
space in the same line.
Americans talk with
___ (1) of their government and ___ (2). They proud, institute
seem certain that they
have more ___ (3), better laws and free
stronger leaders. But
even the most ___ (4) Americans have а few doubts. patriot
___ (5) is one problem
area, and so is the law. There are not educate
enough clever
teachers, and too many clever ___ (6). But Americans law
feel ___ (7) that they
can change things that don’t work. Americans confidence
want to be proud of
their President. They like him to be good-looking,
___ (8), and a good
family man. They want him to be a good ___ (9). religion, talk
They expect him to
keep the prices down at home and to keep the
country looking ___
(10) abroad. power
3. Choose the most
suitable word for each space.
Have you ever asked
yourself what you are working for? If you have ever had the time to
___ (1) this taboo question, or put it to others in moments of
weakness or confidentiality, you ___ (2) well have heard some or all
of the ___ (3). It’s the money of course, some say with а smile,
as if explaining something to а small child. Or it’s the
satisfaction of ___ (4) well done, the sense of achievement behind
the clinching of an important ___ (5). I worked as а bus conductor
once, and I can’t say I ___ (6) the same as I staggered along the
swaying gangway trying to ___ (7) out tickets without falling over
into someone’s lap. It’s the company of other people perhaps, but
if that is the ___ (8), what about farmers? Is it the conversation in
the farmyard that keeps them captivated by the job? Work is power and
а sense of status say those ___ (9) have either attained these
elusive goals, or feel aggrieved that nobody has yet recognised their
leadership ___ (10). Or we can blame it all on someone else, the
family or the taxman. I suspect, and I say this under my ___ (11),
that most of us work hoping for something to ___ (12) up. We’ll win
the pools, and tell the boss what we really think. We’ll scrape
together the ___ (13) and open that little shop we always dreamed of,
or go ___ (14) the world, or spend more time in the garden. One day
we’ll get that ___ (15) we deserve, but until then at least we have
something to do. And we are so busy doing it that we won’t have
time to wonder why.
1. a) propose b)
meditate c) consider d) launch
2. a) might b) can c)
will d) should
3. a) below b) rest c)
following d) latter
4. a) a work b) а job
c) а task d) an effort
5. a) deal b) position
c) job d) engagement
6. a) enjoyed b)
wished c) hoped d) felt
7. a) make b) turn с)
issue d) give
8. a) one b) case с)
question d) former
9. a) people b) must
c) who d) to
10. a) qualities b)
status c) property d) requirements
11. a) oath b)
suspicion c) breath d) pressure
12. a) move b) turn с)
ease d) end
13. a) resources b)
opportunities c) rest d) money
14. a) round b) over
c) into d) to
15. a) ambition b)
station c) vocation d) promotion
Test 3
1. Read the text and
put the words at the end of each line into the correct form.
Mountain Biking In the
past people ___ (1) watching TV or reading enjoy
in their free time.
Nowadays people are more interested in doing ___ (2) activity
which take them out of
their homes. That’s why mountain biking
___ (3) a very popular
sport in recent years. It is one of the ___ (4) become, reward
ways to explore the
countryside. Cyclists must pay attention to the
type of path they ___
(5) on. Some paths ___ (6) for people be, design
who are on foot, so if
you cycle along these, you ___ (7) inconvenience cause
to walkers. On any
other path, you should still respect walkers.
Another thing which
you ___ (8) to do is ___ (9) gates behind you, so ask, close
that farm animals
cannot escape. If the weather is fine, you will
enjoy a wonderful day
out, especially if you ___ (10) to take not forget
some food and drinks
with you.
2. Read the text. Use
the word given at the end of each line to form a word that fits the
space in the same line.
When the famous
explorer, Columbus claimed Florida for Spain in 1492,
he had never ___ (1)
eyes on it. The area’s most important early ___ (2) lay, visit
thus set а pattern
that has continued for centuries. There is а
general ___ (3)
amongst people, apparently quite ___ (4) with whether believe,
connect
or not they’ve been
there themselves, that Florida is а good place
to go. In fact, it is
almost ___ (5) not to enjoy yourself in Florida possible
today, given the
wonderful ___ (6) of facilities available to tourists. select
Some of the world’s
most popular tourist ___ (7) are located in the attract
state whose ___ (8)
beaches welcome 40 million people each year. sand
These days it seems
___ (9) to describe Florida’s geography and point
climate. After all,
few people would have ___ (10) in finding it on difficult
а map and most would
know what weather to expect there.
3. Choose the most
suitable word for each space.
After more than fifty
years of television, it might seem only obvious to conclude that it
is here to ___ (1). There have been many objections to it during this
time and ___ (2) а variety of grounds. Did it cause eye-strain? Was
the ___ (3) bombarding us with radioactivity? Did the advertisements
___ (4) subliminal messages, persuading us to buy more? Did children
turn to violence through watching it, either because so ___ (5)
programmes taught them how to shoot, rob, and kill, or because they
had to do something to counteract the hours they had ___ (6) glued to
the tiny screen? Or did it simply create а vast passive ___ (7),
drugged by glamorous serials and inane situation ___ (8)? On the
other hand, did it increase anxiety by sensationalising the news (or
the news which was ___ (9) by suitable pictures) and filling our
living rooms with war and political unrest? ___ (10) in аll,
television proved to be the all-purpose scapegoat for the second half
of the century, ___ (11) for everything, but above all, eagerly
watched. For no ___ (12) how much we despised it, were bored by it,
or felt that it took us away from the old paradise of family
conversation and hobbies ___ (13) as collecting stamps, we never
turned it off. We ___ (14) staring at the screen, aware that our own
tiny ___ (15) was in it if we looked carefully.
1. a) long b) stay c)
exist d) be
2. a) with b) over c)
by d) on
3. a) screen b) danger
c) machine d) reason
4. a) contain b) of c)
take d) having
5. a) that b) far c)
many d) what
6. a) almost b) spent
c) quite d) madly
7. a) programme b)
personality c) audience d) tense
8. a) comedies b)
programmes c) perhaps d) consequently
9. a) taken b)
presented c) capable d) accompanied
10. a) Taken b) All c)
Somewhat d) Thus
11. a) broadcasting b)
looking c) blamed d) ready
12. a) one b) matter
c) difference d) reason
13. a) known b) even
c) described d) such
14. a) refused b)
received c) turned d) kept
15. a) fault b)
reflection c) situation d) consciousness
Test 4
1. Read the text and
put the words at the end of each line into the correct form.
The American People
Black, white, rich, poor – you can find them all in the USА, one
of big
the ___ (1) countries
in the world. The great American idea ___ (2) that all these people
always be
should become
something new. They should leave their old ___ (3) behind and become
life
American. In some
ways, the idea ___ (4). work
Many people ___ (5)
where their grandparents came from. forget
They share the ideas,
experiences, and feelings that make up the American culture. now ask
But new questions ___
(6). Some people wonder if too much ___ (7). lose
They are becoming more
interested in the countries their families leave
once ___ (8). They are
not sure if new immigrants should try ___ (9) their own forget
languages and cultures
so completely. Americans talk а great deal about
how wonderful it is to
be American. The reason may be because they need to
keep ___ (10)
themselves that that is what they are. remind
2. Read the text. Use
the word given at the end of each line to form a word that fits the
space in the same line.
Dear Sir or Madam,
I read your ___ (1) in
International Business advertise
magazine and I am
writing for more information concerning entry ___ (2) require
for the course in
English Language. Could you tell me what language ___ (3) qualify
are required? I do not
possess the First Certificate and would like to know
if ___ (4) on the
course depends on having the FCE? In fact, as I am an accept
___ (5) for an
international company I would be interested in a course account
which focuses on
language ___ (6) for both social and develop
___ (7) purposes. I
would also like to know the ___ (8) from the busy, distant
college to London and
if ___ (9) at all classes is obligatory, attend
or whether an
occasional ___ (10) for purposes of travel be acceptable. absent
I look forward to
hearing from you.
Yours faithfully,
Nelson Fernandez
3. Choose the most
suitable word for each space.
Nobody knows for
certain what the origin of music was. Music is certainly older than
poetry and painting but as early man had no way of ___ (1) it, we can
only ___ (2) what it sounded like. Watching а child ___ (3) on а
drum with its hands or а ___ (4) of wood, it is easy to see that
this is the simplest of instruments. It does not ___ (5) much effort
to produce а rhythm on it. Wall paintings show what some of the
first instruments ___ (6) like. Early civilisations had already
discovered the three basic ___ (7) of producing music: blowing into а
tube, striking an object, and scraping а string. We know that
western music comes from the ___ (8) Greeks. The musical scales we
use now are ___ (9) on certain sequences of notes which the Greeks
used to create а particular ___ (10). Until the 16th century, most
players of instruments were ___ (11) performers, but as music became
more ___ (12), orchestras and musical groups began to ___ (13). This
___ (14) about the writing of music to be played by several musicians
at one time. This can certainly be ___ (15) the birth of modern
music.
1. a) recording b)
playing c) producing d) performing
2. a) think b) reckon
c) guess d)realise
3. a) hitting b)
knocking c) crashing d) banging
4. a) slice b) point
c) piece d) shape
5. a) make b) call c)
take d) do
6. a) looked b)
appeared c) felt d) sounded
7. a) forms b) manners
c) systems d) ways
8. a) ancient b) old
c) aged d) antique
9. a) raised b) based
c) established d) supported
10. a) spirit b)
temper c) mood d) humour
11. a) separate b)
lonely c) unique d) single
12. a) widespread b)
enlarged c) expanded d) extended
13. a) turn b) appear
c) spring d) be
14. a) produced b)
affected c) caused d) brought
15. a) appointed b)
called c) decided d) named
Test 5
1. Read the text and
put the words at the end of each line into the correct form.
One morning Mr
Sherlock Holmes was sitting in his room in Baker Street.
His friend Dr Watson
was standing near the window ___ (1) at a walking stick. look
This stick ___ (2) by
a strange visitor the day before. The words forget
‘To Dr Mortimer’
___ (3) on it. Dr Watson had already been examining write
it for half an hour
but ___ (4) say anything about it. Suddenly not can
Sherlock Holmes ___
(5), ‘The owner of this stick has a dog which is say
___ (6) than a
terrier. I have noticed the marks of a dog’s ___ (7) large, tooth
on the stick. Probably
the dog often ___ (8) the stick behind the carry
master.’ ‘I wonder
why this man wanted to visit us,’ asked Dr Watson.
‘Well, we soon ___
(9),’ answered Sherlock Holmes. ‘I can hear know
the bell ___ (10).’
ring
2. Read the text. Use
the word given at the end of each line to form a word that fits the
space in the same line.
School Then and Now
Parents and teachers are always making ___ (1) compare
between the time when
they were ___ (2) and the child
present ___ (3). They
say everything was better than it generate
is today, especially
in ___ (4). For example, they say they educate
used to work much ___
(5) in school, and that nowadays, we hard
aren’t very
interested. I ___ (6), because we spend hours agree
every day doing
homework after our lessons or ___ (7) for revise
___ (8). I wonder if
our parents really had to study so much examine
after school every
day. In my opinion, it is no ___ (9) to exaggerate
say we have forgotten
how to play. I think one reason why kids behave
___ (10) in class is
because they need to get rid of stress.
3. Choose the most
suitable word for each space.
According to а group
called The Voices Foundation, everyone has а singing voice as well
as а speaking voice somewhere inside them. This, they say, should be
encouraged from an early ___ (1) because it provides the best, and
the cheapest, ___ (2) on which to build an understanding of music.
___ (3) the Foundation’s ideas, lies the teaching of the Hungarian
composer Zoltan Kodaly. He observed that song can ___ (4) а key part
of the relationship between mother and child almost from birth. This
is especially ___ (5) of more traditional societies, like those of
West Africa, where some small children are ___ (6) to sing literally
hundreds of songs, all of which have been learnt by ___ (7). But many
modern children first ___ (8) to an understanding of music when they
learn to play an instrument, and ___ (9) some teaching of the theory
of music is usually а part of this, their relationship with the
music on the ___ (10) is often а mechanical one. The ___ (11) of the
Voices Foundation is that а natural ___ (12) for rhythm, harmony and
musical structure, the very ___ (13) we appreciate in the greatest
musicians, can only be achieved through the exploration of music with
the voice from the start. The Foundation has, therefore, ___ (14)
itself the task of developing а singing-centred musical education
programme that could ___ (15) junior pupils all over the world.
1. a) start b) life c)
time d) age
2. a) ground b) basis
c) root d) plot
3. a) Behind b)
Beneath c) Besides d) Between
4. a) grow b) do c)
form d) make
5. a) fact b) true c)
real d) actual
d) fit 6. a) able b)
expert c) skilled
7. a) repeat b) heart
c) memory d) mind
8. a) come b) reach c)
go d) arrive
9. a) however b)
despite c) although d) whether
10. a) lines b) notes
c) book d) page
11. a) rule c) trust
d) belief b) certainty
12. a) awareness b)
touch c) grasp d) feeling
13. a) degrees b)
qualities c) measures d) practices
14. a) let b) set c)
put d) cut
15. a) benefit b)
favour c) gain d) profit
Test 6
1. Read the text and
put the words at the end of each line into the correct form.
A Practical Joke Mr
and Mrs Parker were having a quiet day at home. Their
18-year-old daughter
was away in Wales ___ (1) with a friend. Suddenly stay
the phone ___ (2). A
hoarse voice told Mr Parker that his daughter ring
___ (3) and that he
had to pay a ransom of $2,000. He was also warned that kidnap
if he ___ (4), he
would never see his daughter again. The voice then not pay
gave him instructions
about where and when to hand over the money. one
Mr Parker took the ___
(5) train to Wales. He went to the hotel and gave
the briefcase with the
money to a woman in a scarf and a raincoat. At 11 p.m.
the same evening, to
his great relief, his daughter came back home. She happy
looked ___ (6) than
ever and could hardly stop herself from ___ (7) laugh
when she handed him
his briefcase with $2,000. It turned out that she decide
and her friend ___ (8)
to play a practical joke. The joke ___ (9) but, work
strangely enough, Mr
and Mrs Parker ___ (10) it as much as their not enjoy
daughter did!
2. Read the text. Use
the word given at the end of each line to form a word that fits the
space in the same line.
How to Learn
Vocabulary Students are under enormous pressure to learn
huge amounts of
vocabulary but they are rarely given ___ (1) as to how to guide
go about it. They have
a ___ (2) to try and learn long lists by tend
heart, but this is
hardly the most ___ (3) approach to the problem. efficiency
The golden rule is to
do lots of ___ (4) at regular intervals. Secondly, revise
students should
concentrate on words with the highest ___ (5), particularly frequent
everyday words which
also improve the students’ spoken ___ (6). fluent
They should also take
every opportunity to use the words in communication –
there is considerable
___ (7) evidence that learners who like psychology
using the foreign
language improve their oral ___ (8) and their perform
overall ___ (9) of the
language much more rapidly than acquire
students who are ___
(10) to practise the language in real situations. reluctance
3. Choose the most
suitable word for each space.
Keeping fit and
staying healthy have become а growing industry. ___ (1) apart from
the amount of money spent each year on doctors’ ___ (2) and
approved medical treatment, huge sums are now spent on health foods
and ___ (3) of various kinds, from vitamin pills to mineral water,
not to mention health clubs and keep-fit ___ (4) and videos. We are
more concerned than ever, it seems, ___ (5) the water we drink and
the air we breathe, and are smoking less, though not yet drinking
less alcohol. This does not appear to mean that ___ (6) and sneezes
have been banished, or that we can all expect to live to а hundred.
To give а personal example, one of my friends, who is а keep-fit
___ (7), а non-smoker and teetotaller, and who is very ___ (8) about
what he eats, is at present languishing in bed with а wrist in ___
(9) and а badly sprained ankle. Part of his healthy ___ (10) is to
play squash every day after work, and that ___ (11) for the ankle. He
also cycles everywhere, and if you have ever tried to cycle through
the rushhour traffic with а sprained ankle, you will understand ___
(12) he acquired the broken wrist. For _____ (13), it seems, is not
just а matter of а good ___ (14) and plenty of exercise. Too much
exercise can be harmful, as many joggers have discovered. Eating the
right food can easily become an obsession, as can overworking, which
you might have to do so as to be able to afford your ___ (15) of the
squash club, your mountain bike, your health food, and а few
holidays in peaceful and healthy places.
1. a) Poles b) Far с)
Quite d) So
2. a) prescriptions b)
surgeries c) hospitals d) payments
3. a) medications b)
cures c) drugs d) remedies
4. a) books b)
television c) advice d) enthusiasts
5. a) than b) about c)
for d) hence
6. a) colds b) coughs
c) flu d) fevers
7. a) fanatic b)
follower c) fad d) person
8. a) interested b)
varied c) detailed d) particular
9. a) crutches b)
plaster c) treatment d) danger
10. a) living b)
lifetime c) lifestyle d) liveliness
11. a) is b) caters c)
depends d) accounts
12. a) how b) that c)
whenever d) thus
13. a) fit b) this c)
health d) all
14. a) diet b) eating
c) menu d) recipe
15. a) share b) visit
c) membership d) subscription
Test 7
1. Read the text and
put the words at the end of each line into the correct form.
What Can Computers Do?
Computers and
microchips _____ (1) part of our everyday lives: we become
read magazines which
_____ (2) on computer, we buy things with the produce
help of computers, we
pay bills _____ (3) by computers. Just _____ (4) prepare
а phone number
involves the use of а sophisticated computer system. dial
In the past, life
without computers was much _____ (5) than it is today. difficult
The _____ (6)
computers were able to multiply long numbers, but they one
_____ (7) do anything
else. Nobody _____ (8) stories about robots not can
and space travel, but
now computers are able to do almost all difficult jobs. believe
What makes your
computer such а miraculous device? It is а calculating machine
speed
that _____ (9) up
financial calculations. It is а personal communicator
that _____ (10) you to
interact with other computers and with people around enable
the world. And you can
even use your PC to relax with computer games.
2. Read the text. Use
the word given at the end of each line to form a word that fits the
space in the same line.
A Challenge for Europe
Although recently
there has been a small _____ (1) in the number of people out reduce
of work in Europe,
_____ (2) is still the number one _____ (3) employ, society
problem facing the 15
member states of the European Union. Moreover,
_____ (4) of
opportunity between men and women is still an issue that equal
_____ (5) in many
countries have not come to grips with. In _____ (6) political,
professional
such as law and
engineering women are still noticeable by their
absence. _____ (7)
still discriminate against women in a number of employ
ways even if their
_____ (8) are the same as those of men. It would qualify
be a pity if the _____
(9) of the EU on an economic level were marred achieve
by _____ (10) in the
vital area of social policy. fail
3. Choose the most
suitable word for each space.
Trees are amongst the
biggest and longest-living things on Earth, some dating back longer
than the oldest buildings. But _____ (1) being nice to look at, trees
also _____ (2) an important role in improving the quality of our
lives. On a world-wide _____ (3), forests help to slow down the
effects of global warming by using up the gas _____ (4) as carbon
dioxide and giving _____ (5) the oxygen we need to breathe. At local
neighbourhood level, trees also _____ (6) important environmental
benefits. They offer shade and shelter, which in _____ (7) reduces
the amount of energy needed to heat and cool _____ (8) buildings; at
the same time, they also remove other impurities from the air we
breathe. Urban trees are especially important because for many people
they provide the only daily _____ (9) with the natural world. What’s
_____ (10), urban trees also provide a home for birds, small animals
and butterflies. _____ (11) the trees we would lose the pleasure of
seeing these creatures in our cities. Regrettably, _____ (12), trees
in cities are now coming under _____ (13). There is a limit to the
level of pollution they can _____ (14) and, down at street level,
their roots are being seriously _____ (15) by the digging needed to
make way for modern telephone, television and other cables.
1. a) as far as b) as
long as c) as soon as d) as well as
2. a) play b) show c)
act d) serve
3. a) scale b) size c)
range d) area
4. a) called b) known
c) titled d) referred
5. a) in b) away c) up
d) out
6. a) bring b) make c)
take d) find
7. a) turn b) place c)
order d) reach
8. a) opposite b)
close c) next d) nearby
9. a) junction b)
touch c) contact d) taste
10. a) more b) else c)
most d) other
11. a) Throughout b)
Beyond c) Without d) Outside
12. a) therefore b)
whilst c) however d) despite
13. a) risk b) threat
c) danger d) warning
14. a) stand in for b)
face up to c) put up with d) fall back on
15. a) concerned b)
disturbed c) interfered d) involved
Test 8
1. Read the text and
put the words at the end of each line into the correct form.
Street Styles
Many people,
especially young people, wear things which express their ideas
and feelings about
life. If a boy _____ (1) very short, almost shaven hair, have
people expect him
_____ (2) right wing politics. But boys with very have
long hair _____ (3) to
have left wing politics. A boy who wears a leather think
jacket _____ (4) in
bits of metal will probably ride a motorbike. The cover
rules of fashion are
not as rigid as they once _____ (5) and today’s be
teenagers _____ (6)
any particular trend at all. But teens are very not follow
influenced by _____
(7) and they have a desire to buy more luxurious celebrity
items. Street styles
_____ (8) by the big fashion designers. In fact, not create
the fashion designers
often use ideas from street fashions. But some
leaders of British
fashion have enough ideas of _____ (9) own. One of them they
is Jean Muir, whose
designs let her be one of the _____ (10) designers. good
2. Read the text. Use
the word given at the end of each line to form a word that fits the
space in the same line.
I have only been once
to an art _____ (1). In fact, the Tate in London exhibit
was my _____ (2) to
modern art, but although the gallery was introduce
quite interesting, I
found the pictures difficult to understand. The _____ (3) paint
in the exhibition were
by famous _____ (4) from all over the world. Our art
guide told us about
each painting, and I listened carefully to her _____ (5). explain
After she had given us
а _____ (6) of а painting by Picasso, 1 asked her describe
what it all _____ (7).
She said we should not look for meaning but for _____ (8), mean,
please
as the most important
thing was to enjoy the shapes and colours.
_____ (9), I found
this advice а complete _____ (10). person, reveal
3. Choose the most
suitable word for each space.
Whenever we read about
the natural world nowadays, it is generally to be _____ (1) dire
predictions about its imminent destruction. Some scientists go so
_____ (2) as to assert that from now on, the world can no longer be
called ‘natural’, insofar as future processes of weather, _____
(3), and all the interactions of plant and animal life will no longer
carry on in their time-honoured way, unaffected by _____ (4). There
will never be such а thing as ‘natural weather’ again, say such
writers, only weather _____ (5) by global warming. It is hard to know
whether to believe such _____ (6) of doom, possibly because what they
are saying seems too terrible to be _____ (7). There are other
equally influential scientists who argue that climate has changed
many times over the _____ (8), and that what we are experiencing now
may simply be part of an endless cycle of change, rather than а
disaster on а global _____ (9). One cannot help wondering whether
these attempts to wish the problem away _____ (10) underline the
extent to which western industrialised countries are to blame for
upsetting the world’s _____ (11). It is not our fault, they seem to
be saying, because everything is all right, really! One certain _____
(12) which is chilling in its implications, is that there is no
longer anywhere on the earth’s _____ (13), whether in the depths of
the oceans or in the polar wastes, which is not _____ (14) by
polluted air or _____ (15) with empty cans and bottles. Now we have
to come to terms with understanding just what that means, and it is
far from easy.
1. a) made b) given c)
told d) granted
2. a) much b) often c)
really d) far
3. a) change b)
atmosphere c) climate d) even
4. a) beings b) man c)
people d) humans
5. a) built b)
manufactured с) affected d) organised
6. a) prophets b)
champions c) warriors d) giants
7. a) stopped b) true
c) guessed d) here
8. a) top b) again c)
centuries d) world
9. a) sense b) form c)
scale d) existence
10. a) simply b) to с)
chat d) or
11. a) future b)
ecology с) balance d) population
12. a) fact b) must с)
fault d) and
13. a) planet b)
atmosphere c) anywhere d) surface
14. a) full b) stained
c) breathing d) only
15. a) even b)
recycled c) littered d) bothered
Test 9
1. Read the text and
put the words at the end of each line into the correct form.
Things That Go Bump In
The Night
It was quite late on a
Friday night. Bill and Lora were having supper in their
new house. Things
still felt a bit strange so they _____ (1) much notice not take
when they heard
someone _____ (2) about noisily in the move
house next door. From
the windows they _____ (3) see figures in the can
front garden. Bill and
Lora assumed that their neighbours _____ (4) have
some sort of party.
‘That’s all right,’ said Bill. ‘Our neighbours dislike big
_____ (5). I hope they
_____ (6) us long.’ Not long after, party, not disturb
they heard the front
door shut and the house went very quiet. Bill and Lora
went to bed and _____
(7) all about it. At breakfast early the next day, forget
they heard someone
_____ (8) loudly. Their neighbours arrived back shout
home and discovered
that some _____ (9) _____ (10) all their furniture thief, take
and valuables from the
house.
2. Read the text. Use
the word given at the end of each line to form a word that fits the
space in the same line.
The most _____ (1) pop
group in history was the Beatles and the success
most _____ (2) bands
of the 1960s and 1970s were male bands. The excite
Spice Girls were _____
(3) when they became _____ (4) in the usual, fame
1990s, but now female
pop groups are not only common but quite interest
_____ (5) from а
_____ (6) point of view as well. But what happens music
when а schoolgirl
suddenly becomes very _____ (7) and well known? wealth
She leaves behind the
_____ (8) life other girls lead, earns bore
а lot of money and
buys x_____ (9) clothes. She gets _____ (10) to expense, expense
trendy parties. Will
she forget all her old schoolfriends?
3. Choose the most
suitable word for each space.
Have you ever thought
about the future? One of the most amazing predictions I have heard
_____ (1) the twenty-first century is that we will be living longer
and longer. Scientists will have _____ (2) up with а cure for а lot
of the most _____ (3) diseases that people die of at the moment. They
say that _____ (4) the year 2050, the average person’s lifespan
will have _____ (5) to one hundred years. They also _____ (6) that
work will take _____ (7) less of our lives and we will have more
_____ (8) time to spend. Robots, which will look more and more _____
(9) human beings, will have taken _____ (10) а lot of the boring
everyday _____ (11) we do today. In the next five years, the Japanese
will have _____ (12) а robot that understands human speech. This
will _____ (13) about а big change in the way we live, and some
people see robots as а _____ (14) to human freedom. They are afraid
that we will not be _____ (15) to control them and that in the end,
they will control us.
1. a) to b) about c)
across d) up
2. a) turned b) made
c) come d) found
3. a) common b) usual
c) everyday d) known
4. a) until b) by c)
up to d) on
5. a) gone b) come c)
turned d) risen
6. a) predict b) tell
c) wait d) advise
7. a) on b) over c) up
d) away
8. a) break b) enjoy
c) fun d) free
9. a) as b) like c)
similar d) how
10. a) up b) off c)
over d) in
11. a) jobs b) works
c) employment d) occupations
12. a) discovered b)
found c) done d) invented
13. a) bring b) turn
c) take d) come
14. a) damage b) dream
c) threat d) problem
15. a) reaching b)
able c) manage d) succeed
Test 10
1. Read the text and
put the words at the end of each line into the correct form.
The National Health
Service in GB
The NHS (the national
health service) in GB _____ (1) centrally and organize
medical insurance is
compulsory. There _____ (2) a number be
of private medical
insurance schemes in the country. The _____ (3) one big
is BUPA. These days
such schemes _____ (4) increasingly popular become
as being more
convenient. The modern _____ (5) of the NHS are difficulty
the same as those
faced by equivalent systems in other countries. The need
number of old people
_____ (6) medical care _____ (7) dramatically grow
since 1998. But the
country spends _____ (8) money per person on health care little
than any other country
in the western world. One possible reason for this is
the way that GPs _____
(9). The money which they get from the pay
government _____ (10)
on the number of consultations they not depend
perform, it depends on
the number of registered patients.
2. Read the text. Use
the word given at the end of each line to form a word that fits the
space in the same line.
Primary schools in
London are trying out an ambitious plan through which
young children get an
_____ (1) to serious music. The idea comes introduce
from а group of
famous (_____ 2) who are concerned about the music
_____ (3) of certain
types of classical music. They see the plan as survive
one possible _____ (4)
to the problem of declining audiences at classical solve
concerts. Their _____
(5) is that an interest in classical music should argue
be developed in early
_____ (6). They reject the idea that children child
are _____ (7) in
serious music or necessarily find it boring. The group interest
goes into а school
and gives а live _____ (8) of а short classical perform
piece and then this is
followed by an _____ (9) of how the instruments explain
work. These sessions
have proved so _____ (10) that they have now success
become а regular
feature in some schools.
3. Choose the most
suitable word for each space.
When faced with some
new and possibly bewildering technological change, most people react
in one of two _____ (1). They either recoil from anything new,
claiming that it is unnecessary, or too _____ (2) or that it somehow
makes life less than _____ (3). Or they learn to _____ (4) to the new
invention, and eventually _____ (5) how they could possibly have
existed without it. _____ (6) computers as an example. For many of
us, they still represent а _____ (7) to our freedom, and give us а
frightening sense of а future in which all _____ (8) will be taken
by machines. This may be because they seem mysterious, and difficult
to understand. Ask most people what you can (_____ 9) а home
computer for, and you usually get _____ (10) answers about how ‘they
give you information’. In fact, even those of us who are familiar
with computers, and use them in our daily work, have very little idea
of how they _____ (11). But it does not take long to learn how to
operate а business programme, even if things occasionally go wrong
for no apparent reason. Presumably much the same happened when the
telephone and the television became _____ (12). What seems to alarm
most people is the speed of _____ (13) change, rather than change
itself. And the _____ (14) that are made to new technology may well
have а point to them, since change is not always an improvement. As
we discover during power cuts, there is а lot to be said for the oil
lamp, the coal fire, and forms of entertainment, such as books or
board games, that don’t have to be _____ (15) in to work.
1. a) moments b) kinds
c) ways d) types
2. a) complicated b)
much c) obscure d) tiresome
3. a) formerly b)
lively c) personal d) human
4. a) adapt b) react
c) conform d) use
5. a) decide b) wonder
c) suppose d) admit
6. a) Discuss b)
Propose c) Take d) Thus
7. a) hazard b) risk
c) control d) threat
8. a) measures b)
decisions c) chances d) instructions
9. a) run b) apply c)
learn d) use
10. a) vague b) such
c) up with d) hundreds
11. a) are b) work c)
manage d) consist
12. a) in existence b)
widespread c) through d) extensive
13. a) future b)
machinery c) physical d) technological
14. a) objections b)
appliances c) criticisms d) fears
15. a) wired b)
batteries c) plugged d) connected
Test 11
1. Read the text and
put the words at the end of each line into the correct form.
The Benefits System in
GB
The _____ (1) way in
which people get help is by direct payments of easy
government money. This
help comes in various ways and _____ (2) by pay
the Department of the
Social Security. Anyone below the retirement age
who _____ (3) for a
certain minimum period of time can receive unemployment work
benefit _____ (4)
colloquially as ‘the dole’. All retired people _____ (5) know,
entitle
to the standard
old-age pension, provided that they _____ (6) pay
their insurance
contributions for most of their working _____ (7). After life
a certain age, even
people who still _____ (8) can receive their pension earn
though at a slightly
reduced rate. The government pension, however,
_____ (9) very high.
That’s why Personal Pension Plans not be
_____ (10) in July
1988 to extend pension choice and encourage people introduce
to build up a
retirement fund.
2. Read the text. Use
the word given at the end of each line to form a word that fits the
space in the same line.
If you’re interested
in getting, then what you need is а training
programme. Although
aimed at improving physical fit _____ (1), this programme fit
can also be _____ (2)
in such а way that it helps in the _____ (3) design, develop
of particular athletic
skills. There is а range of different _____ (4) to active
choose from and а
growing amount of scientific (_____ 5) to explain know
the effects of each
one. When you begin training, it is important gentle
to start _____ (6),
raising the _____ (7) of the programme in а intense
gradual way. Although
it is important to work sufficiently hard impress
to make an _____ (8)
on your physical condition, the activities shouldn’t
be _____ (9). It is
_____ (10), therefore, to ignore warning pain, wise
symptoms such as sharp
or persistent pain in particular muscles.
3. Choose the most
suitable word for each space.
Modern technology has
brought about enormous improvements in communications and yet many
people are still very worried _____ (1) using the latest computer
technology. I am often _____ (2) to meet colleagues who still don’t
know what the ‘е’ in e-mail stands for and they are too _____
(3) to ask. They assume you have to be skilled _____ (4) computers to
send а message via е-mail but in fact it is _____ (5) thing in the
world. It is also _____ (6) to send an e-mail message _____ (7) to
send an ordinary letter or а ‘snail’ message which also takes
_____ (8) longer. An e-mail message is only _____ (9) more expensive
than а local telephone call to send; on top of the call itself you
also have to pay а fee to your ‘server’. If you send а letter
by _____ (10) mail it will take а couple of days to get there
whereas an e-mail will not take _____ (11) than а few seconds. Once
you become _____ (12) to using the system you will be _____ (13) at
how much more _____ (14) it is than other means of communication. Of
course, before you have access to е-mail, you will need а fairly
_____ (15) computer, which can be quite expensive.
1. a) for b) about c)
at d) with as
2. a) surprising b)
irritating c) surprised d) irritated
3. a) embarrassing b)
embarrassed c) tired d) tiring
4. a) about b) into c)
to d) in
5. a) simplest b) the
more simple c) simpler d) the simplest
6. a) cheaper b) more
cheaper c) the cheapest d) the cheaper
7. a) as b) than c)
that d) from
8. a) much b) more c)
as d) lot
9. a) little b)
slightly c) less d) least
10. a) second-hand b)
low-paid c) part-time d) first-class
11. a) more long b)
longest c) as long d) longer
12. a) capable b)
accustomed c) clever d) good
13. a) amazed b)
puzzled c) experienced d) pleased
14. a) confident b)
certain c) efficient d) skilful
15. a) strong b) great
c) powerful d) large
Test 12
1. Read the text and
put the words at the end of each line into the correct form.
The History of
Father’s Day
Father’s Day is an
occasion to honor your dad and express gratitude for his
love and support. Most
_____ (1) including the US, the UK and Canada country
celebrate Father’s
Day on the _____ (2) Sunday of June. The idea of three
celebrating Father’s
Day _____ (3) by Ms Sonora Louise Smart Dodd suggest
in 1909. Mrs. Dodd’s
father, William Smart, _____ (4) when his wife died
in childbirth. Despite
the obvious hardships, Mr. Smart proceeded widow
to raise the newborn
along with his five other _____ (5) by himself. child
It wasn’t until
Sonora Dodd _____ (6) an adult that she realized the become
strength and
selflessness her father _____ (7) in raising his children show
as a single parent.
President Wilson approved of the festival in 1916 but
it was President
Johnson who signed a Proclamation _____ (8) the declare
celebration of
Father’s Day in 1966. Thanks to Sonora, Father’s become
Day _____ (9) a hugely
popular festival and _____ (10) around celebrate
the world.
2. Read the text. Use
the word given at the end of each line to form a word that fits the
space in the same line.
Medical research has
found that happiness has а strongly beneficial
effect on health. The
healing properties of _____ (1) are such that laugh
humour is now being
used alongside more _____ (2) courses of tradition
_____ (3) in some
hospitals. In а London children’s hospital, for example, treat
two clowns are
provided for the _____ (4) of patients. Doctors entertain
say that these clowns
are _____ (5) in making the children feel success
better. It seems that
when we laugh, there can be а _____ (6) in reduce
both blood pressure
and the amount of _____ (7) in our muscles. tense
Although it is _____
(8) to prove it at the moment, this may also mean that possible
people who feel
unhappy and who are, therefore, _____ (9) to laugh likely
so much, suffer more
often from physical _____ (10). ill
3. Choose the most
suitable word for each space.
Until the early part
of this century there was certainly а distinction between popular
music, the songs and dance _____ (1) of the masses, and what we have
come to call _____ (2) music. Up to that point, however, there were
at least some points of contact _____ (3) the two, and perhaps
general recognition of what made а good voice, or а good song. With
the development of _____ (4) entertainment, popular music split away
and has gradually _____ (5) а stronger life of its _____ (6), to the
point where it has become incompatible with _____ (7) classics. In
some respects, it is now dominated by the _____ (8) of youth culture,
so that а concert by Elton John is just as much а fashion _____
(9), and other artists may be promoting dance styles, or social _____
(10). For this reason, it is impossible to talk about popular music
as if it were а unified art. The kind of music you like may _____
(11) on what kind of person you are. Curiously, there are now
classical musicians who have _____ (12) the status of rock stars, and
have been marketed in the same way. This seems to suggest that many
young people enjoy classical music but do not wish to be associated
with the _____ (13) of those who are traditionally supposed to enjoy
it. Or it may simply be that recording companies have discovered that
there is an insatiable _____ (14) for ‘sounds’, and that
classical music is beginning to sound exciting to а generation _____
(15) on rock but now settling into affluent middle-age.
1. a) halls b) tunes
c) musicians d) artists
2. a) rock b) modern
c) underground d) classical
3. a) with b) between
с) by d) of
4. a) mass b) live с)
recorded d) the
5. a) founded b) lived
с) developed d) suggested
6. a) supporters b)
self с) fans d) own
7. a) other b) the с)
some d) further
8. a) promotion b)
discovery с) tendency d) survival
9. a) as b) however с)
event d) design
10. a) service b)
grace с) protest d) science
11. a) depend b)
identity с) suppose d) be
12. a) lost b) admired
с) penetrated d) achieved
13. a) number b)
dislike с) lifestyle d) meaning
14. a) desire b) sale
с) interest d) outlet
15. a) raised b)
carrying с) dependent d) listening
Test 13
1. Read the text and
put the words at the end of each line into the correct form.
The stars of American
journalism can build up reputations which make
them _____ (1) known
than most members of the Cabinet. Although good
each one _____ (2) for
а single big city newspaper, their articles work
may _____ (3) in
hundreds of local papers across the nation. reproduce
To be successful it
_____ (4) always necessary to be а graduate in not be
journalism. In 1955
the Chicago Sun Times _____ (5) an untrained engage
housewife from Iowa
Esther Lederer to take over the give
‘Anne Landers’
column, _____ (6) comforting answers to all _____ (7) query
on personal problems.
Thirty years later her ‘Anne Landers’ column
_____ (8) by eighty
million people. Meanwhile, her twin-sister read
_____ (9) an almost
identical column, ‘Dear Abby’. By 1987 these amazing have
twins, then aged 67,
_____ (10) yet. not retire
2. Read the text. Use
the word given at the end of each line to form a word that fits the
space in the same line.
А magazine _____ (1)
asked people what they thought the most recent
useful _____ (2) of
the last century was. It is а very _____ (3) invent, interest
question, since
technology has _____ (4) our lives today. Lots of transform
people said cars, but
I _____ (5). Although cars have made life easier agree
in some ways, I
believe they have serious _____ (6). The worst advantage
thing about cars is
that they are so _____ (7). They also cause noise
а lot of _____ (8).
Other people said TV. Of course, _____ (9) will pollute, entertain
never be the same
again and it can be _____ (10) to watch TV after relax
а long day. And
what’s your opinion?
3. Choose the most
suitable word for each space.
Thirteen-year-olds do
not spend as much money as their parents suspect – at least not
_____ (1) the findings of a _____ (2) survey, Money and Change. The
survey _____ (3) three hundred teenagers, 13–17 years old, from
_____ (4). By the time they _____ (5) their teens, most children see
their weekly allowance rise dramatically to an amazing national
average of $8. Two thirds think they get _____ (6) money, but most
expect to have to do something to get it. Although they have more
cash, worry about debt is _____ (7) among teenagers. Therefore, the
_____ (8) of children _____ (9) an effort to save for the future.
Greater access to cash _____ (10) teenagers does not, however, mean
that they are more irresponsible _____ (11) a result. The economic
recession seems to have encouraged _____ (12) attitudes to money,
even in case of children at these ages. Instead of wasting what
pocket _____ (13) they have on sweets or magazines, the 13-year-olds
who took _____ (14) in the survey seem to _____ (15) to the situation
by saving more than half of their cash.
b) based on c) relying
on d) according to
1. a) counting on 2.
a) late b) recent c) latest d) fresh
3. a) included b)
contained c) counted d) enclosed
4. a) entire b) all
over c) complete d) the whole
5. a) reach b) get c)
make d) arrive
6. a) acceptable b)
adequate c) satisfactory d) enough
7. a) gaining b)
heightening c) increasing d) building
8. a) most b) maximum
c) many d) majority
9. a) make b) do c)
have d) try
10. a) among b)
through c) between d) along
11. a) like b) as c)
for d) in
d) cautious 12. a)
aware b) knowing c) helpful
13. a) cash b) money
c) change d) savings
14. a) part b) place
c) share d) piece
15. a) reply b) answer
c) respond d) return
Test 14
1. Read the text and
put the words at the end of each line into the correct form.
The United States has
strong political and military ties to governments in
all areas of the
world. America’s alliances _____ (1) by its formidable back
military and nuclear
forces. Over 2 million _____ (2) are members of the man
armed forces. About
one _____ (3) of the United four
States military
personnel serve over seas. Most of its overseas
forces _____ (4) in
Western Europe under provisions of the NATO. This concentrate
military alliance
_____ (5) the defense of member nations. guarantee
Since 1949, when the
alliance _____ (6), the United States create
_____ (7) as Western
Europe’s military leader. America’s political act
and military strength
_____ (8) by its powerful economy. Although it is neither generate
the world’s _____
(9) nor _____ (10) nation, its economic output large
is twice Russia’s,
three times Japan’s, and six times Germany’s. populous
2. Read the text. Use
the word given at the end of each line to form a word that fits the
space in the same line.
Thanks to the
Internet, we are now living in a _____ (1) village. globe
We have more _____ (2)
about other countries than ever before. inform
We know as much about
the _____ (3) in the US as in Russia. _____ (4) situate, pollute
which is produced in
one country will affect other countries, too.
For example, nuclear
power is not _____ (5) only for one country danger
but is an _____ (6)
problem. If we do not take action soon, nation
the _____ (7) of a
nuclear disaster is very real. We should all possible
_____ (8) our rubbish
– not hope ‘green’ people will do it for us. cycle
Some people think
_____ (9) resources will go on forever, but they won’t. nature
We all have an _____
(10) to protect the environment. oblige
3. Choose the most
suitable word for each space.
The three blank spaces
_____ (1) the wall of the Frankfurt Schirn Gallery are probably more
photographed than the old paintings which _____ (2) there until last
Thursday. That was the day when thieves _____ (3) two paintings by
JMW Turner, which were _____ (4) loan from London’s Tate Gallery.
In fact, as theft increases, empty walls are _____ (5) an
increasingly familiar _____ (6) in Europe’s galleries. The thieves
are usually _____ (7) of professional gangs who study the layout of
their target in _____ (8) beforehand. They are becoming better at
overcoming the tightest security. The thieves of Frankfurt waited
_____ (9) the gallery closed at 10 pm, overpowered the security guard
before he could _____ (10) on the alarm system and _____ (11) with
the paintings to a waiting car. The pictures are _____ (12) at $65
million and, since they are _____ (13) famous to sell, police suspect
that the thieves will hold them to ransom. A $100,000 reward is being
_____ (14) for information. Unfortunately European Union policy has
made it easier for thieves to _____ (15) borders and harder for
police to follow them. To discourage thieves, galleries may have to
turn themselves into high security fortresses.
1. a) in b) over c) on
d) along
2. a) hung b) stayed
c) held d) fixed
3. a) robbed b) stole
c) burgled d) borrowed
4. a) for b) at c) in
d) on
5. a) getting b)
becoming c) having d) growing
6. a) sight b) scene
c) site d) look
7. a) guest b) members
c) partners d) owners
8. a) fact b) addition
c) detail d) general
9. a) for b) while c)
before d) until
10. a) turn b) go c)
rely d) set
11. a) escaped b)
parted c) got d) hid
12. a) measured b)
charged c) valued d) appreciated
13. a) too b) enough
c) very d) quite
14. a) stated b)
offered c) held d) taken
15. a) swap b) alter
c) change d) cross
Test 15
1. Read the text and
put the words at the end of each line into the correct form.
The White House In
Washington, D.C., 1600 Pennsylvania Avenue is а
very special address.
It is the address of the White House, the home of
the president of the
United States. President Washington never _____ (1) in live
the Presidential
Palace. The _____ (2) president to live there was John one
Adams, the _____ (3)
president of the United States, but his wife Mrs Adams two
really _____ (4) her
new house because it was not warm enough! not like
In 1812 the United
States and Britain _____ (5) to war. Many buildings go
_____ (6), including
the Presidential Palace. After the war James burn
Hoban, the original
architect, partially _____ (7) the president’s home. rebuild
To cover the marks of
the fire, the building _____ (8) white. Since paint
that time it _____ (9)
as the White House. Nowadays the White House know
_____ (10) lots of
tourists from all over the world. attract
2. Read the text. Use
the word given at the end of each line to form a word that fits the
space in the same line.
More and more animals
are fighting for _____ (1) nowadays, and it is not survive
only _____ (2) who are
to blame. Thousands of fish die every hunt
year as а result of
the _____ (3) _____ (4) of waste in legal, dump
rivers by factories
all over Europe. _____ (5) are often carried investigate
out to discover who is
_____ (6) for these ecological disasters, response
but even when the
offenders are found, the _____ (7) for this punish
kind of _____ (8) is
not as severe as it should be. Factories will only reform behave
once the public _____
(9) to stop buying their products, and not before. threat
It is the only _____
(10) to а very serious problem. solve
3. Choose the most
suitable word for each space.
If you tried to
visualise a Paris caf e, you would probably _____ (1) plates of
golden croissants and cups of steaming hot coffee. Whatever you
picture, a teapot is _____ (2) to be part of the scene. Although the
_____ (3) of taking afternoon tea is in many _____ (4) an English
custom, its popularity is now _____ (5) through Paris. Tea salons
have been fashionable in Paris _____ (6) early this century. One of
the oldest tearooms in Paris, ‘Angelina’, was _____ (7) in 1903.
The atmosphere has a charming turn-of-the-century feel and the menu
includes a mouth-watering _____ (8) of cream cakes, meringues and
almond macaroons. Tearooms in Paris are unfortunately often
overlooked by tourists snared by the bright lights and bistros. But
for those who know, tea drinking in saloons is serious _____ (9).
Menus often give you _____ (10) descriptions of the teas’ _____
(11), or even what time of the day is _____ (12) for drinking a
certain tea. For serious connoisseurs there is only one tearoom _____
(13) visiting ‘Marriage Freres’. In this sunny tearoom you’ll
be surrounded by towering green plants and _____ (14) by white-suited
waiters. In the adjoining shop, enormous chests of China tea are
displayed alongside old canisters containing 350 _____ (15) of tea
from more than 30 countries.
1. a) think b) imagine
c) consider d) figure
2. a) rarely b) not c)
unlikely d) hardly
3. a) means b) fact c)
view d) habit
4. a) ideas b) ways c)
types d) forms
5. a) spreading b)
moving c) going d) swelling
6. a) for b) until c)
since d) before
7. a) founded b) set
c) run d) found
8. a) mass b)
selection c) mixture d) collection
9. a) affair b) trade
c) business d) commerce
10. a) tiny b)
particular c) special d) detailed
11. a) origins b)
births c) sources d) beginnings
12. a) conventional b)
relevant c) appropriate d) reliable
13. a) right b) worth
c) deserving d) worthy
14. a) shown b)
ordered c) served d) brought
15. a) makes b)
variations c) types d) breeds
ANSWER KEY
Nouns
Test 1. 1. churches;
2. difficulties; 3. mice; 4. months; 5. children; 6. roofs; 7. boys;
8. women; 9. deer; 10. leaves; 11. geese; 12. potatoes; 13. feet; 14.
dresses; 15. radios; 16. oxen; 17. fish/fishes; 18. wolves; 19.
countries; 20. teeth; 21. curricula
Test 2. 1. nannies; 2.
fathers-in-law; 3. headaches; 4. dictionaries; 5. pincushions; 6.
hold-ups; 7. hoofs/hooves; 8. radios; 9. train robberies; 10.
painkillers; 11. bushes; 12. pen-friends; 13. videos; 14.
pillowcases; 15. violins; 16. wives; 17. media; 18. mice; 19.
godfathers; 20. wishes; 21. phenomena
Test 3. 1. deer; 2.
ladies; 3. roofs; 4. chiefs; 5. studios; 6. zoos; 7. buses; 8. sheep;
9. species; 10. days; 11. families; 12. dishes; 13. paws; 14. forks;
15. data; 16. Eskimos; 17. leaves; 18. lives; 19. zeroes/zeros; 20.
buffaloes/buffalos; 21. criteria
Test 4. 1. trout; 2.
composers; 3. insects; 4. oases; 5. analyses; 6. bacteria; 7.
waiters; 8. babies; 9. handkerchiefs; 10. churches; 11. memos; 12.
ball games; 13. passers-by; 14. letdowns; 15. vowels; 16. buzzes; 17.
glasses; 18. men; 19. geese; 20. feet; 21. volcanoes
Test 5. 1. benches; 2.
celebrities; 3. lice; 4. baths; 5. women; 6. cliffs; 7. plays; 8.
scarves; 9. beliefs; 10. sheep; 11. halves; 12. tomatoes; 13. means;
14. photos; 15. fruit/fruits; 16. swine; 17. activities; 18. thieves;
19. kilos; 20. parties; 21. appendices/appendixes
Test 6. 1. are; 2.
are; 3. is; 4. is; 5. are; 6. is; 7. is; 8. are; 9. is; 10. is; 11.
is; 12. is; 13. is; 14. are; 15. is; 16. are; 17. is; 18. is; 19.
are; 20. is
Test 7. 1. are; 2.
are; 3. is; 4. is; 5. are; 6. is; 7. is; 8. is; 9. are; 10. is; 11.
is; 12. is; 13. is; 14. are; 15. is; 16. are; 17. is; 18. is; 19.
are; 20. are
Test 8. 1. is; 2.
don’t; 3. want; 4. was; 5. aren’t; 6. wasn’t; 7. does/ do; 8.
isn’t; 9. they are; 10. are; 11. do; 12. is; 13. are; 14. was; 15.
is; 16. is; 17. is; 18. are; 19. is; 20. needs
Test 9. 1. were; 2.
is; 3. does; 4. makes; 5. enjoy; 6. is; 7. are looking; 8. get; 9. is
passing; 10. is; 11. is, is; 12. were (each member of the audience
individually); 13. is; 14. was; 15. are; 16. gives; 17. were; 18.
was; 19. is; 20. is
Pronouns
Test 1. 1. her; 2.
them; 3. she, me; 4. he, us; 5. she, him; 6. you; 7. she; 8. them; 9.
him; 10. it, it, me; 11. him; 12. it; 13. it; 14. it, it; 15. it; 16.
you; 17. it; 18. it, it; 19. it; 20. it
Test 2. 1. her; 2.
him; 3. me; 4. them; 5. it; 6. them; 7. us; 8. them; 9. him; 10.
them; 11. them, me; 12. it, them; 13. it, him; 14. it; 15. I, them;
16. they; 17. him; 18. us; 19. he, me; 20. them
Test 3. 1. my; 2. his,
his; 3. its; 4. her; 5. his; 6. theirs; 7. my; 8. their; 9. its; 10.
their; 11. my; 12. its 13. his; 14. your, mine; 15. theirs; 16. mine;
17. yours; 18. your; 19. their; 20. her
Test 4. 1. their; 2.
his; 3. his; 4. your; 5. their; 6. your; 7. our; 8. her; 9. hers; 10.
our; 11. mine; 12. his; 13. their; 14. her; 15. our; 16. its; 17. my;
18. its; 19. her; 20. their
Test 5. 1. your; 2.
your; 3. my; 4. my; 5. her; 6. his; 7. our; 8. our; 9. our; 10. our;
11. her; 12. your
Test 6. 1. yourself;
2. themselves; 3. ourselves; 4. myself; 5. himself; 6. myself; 7.
herself; 8.itself; 9. himself; 10.himself; 11. herself; 12. itself;
13. himself; 14. themselves; 15. herself; 16. herself; 17. herself;
18. yourself; 19. yourself; 20. himself
Test 7. 1. herself; 2.
himself/herself; 3. herself; 4. itself; 5. themselves; 6. herself; 7.
herself; 8. himself; 9. himself; 10. themselves; 11. ourselves; 12.
itself; 13. herself; 14. yourselves; 15. myself; 16. herself; 17.
ourselves; 18. herself; 19. ourselves; 20. myself
Test 8. 1. these,
those; 2. this; 3. this, that; 4. these, those; 5. that; 6. this; 7.
that; 8. that; 9. these; 10. these; 11. this, that; 12. that; 13.
that; 14. that; 15. that; 16. that; 17. that; 18. that; 19. this; 20.
this
Test 9. 1. that; 2.
this; 3. those; 4. this; 5. that; 6. this; 7. this/that; 8. that; 9.
those; 10. those; 11. this; 12. these; 13. these; 14. those; 15.
those; 16. this, that; 17. that; 18. this; 19. this; 20. that
Test 10. 1. some, any;
2. any, some; 3. no; 4. any; 5. some, any; 6. any, some; 7. no; 8.
some; 9. every; 10. no; 11. every; 12. any; 13. no/ some; 14. some;
15. some; 16. any; 17. some; 18. every; 19. any; 20. any/ every
Test 11. 1. any; 2.
any; 3. some; 4. any; 5. something; 6. anything; 7. nothing; 8.
anybody/anyone; 9. some, any; 10. anybody/anyone; 11.
somebody/someone, anywhere; 12. any; 13. something/somebody; 14.
somebody/someone; 15. nobody/no one; 16. somebody/someone; 17.
anybody/anyone/anything; 18. every; 19. anything, nothing; 20. every
Test 12. 1. no; 2.
some, any; 3. any; 4. anyone/anybody; 5. some, any; 6. some; 7.
somewhere; 8. any; 9. no; 10. anyone/anybody; 11. everywhere,
anywhere; 12. anything; 13. any; 14. some, any; 15. someone; 16.
everyone/everybody; 17. no; 18. anything; 19. nobody; 20. something
Test 13. 1. any; 2.
some, any; 3. no; 4. any; 5. some; 6. every; 7. some, any; 8.
anyone/anybody; 9. anything; 10. anyone/anybody, nobody/no one; 11.
anyone/anybody; 12. somewhere; 13. anything; 14. anywhere; 15.
nothing; 16. anywhere; 17. anything; 18. nobody/no one, nothing; 19.
everyone/everybody; 20. somewhere/anywhere
Numerals
Test 1. 1. eight; 2.
ten; 3. eleven; 4. seventeen; 5. twelve; 6. sixteen; 7. twenty; 8.
thirteen; 9. nineteen; 10. fourteen; 11. forty; 12. eighty; 13. one
hundred and twenty; 14. ninety; 15. four hundred; 16. sixty; 17.
zero; 18. three; 19. one/a hundred; 20. seventy; 21. thirty; 22.
thirty-seven; 23. fifty; 24. fifty-six; 25. sixty-one; 26.
seventy-four; 27. ninety-one; 28. ninety-seven; 29. one/a hundred;
30. sixty
Test 2. 1. three –
third; 2. four – fourth; 3. nine – ninth; 4. eleven – eleventh;
5. nineteen – nineteenth; 6. thirty – thirtieth; 7. forty-one –
forty-first; 8. forty-two – forty-second; 9. seventy-four –
seventy-fourth; 10. eighty-five – eighty-fifth; 11. ninety-nine –
ninety-ninth; 12. one hundred – one hundredth; 13. five hundred and
ten – five hundred and tenth; 14. nine hundred – nine hundredth;
15. nine hundred and ninety-nine – nine hundred and ninety-ninth;
16. one thousand – one thousandth; 17. two thousand five hundred
and thirty-seven – two thousand five hundred and thirty-seventh;
18. five thousand two hundred – five thousand two hundredth; 19.
ten thousand – ten thousandth; 20. one million – one millionth
Test 3. 1. first; 2.
fifth; 3. tenth; 4. twentieth; 5. second; 6. ninth; 7. twenty-first;
8. eleventh; 9. eighth; 10. one hundred and first.
Adjectives and Adverbs
Test 1. 1. colder, the
coldest; 2. bigger, the biggest; 3. more wonderful, the most
wonderful; 4. happier, the happiest; 5. better, the best; 6. more
comfortable, the most comfortable; 7. easier, the easiest; 8. fatter,
the fattest; 9. worse, the worst; 10. nicer, the nicest; 11. newer,
the newest; 12. more expensive, the most expensive; 13. hungrier, the
hungriest; 14. hotter, the hottest; 15. less, the least
Test 2. 1. cheaper,
the cheapest; 2. farther/further, the farthest/the furthest; 3.
hotter, the hottest; 4. more cheerful, the most cheerful; 5.
prettier, the prettiest; 6. redder, the reddest; 7. noisier, the
noisiest; 8. more terrible, the most terrible; 9. later/the latter,
the latest/the last; 10. worse, the worst; 11. more difficult, the
most difficult; 12. fewer,the fewest; 13. older/elder, the oldest/the
eldest; 14. sleepier, the sleepiest; 15. thinner, the thinnest
Test 3. 1. better; 2.
worst; 3. more correct; 4. younger; 5. fattest; 6. tastiest; 7.
prettier; 8. most beautiful; 9. younger; 10. highest; 11. worst; 12.
best; 13. taller; 14. fastest; 15. smaller
Test 4. 1. better,
better; 2. most famous; 3. less; 4. eldest/oldest; 5. fewer; 6.
white; 7. funnier; 8. best; 9. worst; 10. older; 11. nervous; 12.
busiest; 13. bigger; 14. farthest/furthest; 15. more difficult; 16.
greatest; 17. healthier; 18. slimmest; 19. shortest; 20. latest
Test 5. 1. best; 2.
happier; 3. more exciting; 4. further; 5. oldest; 6. worse; 7.
fattest; 8. most attractive; 9. bigger; 10. fast; 11. more; 12.
worst; 13. more comfortable; 14. light; 15. most reserved; 16.
harder, harder; 17. driest; 18. sooner, better; 19. cheaper; 20.
older
Test 6. 1. more
difficult/difficult; 2. warmer; 3. cleverest/most clever; 4. hottest;
5. cheaper; 6. interesting; 7. healthier; 8. happiest; 9. more
comfortable; 10. most exciting; 11. better; 12. youngest; 13.
farther/further; 14. quicker, sooner; 15. worst; 16. louder; 17.
best; 18. most boring; 19. worse; 20. bad
Test 7. 1. most
boring; 2. higher, further/farther; 3. richer; 4. cheap; 5. bigger;
6. largest; 7. happier; 8. hotter; 9. best, worse; 10. youngest; 11.
elder/older; 12. funniest; 13. more interested; 14. most expensive;
15. Better; 16. nearest; 17. worst; 18. long; 19. noisier; 20.
biggest
Test 8. 1. interested;
2. depressed; 3. exciting; 4. tired; 5. exhausting; 6. surprising; 7.
annoyed; 8. fascinating; 9. bored; 10. amusing
Test 9. 1.
interesting; 2. exciting; 3. worried; 4. bored; 5. surprising; 6.
disappointed; 7. boring; 8. amusing; 9. interested; 10. surprised
Test 10. 1. quickly;
2. badly; 3. late; 4. angrily; 5. well; 6. carefully; 7. nicely; 8.
correctly; 9. fast; 10. easily; 11. hard; 12. slowly; 13. happily;
14. early; 15. beautifully
Test 11. 1. carefully;
2. angry; 3. clearly; 4. dangerously; 5. slow; 6. hard; 7. suddenly;
8. useful; 9. easily; 10. perfectly; 11. expensive; 12. late; 13.
well; 14. regularly; 15. nicely
Test 12. 1. quietly;
2. heavily; 3. careful; 4. perfect; 5. recently; 6. slow; 7. well; 8.
nice; 9. near; 10. late; 11. lately; 12. hard; 13. hardly; 14.
widely; 15. pretty
Test 13. 1.
comfortably; 2. easy; 3. strange; 4. politely, beautifully; 5. sweet;
6. happy; 7. seriously; 8. well; 9. perfect, correctly; 10. upset;
11. fast; 12. great; 13. heavily; 14. Quietly; 15. nice
Test 14. 1.
beautifully, good; 2. short, quickly; 3. beautiful, nice; 4.
completely; 5. happily; 6. quietly; 7. smart, great; 8. brightly; 9.
difficult, nervous; 10 well
Test 15. 1. largest;
2. biggest; 3. most important; 4. oldest; 5. highest; 6. smallest; 7.
most expensive; 8. more residential; 9. biggest; 10. more; 11.
greatest; 12. largest; 13. heaviest; 14. most famous; 15. best
Test 16. 1. most
fashionable; 2. latest; 3. wider; 4. longer; 5. widest; 6. prettier;
7. more relaxed; 8. freer; 9. shorter; 10. long; 11. wide; 12.
brighter; 13. least; 14. aggressive; 15. less
Tenses
Test 1. 1. was, is,
will be; 2. Were; 3. Will you be; 4. was; 5. will be; 6. is; 7. won’t
be; 8. am; 9. Were; 10. will be; 11. am; 12. won’t be; 13. was; 14.
are; 15. Will the soup be, will be
Test 2. 1. are; 2. is;
3. was; 4. was; 5. were; 6. were; 7. are; 8. is; 9. is; 10. is; 11.
is; 12. is; 13. were; 14. is; 15. are
Test 3. 1. is; 2.
aren’t; 3. has (got); 4. isn’t; 5. has (got); 6. Is; 7. are; 8.
have; 9. has (got); 10. are/aren’t
Test 4. 1. has; 2.
was; 3. Have; 4. are; 5. were; 6. have; 7. is; 8. was; 9. has; 10. Is
Test 5. 1. plays; 2.
is listening; 3. fly; 4. don’t smoke; 5. Is Mr Black using; 6.
goes; 7. is helping; 8. Is it raining; 9. see; 10. Are you wearing;
11. has; 12. gets up; 13. am washing up; 14. Are you going; 15. have;
16. paints; 17. doesn’t play; 18. is cooking; 19. Do you always
wear; 20. is watching
Test 6. 1. want; 2. is
having; 3. tastes; 4. look; 5. is washing; 6. don’t like; 7. go; 8.
am thinking; 9. Are you studying; 10. Do you see; 11. am listening;
12. thinks; 13. meet; 14. belongs; 15. am making; 16. don’t enjoy;
17. rains; 18. prefer; 19. Do you know; 20. have.
Test 7. 1. is ringing;
2. am watching; 3. does he usually have; 4. are looking, don’t
want; 5. take; 6. are you smiling, have; 7. do you go; 8. wear, am
wearing; 9. are you doing, am cleaning; 10. lives, phones, isn’t;
11. are you going, go; 12. isn’t working; 13. want; 14. does she
speak, speaks; 15. don’t think, likes; 16. is standing; 17. works,
is writing; 18. is having; 19. doesn’t get; 20. tastes
Test 8. 1. is waiting;
2. Are you watching; 3. do you usually do; 4. flows; 5. am going; 6.
leaves; 7. am using; 8. does he want; 9. are you thinking; 10. don’t
remember; 11. doesn’t drink; 12. is doing; 13. am looking, Do you
know; 14. tells, don’t believe; 15. Does Tom usually help, doesn’t;
16. isn’t sleeping; 17. do your children usually get; 18. is that
man looking, Do you recognize; 19. am learning, is teaching; 20. are
they speaking
Test 9. 1. is; 2.
doesn’t pay; 3. will/shall phone; 4. Will you help; 5. go; 6. don’t
pay; 7. arrives; 8. will you say; 9. will/shall call; 10. won’t/
shan’t wait; 11. misses; 12. is; 13. won’t/shan’t be; 14. am;
15. goes; 16. rings; 17. will be; 18. feels; 19. doesn’t come; 20.
goes
Test 10. 1. speaks,
will say; 2. will talk, leaves; 3. won’t/shan’t go, isn’t; 4.
will/shall have, finish; 5. arrive, will give; 6. will feel, gets; 7.
will be, starts; 8. won’t/shan’t go, improves; 9. sees, will
give; 10. will you do, don’t get; 11. won’t know, arrives; 12.
wants, grows; 13. start; 14. am; 15. will come; 16. will phone,
arrives; 17. doesn’t pass; 18. will come; 19. comes, has; 20.
finishes, will enter
Test 11. 1. will
phone, gets; 2. am, are you doing; 3. isn’t, works; 4. do you go;
5. will/shall go; 6. will/shall come, finish; 7. are working; 8. does
he usually do, plays; 9. am reading; 10. has; 11. Are you hungry, Do
you want; 12. come; will be; 13. is having; 14. Do you see; 15. is
dancing, dances; 16. does it usually take; 17. won’t go, comes; 18.
Do you understand; 19. don’t smoke; 20. isn’t raining
Test 12. 1. does he
get, gets; 2. aren’t drinking, think, are watching; 3. returns,
will call; 4. go; 5. is playing; 6. does your brother usually drink;
7. are having; 8. is speaking, am listening, hear; 9. doesn’t rain,
won’t/ shan’t stay; 10. is raining/will rain, will get, don’t
take; 11. want; 12. have, am having; 13. is your sister, is doing;
14. will she come; 15. are you doing, see, aren’t sleeping; 16.
starts, will visit; 17. knows; 18. do your lessons begin; 19. will
go, finishes; 20. will you be, will/shall be
Test 13. 1. hasn’t
met; 2. lived; 3. have lost; 4. has broken; 5. did Shakespeare write;
6. has given up; 7. Have you seen; 8. Have you washed; 9. worked; 10.
have never met; 11. did you write; 12. was; 13. has gone; 14. Have
you seen; 15. have cut; 16. were you; 17. got; 18. wrote; 19. haven’t
eaten; 20. forgot
Test 14. 1. hasn’t
snowed; 2. Did you see; 3. left; 4. Have you seen; 5. have lost; 6.
visited; 7. has gone; 8. did the last train leave; 9. have just had;
10. Was the weather, were; 11. haven’t seen; 12. have ever read;
13. has drunk; 14. did you do; 15. hasn’t eaten; 16. didn’t go;
17. have you known; 18. has always wanted; 19. Have you heard; 20.
lived
Test 15. 1. Has he
ever been, has; 2. have won; 3. did you speak, met; 4. hasn’t
called; 5. have you been; 6. saw; 7. have known; 8. Were you happy
when you were; 9. have always travelled; 10. Have you seen; 11. have
ever seen; 12. started; 13. hasn’t called, arrived; 14. didn’t
go; 15. have had; 16. did you do; 17. wrote; 18. have lost; 19. Did
you go; 20. Have you met
Test 16. 1. went; 2.
met; 3. was; 4. Have you been; 5. haven’t; 6. Have you seen; 7.
saw; 8. have just climbed; 9. was; 10. have you visited; 11. haven’t
found; 12. took; 13. spent; 14. left; 15. enjoyed
Test 17. 1. was
listening, rang; 2. broke, was skiing; 3. were listening, became; 4.
was playing, was painting; 5. saw, were waiting; 6. was working,
opened, ran; 7. was preparing, cut; 8. met, were living; 9. did they
visit, were travelling; 10. Were you working, came; 11. walked, was
wearing; 12. Didn’t you meet, were working; 13. saw, were sitting;
14. were living, met; 15. was listening, was doing; 16. were you
writing, crashed; 17. was passing/passed, knocked; 18. didn’t they
visit, were staying; 19. was driving, saw; 20. arrived, were having
Test 18. 1. were you
doing, rang, was watching; 2. was studying; 3. did Tom come, came,
was having; 4. didn’t go; 5. were you driving, stopped, wasn’t
driving; 6. Did your team win, didn’t play; 7. did you break the
window, were playing, hit; 8. Did you see, was wearing; 9. were you
doing, was still sleeping; 10. lost, did you get
Test 19. 1. got; 2.
walked; 3. didn’t want; 4. was shining; 5. were singing; 6. was
walking; 7. saw; 8. passed; 9. was singing; 10. continued; 11. met;
12. stopped; 13. turned; 14. saw; 15. was standing; 16. (was)
waiting; 17. told; 18. were; 19. came; 20. got
Test 20. 1. enjoyed,
had seen; 2. arrived, had already left; 3. phoned, had gone; 4. had
met, saw; 5. had lived, decided; 6. bought, had already read; 7.
knew, had met; 8. opened, had already begun; 9. had painted, came;
10. hadn’t finished, rang; 11. met, had just returned; 12. heard,
ran; 13. tried, had already left; 14. hadn’t cleaned, came; 15.
finished; 16. had written; 17. understood, hadn’t done; 18.
returned, went; 19. told, had never played; 20. had been, became
Test 21. 1. saw; 2.
noticed; 3. was wearing; 4. wondered; 5. was; 6. didn’t see; 7.
began; 8. stopped; 9. got; 10. was; 11. noticed; 12. had watched; 13.
decided; 14. arrived; 15. had gone.
Test 22. 1. b; 2. c;
3. c; 4. a; 5. a; 6. b; 7. a; 8. b; 9. c; 10. a; 11. b; 12. b; 13. a;
14. b; 15. c; 16. b; 17. a; 18. b; 19. c; 20. b
Test 23. 1. take; 2.
will have; 3. arrive; 4. will feel; 5. are; 6. stay/are staying; 7.
will/shall do; 8. runs; 9. don’t get; 10. has; 11. want; 12. will
be; 13. want; 14. will/shall be; 15. will have already planned/will
already be planning
Test 24. 1. spent; 2.
is your brother doing; 3. won’t have written; 4. washes; 5. Will
you go; 6. rang, was still learning; 7. don’t help, won’t/ shan’t
have done; 8. went, had done; 9. won’t/shan’t go, will/shall be
watching; 10. had already left; 11. won’t/shan’t grow; 12. Have
you ever been; 13. did you buy; 14. doesn’t rain, we won’t/shan’t
stay; 15. comes, will be still doing; 16. are playing; 17. hasn’t
read; 18. Will you have written, comes; 19. Does Lena usually do,
doesn’t; 20. were you doing
Test 25. 1.
won’t/shan’t play; 2. Has he ever been; 3. are you going; 4.
travelled; 5. doesn’t see, will leave; 6. reads; 7. will you be
doing; 8. found, had lost; 9. does your brother do; 10. arrives, will
be still sleeping; 11. is playing; 12. did you go; 13. hasn’t met;
14. will you have read; 15. had already stopped; 16. was Nick doing,
rang; 17. doesn’t help, won’t/ shan’t have written; 18. I
didn’t go, was watching; 19. hasn’t done; 20. will you buy
Test 26. 1. was; 2.
had; 3. was walking; 4. noticed; 5. realized; 6. had met; 7. had just
missed; 8. knew; 9. recognize/have recognized; 10. told; 11. studied;
12. am; 13. are you doing; 14. work; 15. have lived; 16. don’t
believe; 17. have been; 18. have never seen; 19. agreed; 20. were
looking
Test 27. 1. been
reading, read; 2. been painting; 3. been doing; 4. played; 5. broken;
6. been waiting; 7. stopped; 8. lost, seen; 9. been repairing; 10.
written; 11. seen, been looking; 12. been writing; 13. been playing;
14. known; 15. lived; 16. seen; 17. been playing; 18. been driving;
19. seen; 20. been drinking
Test 28. 1. broken; 2.
been reading; 3. been working, finished; 4. been smoking; 5. smoked;
6. been running; 7. lost, seen; 8. been eating/eaten; 9. been
waiting; 10. done; 11. read; 12. known; 13. been learning; 14. been
arguing; 15. been doing; 16. been painting; 17. painted; 18. been
swimming; 19. been shopping, bought; 20. been raining
Test 29. 1. decided;
2. have been worrying; 3. took; 4. have already sold; 5. have
arranged; 6. have heard/have been hearing; 7. have begun; 8. grew up;
9. have spent; 10. have always wanted; 11. offered; 12. grabbed; 13.
have just heard; 14. have stopped; 15. have chosen/have been
choosing; 16. told; 17. accepted; 18. told; 19. seemed; 20. have been
hoping
Test 30. 1. read; 2.
been reading; 3. been playing; 4. played; 5. been working; 6. been
raining; 7. spent; 8. been trying, managed; 9. been waiting; 10.
left; 11. known; 12. been climbing; 13. been feeling; 14. been
smoking; 15. got; 16. been travelling; 17. had; 18. been running; 19.
been cleaning; 20. cleaned
Test 31. 1. started;
2. been flying; 3. been acting; 4. been; 5. been working; 6. made; 7.
gone; 8. repaired; 9. been repairing; 10. planted; 11. had; 12.
arrived; 13. been learning; 14. been climbing; 15. climbed; 16.
finished; 17. cooked; 18. been playing; 19. slept; 20. been teaching
Test 32. 1. was; 2.
had lost; 3. will come; 4. has; 5. would leave; 6. was going; 7. had
stayed; 8. has just returned; 9. had lived; 10. will be; 11. was
born; 12. would come; 13. couldn’t; 14. was; 15. had been; 16. had
bought; 17. was staying; 18. must; 19. would read; 20. will come
Test 33. 1. What are
you doing, am reading, have been reading, have read; 2. left, had
already stopped, was blowing; 3. How long have you been waiting; 4.
had been working; 5. rings, will tell; 6. Have you ever been, was; 7.
told, would come; 8. Does he help; 9. will be discussing; 10. What
were you doing; 11. had been teaching; 12. What have you been doing;
13. will have read; 14. When did you see; 15. will be sleeping; 16.
Have you found, am still looking, have already been looking, have not
found it yet; 17. will have been sailing; 18. had been waiting; 19.
had been writing, would finish; 20. found, had got, were waiting
Test 34. 1. Had
finished, came, was reading; 2. When does he usually get up, gets; 3.
what are you doing, have been waiting; 4. won’t be writing, will
have already written; 5. What are you doing, am preparing, How long
have you been preparing; 6. had been waiting, saw; 7. would read; 8.
came, had already returned, was sitting; 9. comes, will be still
packing; 10. writes, has been writing, has already written; 11. had
been waiting, would ring; 12. will have translated; 13. Have you ever
spent, have, was; 14. What will he do next year, finishes, will
enter; 15. When did you see Mary, saw; 16. have done; 17. will have
been working; 18. What were you reading; 19. Have you learnt, am
learning, have already been learning; have not learnt it yet; 20. had
been raining
Test 35. 1. were, had
been crying; 2. has finished; 3. comes, will be still cooking; 4.
helps, has been helping, has already washed, are cooking; 5. What
were you doing; 6. What does Nick usually do, reads, watches, plays;
7. will have already been studying; 8. had been reading, would
return; 9. Have you done, am still doing, have already been doing,
have not done it yet; 10. What will you do, will/shall go, brings;
11. have been playing; 12. rang, was still learning, had begun; 13.
would spend; 14. Have you seen, have, saw; 15. will be watching, will
have already done, come; 16. Where did you spend, spent; 17. What are
you reading, am reading, How long have you been reading; 18. had
done, was playing; 19. How many pages will you have read; 20. came,
told, had been waiting
Test 36. 1. had been
saving up; 2. had put by; 3. were living; 4. insisted; 5. had been
searching; 6. were looking for/had been looking for; 7. was asking;
8. were; 9. looked; 10. saw; 11. had been living/had lived; 12. had
made; 13. liked; 14. managed; 15. was
Test 37. 1. know; 2.
have been having; 3. are turning/have turned/ have been turning; 4.
involves; 5. did hear/heard; 6. holds; 7. have turned up; 8. was
passing; 9. thought; 10. didn’t believe; 11. has already studied;
12. has heard; 13. find; 14. stayed; 15. found; 16. race; 17. is
waiting; 18. run; 19. haven’t eaten; 20. were obviously enjoying
Test 38. 1. will be
doing; 2. will be; 3. ask; 4. belong; 5. died; 6. have met; 7. love;
8. has visited; 9. suffered; 10. borrowed; 11. was not working; 12.
got; 13. have been working/have worked; 14. went; 15. are thinking;
16. have always wanted; 17. performed; 18. has been; 19. was; 20.
owns
Test 39. 1. will be
taken; 2. are grown; 3. has been reduced; 4. was shocked; 5. be
translated; 6. were held; 7. has not been cleaned; 8. are made; 9. be
dusted; 10. are being decorated; 11. had been done; 12. were
impressed; 13. will be imported; 14. be improved; 15. be returned;
16. have been sent/will be sent; 17. are manufactured; 18. will be
held; 19. has been mined; 20. Is it being repaired?
Test 40. 1. was the
telephone invented; 2. are being translated; 3. won’t be written;
4. is spoken; 5. had been painted; 6. has been washed; 7. be
answered; 8. were built; 9. will have been prepared; 10. has been
played; 11. was being painted; 12. are usually sold; 13. will be
discussed; 14.. Has your composition been written yet? 15. had not
been cleaned; 16. be seen; 17. is usually made; 18. will have been
received; 19. is being discussed; 20. is washed
Test 41. 1. will the
first restaurant be opened; 2. are not grown; 3. Has the room been
cleaned; 4. will have already been published; 5. are they being
repaired; 6. will be announced; 7. had been done; 8. be watered; 9.
are usually made; 10. has been produced; 11. When was the first car
constructed; 12. had already been translated; 13. is being built; 14.
be cleaned; 15. was being moved; 16. were bought; 17. have been
found; 18. is ruled; 19. was still being discussed; 20. won’t have
been written
Test 42. 1. was taken;
2. was pronounced; 3. be seen; 4. was cordoned; 5. had been shot; 6.
had been held; 7. has been notified; 8. have been sent; 9. is known;
10. is surrounded
Test 43. 1. was
written; 2. have been killed; 3. built; 4. was bought; 5. have
arrested; 6. arrived; 7. will be cleaned; 8. wasn’t invited; 9.
employs; 10. has lost; 11. are caused; 12. are shown; 13. don’t
use; 14. was built; 15. be done; 16. has disappeared; 17. has been
shot; 18. will be built; 19. am being served; 20. had already gone
Test 44. 1. is being
used; 2. Have you painted; 3. covers; 4. is covered; 5. had been
cancelled; 6. are locked; 7. was posted, arrived; 8. was being
redecorated; 9. will be working; 10. died, were brought up; 11. was
stolen; 12. has been built/is being built; 13. were these photographs
taken, Did you take; 14. were arrested; 15. is working, has been
repaired; 16. disappeared, has seen; 17. had been cleaned; 18. are
being followed; 19. be explained; 20. will have already been sold
Test 45. 1. How does
she usually get; 2. was still being cooked; 3. had been running; 4.
Has Jane ever heard; 5. comes; 6. is being discussed; 7. Will she
have painted; 8. will be published; 9. How long have you had; 10. is
usually done; 11. When did he get; 12. doesn’t come; 13. will be
working; 14. Was this novel written; 15. has been writing; 16. What
novel is she writing; 17. What were you doing; 18. will have been
repaired; 19. had not written; 20. Has your bag been found
Test 46. 1. belong; 2.
are troubled; 3. exists; 4. is known; 5. wants; 6. are suited; 7. has
averaged; 8. was; 9. has doubled; 10. supported; 11. are designed;
12. does not reward; 13. encourages; 14. are concerned; 15. has not
been solved
Test 47. 1. films; 2.
has been exploring; 3. has been bitten; 4. have attacked; 5. enjoys;
6. didn’t/don’t have; 7. would/will be; 8. worked; 9. was
filming; 10. had not known; 11. eat; 12. don’t eat; 13. is
preparing; 14. is studying; 15. has already read
Conditional
Sentences/Subjunctive Mood
Test 1. 1. runs; 2.
didn’t go; 3. would feel; 4. stops; 5. would take; 6. refused; 7.
don’t go; 8. wouldn’t get; 9. will arrest; 10. wouldn’t have;
11. see; 12. didn’t come; 13. likes; 14. would be; 15. don’t
come; 16. doesn’t open; 17. would understand; 18. would you do; 19.
told; 20. will you repay
Test 2. 1. rains,
won’t be able; 2. see her, I’ll give; 3. had, would go; 4.
were/was, could; 5. don’t start, will go; 6. have, I’ll help; 7.
could, would open; 8. is, we’ll leave; 9. Will he have, works; 10.
wouldn’t buy, were/was; 11. weren’t, wouldn’t be; 12. were/was,
would have; 13. phones, am; 14. would taste, weren’t/wasn’t; 15.
is, won’t/shan’t stay; 16. didn’t go, wouldn’t be; 17.
were/was, would apologize; 18. had, would know; 19. feel,
won’t/shan’t go; 20. would be, had
Test 3. 1. weren’t;
2. had had; 3. would buy; 4. had been; 5. hadn’t taken; 6. would
take; 7. had run; 8. didn’t have; 9. would you do; 10. hadn’t
felt; 11. would have said; 12. hadn’t taken; 13. wouldn’t come;
14. gave; 15. wouldn’t have missed; 16. had asked; 17. knew; 18.
would have helped; 19. were/was invited; 20. had passed
Test 4. 1. had, would
go; 2. had known, would have gone; 3. had missed, would have been; 4.
knew, would help; 5. would have forgotten, had not reminded; 6. had
had, would have sent; 7. knew, would phone; 8. would have enjoyed,
had been; 9. would have been, had walked; 10. were/ was tired, would
go; 11. had been, would have eaten; 12. would have got, hadn’t had;
13. would have lost, had sold; 14. were, could fly; 15. had asked,
would certainly have told; 16. had been ill, wouldn’t have played;
17. were/was, wouldn’t have; 18. hadn’t contacted, wouldn’t
have caught; 19. wouldn’t feel, didn’t smoke; 20. had called,
would have told
Test 5. 1. passes; 2.
will happen; 3. didn’t rain; 4. wouldn’t have; 5. were/was; 6.
won’t/shan’t be; 7. hadn’t been; 8. wouldn’t break; 9. hadn’t
helped; 10. doesn’t bring; 11. isn’t; 12. wouldn’t have done;
13. would be; 14. had had; 15. comes; 16. don’t hurry; 17.
weren’t/wasn’t; 18. didn’t love, wouldn’t have married; 19.
would you do, would run; 20. am not
Test 6. 1. hadn’t
borrowed; 2. hadn’t caught; 3. wouldn’t have used; 4. would have
won; 5. don’t put up; 6. changed; 7. would tell; 8. will wake up;
9. had asked; 10. feel; 11. hadn’t threatened; 12. wouldn’t
trust; 13. will be able; 14. will punish; 15. had intended; 16.
overhears; 17. were/was; 18. hadn’t been; 19. is; 20. spent
Test 7. 1. had; 2. had
been; 3. were/was; 4. would stop; 5. hadn’t gone; 6. would come; 7.
were/was; 8. had had; 9. would go/could go; 10. had kept; 11.
weren’t/wasn’t; 12. hadn’t lost; 13. would improve; 14. hadn’t
eaten; 15. would stop; 16. hadn’t said; 17. weren’t; 18. had
taken; 19. were/was; 20. would answer
Test 8. 1. would have
already brought; 2. gets; 3. knew; 4. were/was; 5. is; 6. had known;
7. were/was; 8. had gone; 9. won’t/shan’t put; 10. would have
done; 11. hadn’t missed; 12. didn’t have; 13. snows; 14. were/
was, would be; 15. would meet; 16. would not know; 17. had been,
would have played; 18. doesn’t go; 19. had; 20. had been
Test 9. 1. had seen;
2. lived; 3. will/shall go, doesn’t change; 4. would have taken; 5.
would meet; 6. would read; 7. were/was; 8. rains; 9. were/ was not;
10. won’t be; 11. had not missed; 12. had met, would have told; 13.
hadn’t given; 14. were/was; 15. had worked; 16. is; 17. were/was
not; 18. lived; 19. rings; 20. would not have missed
Test 10. 1. would have
been; 2. had gone; 3. would have happened; 4. had walked; 5. wouldn’t
have been; 6. had not been; 7. would not be; 8. would probably live;
9. Would I ever have found; 10. hadn’t met; 11. had decided; 12.
would/could not have done; 13. had not met; 14. were not; 15. would
not be
Test 11. 1. would do;
2. told; 3. had; 4. would spend; 5. being; 6. to do; 7. will tell; 8.
don’t/won’t just carry; 9. have/will have; 10. were; 11. goes;
12. will have; 13. to relax; 14. would do; 15. is
Complex Object
Test 1. 1. —; 2. to;
3. —; 4. to; 5. —, —; 6. —; 7. to; 8. to; 9. —; 10. —;
11. to; 12. to; 13. —, —; 14. —; 15. to; 16. to; 17. to; 18 —;
19. to; 20. —
Test 2. 1. go; 2.
singing; 3. touch; 4. come; 5. reading; 6. happen; 7. crying; 8.
cycling; 9. digging; 10. call; 11. burning; 12. lying; 13. run, open,
climb; 14. explode; 15. crawling; 16. slam; 17. walking; 18. walk,
take; 19. sleeping; 20. raining
Test 3. 1. a; 2. b; 3.
b; 4. a; 5. a; 6. c; 7. b; 8. a; 9. a; 10. a; 11. c; 12. a; 13. b;
14. b; 15. b; 16. a; 17. a; 18 c; 19. c; 20. a
Test 4. 1. screeching;
2. shouting; 3. standing; 4. approach; 5. kneel; 6. to phone; 7.
using; 8. running; 9. pushing; 10. to be; 11. screaming; 12. stop;
13. get out; 14. run; 15. run
Test 5. 1. I want you
to read this book. 2. I saw Nick come. 3. I saw George walking along
the street. 4. Would you like me to tell you this story? 5. The dog
made the cat climb up the tree. 6. We didn’t expect you to do so
much. 7. He doesn’t like children to laugh. 8. Did you notice him
put the letter on the table? 9. Mother wants me to be a teacher. 10.
Dad, let Tom join us. 11. He knew her to be a famous singer. 12. Have
you ever heard her sing/singing? 13. Do you want me to give you my
dictionary? 14. I wouldn’t like you to wait for me. 15. We watched
the students dancing. 16. I hate you to ask silly questions. 17. The
teacher made her rewrite the exercise. 18. She didn’t hear me come
into the room. 19. Granny doesn’t like the children to play with
the dog. 20. I felt someone watching me.
Infinitive/Gerund/Participles
Test 1. 1. stealing;
2. smoking; 3. to go; 4. making; 5. buying; 6. to answer; 7.
speaking; 8. putting; 9. meeting, to see; 10. to pay; 11. to steal;
12. working, going; 13. to join; 14. to see; 15. writing, waiting;
16. asking, telling, to buy; 17. to see; 18. to help; 19. going; 20.
to drive
Test 2. 1. meeting; 2.
to meet; 3. to close; 4. closing; 5. to lock, going; 6. to bring; 7.
going; 8. to forget, worrying; 9. knocking; 10. to put; 11. asking;
12. to concentrate; 13. to go; 14. cleaning; 15. to ask, to leave;
16. cutting, to do; 17. to buy; 18. asking; 19. eating; 20. to get
Test 3. 1. decorating;
2. working; 3. to arrive; 4. seeing; 5. to finish; 6. using; 7.
starting; 8. to move; 9. being; 10. to answer; 11. raining; 12. to
help; 13. to save; 14. to stay up; 15. driving; 16. to post; 17.
taking; 18. talking, asking; 19. doing; 20. to water
Test 4. 1. a; 2. b; 3.
a; 4. c; 5. a; 6. c; 7. a; 8. b; 9. a, b; 10. c; 11. a; 12. b; 13.
b/d; 14. a; 15. c; 16. b; 17. a; 18 d; 19. b; 20. b
Test 5. 1. coming; 2.
seeing; 3. examining; 4. visiting; 5. having stolen; 6. to explain,
to listen; 7. to iron, ironing; 8. raining; 9. to book, to keep; 10.
being helped/having been helped; 11. to say; 12. discussing; 13.
having forgotten; 14. working; 15. to do; 16. seeing; 17. to be,
laughing; 18. to see; 19. being spoken; 20 shutting
Test 6. 1. going; 2.
to have found/to find; 3. to reach; 4. being invited; 5. to paint,
painting; 6. arguing, working; 7. to lock; 8. doing, doing; 9. to
shut; 10. having robbed; 11. putting; 12. writing; 13. to do; 14.
smiling; 15. not to buy; 16. being examined; 17. going; 18. breaking;
19. paying; 20. saying
Test 7. 1. to find; 2.
looking after; 3. to pay; 4. overdrawing; 5. redecorating; 6. to buy;
7. to save; 8. earning; 9. to visit; 10. going; 11. working; 12. to
stay; 13. being able to; 14. leaving; 15. to miss
Test 8. 1. exciting;
2. disappointed; 3. annoyed; 4. fascinating; 5. tiring; 6.
disappointing; 7. annoying; 8. depressed; 9. relaxing; 10. excited;
11. boring; 12. surprising; 13. shocked; 14. amused; 15. exciting;
16. bored; 17. astonishing; 18. amusing; 19. shocking; 20.
terrifying, worried
Test 9. 1. b; 2. c; 3.
b; 4. a; 5. c; 6. b; 7. b; 8. a; 9. c; 10. b; 11. a; 12. b; 13. b;
14. c; 15. b; 16. a; 17. b; 18 b; 19. c; 20. b.
Test 10. 1. walking,
destroyed; 2. exciting, excited; 3. sitting/having sat; 4. having
found; 5. frightened, frightening; 6. being; 7. burnt; 8. looking
out; 9. surrounded; 10. surrounding; 11. translated; 12. selling; 13.
having sold; 14. entering; 15. having arrived; 16. playing; 17. lost;
18. not wishing; 19. spoken; 20. speaking
Test 11. 1. excited,
watching; 2. worried, worrying; 3. looking; 4. having had; 5.
frightening, frightened; 6. feeling; 7. invited; 8. hearing; 9.
washing; 10. washed; 11. approved; 12. doing; 13. having done; 14.
coming; 15. having seen; 16. crossing; 17. written; 18. not knowing;
19. taken; 20. taking
Test 12. 1. haunted;
2. made; 3. built; 4. broken; 5. staring; 6. followed; 7. looking; 8.
prepared; 9. begun; 10. having; 11. talking; 12. knowing; 13. making;
14. hiding; 15. waiting; 16. coming; 17. carrying; 18. getting; 19.
wearing; 20. holding
Test 13. 1. b; 2. a;
3. b; 4. c; 5. c; 6. a; 7. b; 8. b; 9. c; 10. c; 11. c; 12. a; 13. b;
14. a; 15. b; 16. c; 17. b; 18. b; 19. c; 20. c
Test 14. 1. a; 2. c;
3. a; 4. c; 5. c; 6. c; 7. a; 8. a; 9. b; 10. c; 11. c; 12. a; 13. c;
14. a; 15. b; 16. b; 17. c; 18. c; 19. c; 20. a
Test 15. 1. stand for;
2. eating; 3. to cheer; 4. to satisfy; 5. complaining/to complain; 6.
to realise; 7. to honour; 8. lighting; 9. giving; 10. saving; 11.
exchanging; 12. to eat; 13. to have spent; 14. having; 15. overeating
Test 16. 1. to give
up; 2. sell; 3. to do; 4. working; 5. to retire; 6. waste; 7.
digging; 8. gossiping; 9. live; 10. to enjoy; 11. buying/to buy; 12.
touring/tour; 13. to buy; 14. sailing; 15. walking
Modal Verbs
Test 1. 1.
should/ought to; 2. must; 3. may/can/could; 4. needn’t; 5.
mustn’t/can’t; 6. mustn’t/shouldn’t; 7. can’t; 8. has; 9.
mustn’t/can’t; 10. needn’t; 11. may; 12. may; 13. may; 14.
shall; 15. should; 16. may; 17. should; 18. shall; 19.
mustn’t/shouldn’t; 20. may
Test 2. 1. a; 2. b; 3.
b; 4. a; 5. c; 6. a; 7. c; 8. b; 9. c; 10. a; 11. b; 12. c; 13. a;
14. c; 15. a; 16. c; 17. b; 18. a; 19. b; 20. c
Test 3. 1. should; 2.
should; 3. Do you have to; 4. should; 5. had to; 6. should; 7. have
to; 8. has to; 9. should; 10. have to; 11. has to; 12. had to; 13.
should; 14. don’t have to; 15. should; 16. should; 17. doesn’t
have to; 18. had to; 19. have to; 20. should
Test 4. 1. mustn’t;
2. can; 3. had to; 4. don’t have to; 5. should; 6. must; 7.
needn’t; 8. could; 9. had to; 10. couldn’t; 11. must; 12. might;
13. May; 14. doesn’t have to; 15. can’t; 16. ought to; 17. were
able to; 18. couldn’t; 19. must; 20. could
Test 5. 1. can; 2.
should; 3. can; 4. should; 5. can; 6. ought; 7. should; 8. have; 9.
should; 10. need
Test 6 (The following
are possible answers. Other variants are often possible.) 1. He must
have already been learning this poem for an hour. 2. You should have
forgotten about it long ago. 3. The bus was to arrive 5 minutes ago.
4. He can’t be busy now. 5. He may/might be able to help you. 6.
You needn’t come tomorrow./You don’t have to come tomorrow. 7. He
must have had to do it. 8. Could you repeat your question, please? 9.
I may/ might have to work on Sunday. 10. He must be still doing his
homework. 11. You should finish this work. 12. I will be able to
speak English very well in a year. 13. What did you have to do
yesterday? 14. May I go out? 15. He was to come an hour ago. 16. Can
he have forgotten about my birthday? 17. The teacher said we might go
home. 18. You mustn’t read this book. 19. Last year I couldn’t
swim but now I can. 20. He may be still waiting for me.
Prepositions
Test 1. 1. in; 2. on;
3. at; 4. at; 5. —; 6. in; 7. in; 8. in; 9. at; 10. on; 11. at, in;
12. by; 13. on; 14. at; 15. from, till, at; 16. at;.17. in; 18. at,
on; 19. —, in; 20. on
Test 2. 1. from, till;
2. in; 3. —, in; 4. at; 5. on, at; 6. in; 7. on; 8. at; 9. for, –
; 10. on; 11. —; 12. at; 13. by; 14. in; 15. at, for; 16. on; 17.
in; 18. since; 19. at; 20. in
Test 3. 1. in, at; 2.
at; 3. in; 4. at, at; 5. at; 6. on; 7. on; 8. on; 9. in; 10. on; 11.
on, in; 12. at; 13. on; 14. on; 15. at, at, in; 16. in, on; 17. at;
18. on/at; 19. at; 20. at
Test 4. 1. in; 2. on;
3. in; 4. at, in, at; 5. in, in/at, on; 6. at, in; 7. on/ at; 8. at;
9. at; 10. in, at/in; 11. at; 12. in; 13. at, at; 14. on/at; 15. on;
16. on; 17. on; 18. in; 19. on; 20. on, in
Test 5. 1. in, at; 2.
on, at; 3. at; 4. in; 5. at; 6. on; 7. on; 8. on, on; 9. at, in; 10.
On, at/on; 11. at; 12. at; 13. in; 14. on; 15. at, at, in; 16. on;
17. at; 18. in; 19. at, in; 20. in
Test 6. 1.
above/over/behind; 2. out of; 3. along/down/up; 4. out of/ through;
5. into/along/up/down; 6. over; 7. to; 8. on; 9. round; 10. along/
up/down; 11. past; 12. into; 13. beside/by/at; 14. in; 15. off; 16.
over; 17. across; 18. towards; 19. to; 20. through; 21. on; 22.
by/beside; 23. against; 24. by/past; 25. over
Test 7. 1. to, about;
2. from; 3. to, about; 4. to; 5. in; 6. to, for; 7. to; 8. on; 9.
with; 10. on; 11. for; 12. for; 13. about, to, about; 14. to, about,
about; 15. to, about; 16. into; 17. at; 18. at; 19. at; 20. with
Test 8. 1. into; 2.
with, for; 3. for; 4. for; 5. for; 6. to; 7. to; 8. on; 9. with; 10.
in; 11. from; 12. about; 13. on; 14. on; 15. to; 16. to; 17. with;
18. to; 19. to; 20. to
Test 9. 1. of; 2. of;
3. of; 4. of; 5. of; 6. for; 7. about; 8. about; 9. to; 10. at; 11.
from; 12. with; 13. to; 14. with; 15. to; 16. at; 17. in; 18. to; 19.
to; 20. for
Test 10. 1. of; 2. of;
3. to; 4. of; 5. of; 6. of; 7. of; 8. to; 9. to; 10. with; 11. with;
12. by; 13. at; 14. for; 15. for; 16. of; 17. to; 18. about; 19.
with; 20. to
Test 11. 1. to; 2. at;
3. of; 4. at; 5. from; 6. for; 7. with; 8. to; 9. to; 10. about; 11.
with; 12. of; 13. to; 14. to; 15. of; 16. about; 17. with; 18. for;
19. about; 20. of
Test 12. 1. as; 2.
for; 3. at; 4. in; 5. in; 6. off; 7. to; 8. to; 9. to; 10. on
Test 13. 1. in; 2.
for; 3. in; 4. of; 5. for; 6. in; 7. in; 8. for; 9. in; 10. with; 11.
in; 12. in; 13. from; 14. of; 15. to
Test 14. 1. on; 2. To;
3. in; 4. in; 5. on; 6. of; 7. At; 8. at; 9. In; 10. at; 11. by; 12.
in; 13. to; 14. on; 15. for
Test 15. 1. with; 2.
on; 3. to; 4. of; 5. in; 6. with; 7. down; 8. behind; 9. at; 10. in;
11. off; 12. through; 13. behind; 14. with; 15. through
Vocabulary
Test 1. 1. much; 2.
few; 3. many; 4. little; 5. much/little; 6. much; 7. much; 8. many;
9. few; 10. much; 11. many, much; 12. many; 13. much/little; 14.
much/little; 15. many; 16. little; 17. much/a little; 18. much; 19. a
few/many, a little/much; 20. many
Test 2. 1. few; 2.
little; 3. many; 4. much; 5. many; 6. few; 7. little; 8. a few; 9. a
little; 10. little; 11. many/a few; 12. few; 13. a little; 14. a few;
15. few; 16. many; 17. much; 18. little; 19. a little; 20. many
Test 3. 1. such a; 2.
such a; 3. such a, so; 4. so; 5. so; 6. so; 7. such; 8. so; 9. so;
10. so; 11. such a; 12. so; 13. so; 14. so; 15. so; 16. so, such a;
17. so; 18. such a; 19. so; 20. such.
Test 4. 1. so; 2.
such; 3. such a; 4. so; 5. so; 6. so; 7. such; 8. such a; 9. such a;
10. so; 11. such a; 12. so, such; 13. such a; 14. so; 15. such a; 16.
so; 17. such; 18. such; 19. so; 20. such a.
Test 5. 1. do; 2.
make/made; 3. do; 4. making; 5. do; 6. made; 7. make; 8. make; 9. do;
10. done; 11. made; 12. do; 13. make; 14. do; 15. make; 16. done; 17.
making/made; 18. do; 19. make; 20. make, do
Test 6. 1. made/have
to make/’ll make; 2. had done, had made; 3. do; 4. have made; 5.
did/have done; 6. made/has made; 7. making; 8. does/did/has done; 9.
made; 10. do; 11. is doing/does/did; 12. made; 13. to do; 14. is
doing; 15. make, make; 16. do; 17. make; 18. makes; 19. make; 20. do
Test 7. 1. do; 2.
making; 3. make; 4. do; 5. doing; 6. made; 7. do; 8. made; 9. up; 10.
damage/harm; 11. did; 12. do; 13. effort; 14. sure; 15. do
Test 8. 1. told; 2.
said; 3. said; 4. told; 5. tell; 6. Say; 7. told; 8. told; 9. Tell;
10. said; 11. told; 12. said; 13. told; 14. said; 15. tell, said; 16.
tell, say; 17. tell; 18. told; 19. tell; 20. said
Test 9. 1. said/says;
2. said; 3. told; 4. say; 5. told; 6. tell; 7. say; 8. says; 9. says;
10. say; 11. tell; 12. tell; 13. say; 14. say; 15. told; 16. told;
17. told; 18. told; 19. talk; 20. talked; 21. speak; 22. say, tell;
23. says; 24. told/tells; 25. said/says; 26. say; 27. tell; 28. says;
29. telling; 30. said/says
Test 10. 1. say; 2.
talked; 3. given; 4. said; 5. turned down/refused; 6. persuade/tell;
7. discuss; 8. told; 9. talk; 10. convinced; 11. denied; 12. give;
13. refuse; 14. telling; 15. give; 16. told
Test 11. 1. to/round;
2. round; 3. out; 4. up; 5. out; 6. up to/over to; 7. into; 8. down;
9. along/on; 10. off; 11. across/upon; 12. round; 13. back; 14. for;
15. along; 16. on; 17. down; 18. off; 19. into; 20. out
Test 12. 1. ahead/on;
2. for; 3. on; 4. over; 5. off; 6.out; 7. in for; 8. down; 9. round
10. through; 11. back on; 12. through with; 13. down/off; 14. back;
15. over/through; 16. off; 17. off/away; 18. in for; 19. up; 20.
without
Test 13. 1. away; 2.
up; 3. back; 4. up; 5. away; 6. in; 7. up; 8. out; 9. up; 10. out;
11. away; 12. for; 13. out; 14. up; 15. back; 16. in; 17. away; 18.
off; 19. back; 20. in
Test 14. 1. back; 2.
off; 3. off; 4. off; 5. down; 6. out; 7. away; 8. on; 9. down to; 10.
on; 11. up with; 12. up; 13. up; 14. down; 15. forward; 16. down; 17.
up with; 18. up; 19. on; 20. in
Test 15. 1. in; 2.
aback; 3. up; 4. after; 5. back; 6. to; 7. up; 8. off; 9. to; 10.
over; 11. for; 12. for; 13. out; 14. on; 15. in; 16. down; 17.
on/over; 18. in; 19. along/out; 20. aside
Test 16. 1. were going
to; 2. nice; 3. invented; 4. receipt; 5. remind; 6. fetching; 7.
else; 8. conducted; 9. grand; 10. match; 11. classic; 12. economical;
13. eventually; 14. efficient; 15. historic; 16. illegible; 17.
consistent; 18. effect; 19. humanely; 20. an opportunity
Test 17. 1. Technical;
2. specially; 3. disinterested; 4. nil; 5. possibility; 6. disused;
7. counsellor; 8. room; 9. shade; 10. possibly; 11. umpire; 12.
policy; 13. steps; 14. barrister; 15. write-up; 16. financial; 17.
morale; 18. convenient; 19. amenities; 20. affect
Word Formation
Test 1. 1.
disappointed; 2. misunderstood; 3. disliked; 4. replace; 5. returned;
6. mistook; 7. overcooked; 8. mistaken; 9. misread; 10. overcharging
Test 2. 1.
independent; 2. impolite; 3. illogical; 4. prehistoric; 5.
transatlantic; 6. immoral; 7. international; 8. irrelevant; 9.
irregular; 10. indirect
Test 3. 1. semi-final;
2. ex-partner; 3. substandard; 4. multinational; 5. subsection; 6.
multi-ethnic; 7. subzero; 8. deregulate; 9. ex-wife; 10. decode
Test 4. 1.
photographer; 2. friendship; 3. childhood; 4. excitement; 5.
happiness; 6. writer; 7. division; 8. activity; 9. greatness; 10.
importance
Test 5. 1.
communication; 2. pollution; 3. destruction; 4. starvation; 5.
extinction; 6. exhaustion; 7. foundations; 8. protection; 9.
competition; 10. creation
Test 6. 1. dangerous;
2. foggy; 3. attractive; 4. comfortable; 5. famous; 6. industrial; 7.
musical; 8. economical; 9. central; 10. knowledgeable
Test 7. 1. unpopular;
2. displeasing; 3. unhealthy; 4. undeniable; 5. irresistible; 6.
impossible; 7. ineffective; 8. illegal; 9. unable; 10. unbearable
Test 8. 1.
beautifully; 2. successfully; 3. better; 4. correctly; 5. fluently;
6. frequently; 7. occasionally; 8. carefully; 9. accurately; 10.
strongly
Test 9. 1.
civilizations; 2. decorated; 3. dead; 4. proclamation; 5. joint; 6.
observed; 7. proclamation; 8. citizens; 9. peace; 10. limited; 11.
national; 12. organizations; 13. participants; 14. traditionally; 15.
beginning
Test 10. 1.
neighbourhood; 2. architects; 3.build; 4. wonderfully; 5. own; 6.
running; 7. conveniences; 8. massive; 9. different; 10. living
Test 11. 1. fun; 2.
free; 3. teenage; 4. difficult; 5. harder; 6. less; 7. passing; 8.
better; 9. less; 10. more; 11. British; 12. best; 13. twenties; 14.
life; 15. reading
Test 12. 1.
independence; 2. important; 3. spoilt; 4. greedy; 5. mannered; 6.
polite; 7. behaviour; 8. them; 9. children; 10. pride; 11. conceited;
12. tolerant; 13. different; 14. importance; 15. imitation
Test 13. 1. education;
2. noise; 3. power; 4. different; 5. cooking; 6. conformists; 7.
assure; 8. bullying
Test 14. 1. system; 2.
useful; 3. classification; 4. criminals; 5. greatly; 6. strengthen;
7. revolution; 8. search; 9. selection; 10. identification
Test 15. 1. proud; 2.
Researchers; 3. conclusion; 4. development; 5. illnesses; 6.
endangered; 7. solution; 8. carefully; 9. differently; 10. encouraged
Test 16. 1. pollution;
2. disastrous; 3. extinction; 4. harmful; 5. damaging; 6. population;
7. survival; 8. responsibility; 9. poverty; 10. starvation
Exam Practice
Test 1.1. 1. was
chosen; 2. their; 3. strongest; 4. has almost disappeared; 5. were;
6. decreasing; 7. don’t hatch; 8. are trying; 9. is slowly
increasing; 10. has survived
Test 1.2. 1. arrival;
2. beautiful; 3. population; 4. inhabitants; 5. nationalities; 6.
tourists; 7. especially; 8. Visitors; 9. wonderful; 10. enthusiastic
Test 1.3. 1. d; 2. b;
3. c; 4. a; 5. c; 6. b; 7. d; 8. a; 9. b; 10. c; 11. d; 12. a; 13. c;
14. c; 15. d
Test 2.1. 1. was
described; 2. was repeated; 3. came; 4. more hilarious; 5. grown; 6.
were picking; 7. commented/was commenting; 8. were; 9. did not get;
10. could
Test 2.2. 1. pride; 2.
institutions; 3. freedom; 4. patriotic; 5. Education; 6. lawyers; 7.
confident; 8. religious; 9. talker; 10. powerful
Test 2.3. 1. c; 2. a;
3. c; 4. b; 5. a; 6. d; 7. d; 8. b; 9. c; 10. a; 11. c; 12. b; 13. d;
14. a; 15. d
Test 3.1. 1. enjoyed;
2. activities; 3. has become; 4. most rewarding; 5. are; 6. are
designed; 7. will cause; 8. are asked; 9. closing/to close; 10. don’t
forget
Test 3.2. 1. laid; 2.
visitor; 3. belief; 4. unconnected; 5. impossible; 6. selection; 7.
attractions; 8. sandy; 9. pointless; 10. difficulty
Test 3.3. 1. b; 2. d;
3. a; 4. a; 5. c; 6. b; 7. c; 8. a; 9. d; 10. b; 11. c; 12. b; 13. d;
14. d; 15. b
Test 4.1. 1. biggest;
2. has always been; 3. lives; 4. has worked; 5. have forgotten; 6.
are now being asked; 7. has been lost; 8. left; 9. to forget; 10.
reminding
Test 4.2. 1.
advertisement; 2. requirements; 3. qualifications; 4. acceptance; 5.
accountant; 6. development; 7. business; 8. distance; 9. attendance;
10. absence
Test 4.3. 1. a; 2. c;
3. d; 4. c; 5. c; 6. a; 7. d; 8. a; 9. b; 10. c; 11. d; 12. a; 13. b;
14. d; 15. b
Test 5.1. 1. looking;
2. had been forgotten; 3. were written; 4. could not say; 5. said; 6.
larger; 7. teeth; 8. carries; 9. will know; 10. ringing
Test 5.2. 1.
comparisons; 2. children; 3. generation; 4. education; 5. harder; 6.
disagree; 7. revising; 8. examinations; 9. exaggeration; 10.
misbehave
Test 5.3. 1. d; 2. b;
3. a; 4. c; 5. b; 6. a; 7. b; 8. a; 9. c; 10. d; 11. d; 12. d; 13. b;
14. b; 15. a
Test 6.1. 1. staying;
2. rang; 3. had been kidnapped; 4. didn’t pay; 5. first; 6.
happier; 7. laughing; 8. had decided; 9. had worked; 10. didn’t
enjoy
Test 6.2. 1. guidance;
2. tendency; 3. efficient; 4. revision; 5. frequency; 6. fluency; 7.
psychological; 8. performance; 9. acquisition; 10. reluctant
Test 6.3. 1. c; 2. a;
3. d; 4. a; 5. b; 6. b; 7. a; 8. d; 9. b; 10. c; 11. d; 12. a; 13. c;
14. a; 15. c
Test 7.1. 1. have
become; 2. have been produced/are produced; 3. prepared; 4. dialling;
5. more difficult; 6. first; 7. could not; 8. believed; 9. speeds;
10. enables
Test 7.2. 1.
reduction; 2. unemployment; 3. social; 4. equality; 5. politicians;
6. professions; 7. Employers; 8. qualifications; 9. achievements; 10.
failure(s)
Test 7.3. 1. d; 2. a;
3. a; 4. b; 5. d; 6. a; 7. a; 8. d; 9. c; 10. a; 11. c; 12. c; 13. b;
14. c; 15. b
Test 8.1. 1. has; 2.
to have; 3. are thought; 4. covered; 5. were; 6. don’t follow; 7.
celebrities; 8. are not created; 9. their; 10. best
Test 8.2. 1.
exhibition; 2. introduction; 3. paintings; 4. artists; 5.
explanation(s); 6. description; 7. meant; 8. pleasure; 9. Personally;
10. revelation
Test 8.3. 1. b; 2. d;
3. c; 4. b; 5. b; 6. a; 7. b; 8. c; 9. c; 10. a; 11. b; 12. a; 13. d;
14. b; 15. c
Test 9.1. 1. didn’t
take; 2. moving; 3. could; 4. were having; 5. parties; 6. won’t
disturb; 7. forgot; 8. shouting; 9. thieves; 10. had taken
Test 9.2. 1.
successful; 2. exciting; 3. unusual; 4. famous; 5. interesting; 6.
musical; 7. wealthy; 8. boring; 9. expensive; 10. invitations
Test 9.3. 1. b; 2. c;
3. a; 4. b; 5. d; 6. a; 7. c; 8. d; 9. b; 10. c; 11. a; 12. d; 13. a;
14. c; 15. b
Test 10.1. 1. is
organized; 2. are; 3. biggest; 4. are becoming; 5. difficulties; 6.
needing; 7. has grown; 8. less; 9. are paid; 10. doesn’t depend
Test 10.2. 1.
introduction; 2. musicians; 3. survival; 4. solution; 5. argument; 6.
childhood; 7. uninterested; 8. performance; 9. explanation; 10.
successful
Test 10.3. 1. c; 2. a;
3. d; 4. a; 5. b; 6. c; 7. d; 8. b; 9. d; 10. a; 11. b; 12. b; 13. d;
14. a; 15. c
Test 11.1. 1. easiest;
2. is paid; 3. has worked; 4. known; 5. are entitled; 6. have paid;
7. lives; 8. are earning; 9. is not; 10. were introduced
Test 11.2. 1. fitness;
2. designed; 3. development; 4. activities; 5. knowledge; 6. gently;
7. intensity; 8. impression; 9. painful; 10. unwise
Test 11.3. 1. b; 2. c;
3. b; 4. d; 5. d; 6. a; 7. b; 8. a; 9. b; 10. d; 11. d; 12. b; 13. a;
14. c; 15. c
Test 12.1. 1.
countries; 2. third; 3. was suggested; 4. was widowed; 5. children;
6. became; 7. had shown; 8. declaring; 9. has become; 10. is
celebrated
Test 12.2. 1.
laughter; 2. traditional; 3. treatment; 4. entertainment; 5.
successful; 6. reduction; 7. tension; 8. impossible; 9. unlikely; 10.
illness
Test 12.3. 1. b; 2. d;
3. b; 4. a; 5. c; 6. d; 7. b; 8. a; 9. c; 10. c; 11. a; 12. d; 13. c;
14. a; 15. a
Test 13.1. 1. better;
2. works; 3. be reproduced; 4. is not; 5. engaged; 6. giving; 7.
queries; 8. was read; 9. had; 10. had not retired
Test 13.2. 1.
recently; 2. invention; 3. interesting; 4. transformed; 5. disagree;
6. disadvantages; 7. noisy; 8. pollution; 9. entertainment; 10.
relaxing
Test 13.3. 1. d; 2. b;
3. a; 4. b; 5. a; 6. d; 7. c; 8. d; 9. a; 10. a; 11. c; 12. d; 13. b;
14. a; 15. c
Test 14.1. 1. are
backed; 2. men; 3. fourth; 4. are concentrated; 5. guarantees; 6. was
created; 7. has acted/has been acting; 8. is generated; 9. largest;
10. most populous
Test 14.2. 1. global;
2. information; 3. situation; 4. pollution; 5. dangerous; 6.
international; 7. possibility; 8. recycle; 9. natural; 10. obligation
Test
14.3. 1. c; 2. a; 3.
b; 4. d; 5. b; 6. a; 7. b; 8. c; 9. d; 10. a; 11. a; 12. c; 13. a;
14. b; 15. d
Test 15.1. 1. lived;
2. first; 3. second; 4. didn’t like; 5. went; 6. were burnt; 7.
rebuilt; 8. was painted; 9. has been known; 10. attracts
Test 15.2. 1.
survival; 2. hunters; 3. illegal; 4. dumping; 5. Investigations; 6.
responsible; 7. punishment; 8. behaviour; 9. threatens; 10. solution
Test 15.3. 1. b; 2. c;
3. d; 4. b; 5. a; 6. c; 7. a; 8. b; 9. c; 10. d; 11. a; 12. c; 13. b;
14. c; 15. c
В английском языке, как и в других, словообразование является инструментом обогащения речи.
В этом материале рассмотрены наиболее распространенные способы, с помощью которых образуются новые слова:
- префиксы (prefixes);
- суффиксы (suffixes);
- конверсия (conversion);
- словосложение (compounding);
- сокращение (abbreviation).
Краткий обзор понятий и принципов словообразования облегчит понимание языка. Знание основ образования новых слов значительно ускорит процесс изучения английского.
Таблица 1. Префиксация
Префикс – часть слова, которая ставится перед корнем. С помощью префикса слово принимает новое значение. В большинстве случаев слово не переходит в другую часть речи, но бывают исключения.
Префикс + Корень = Новое слово
Примеры
- re + build (строить) = rebuild (перестроить по новой)
- mis + conduct (поведение) = misconduct (плохое поведение)
В таблице рассмотрены префиксы, которые встречаются наиболее часто.
|
Приставки и их значения |
Примеры |
|
un- , dis- , in- , non- , il- , im- , ir- : указывают на отрицание, делают слово противоположным по значению |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
| mis- : меняет смысл слова на «неверный», «ложный» |
|
| re- : «снова», «вновь»; сделать что-либо повторно |
|
| co-: аналог приставки в русском языке «со» |
|
Таблица 2. Суффиксация
Суффикс – часть слова, которая ставится после корня. Суффикс придает слову новое значение и обычно преобразовывает его в другую часть речи.
Корень + Суффикс = Новое слово
Примеры
- teach + er = teacher (учитель)
- child + hood = childhood (детство)
В таблице рассмотрены суффиксы, которые встречаются наиболее часто.
|
Суффикс и его значения |
Примеры |
|
Образование существительного |
|
| -er, -or, -ar: из глагола переходит существительное в значении «исполнитель действия» |
|
| -ment, -age, -ure, -dom, -tion, -sion: глагол > существительное |
|
| -hood, -ship: образуют существительные от других существительных |
|
| -ist: используется для указания принадлежности к профессии или политическому званию |
|
| -ian: указывают на национальность, реже профессию |
|
| -ness: преобразовывает прилагательное в существительное |
|
|
Образование прилагательного |
|
| -ful: образует прилагательные от существительных и означает наличие качества |
|
| -able, -ible: образуют прилагательные от глаголов и выражают возможность подвергнуться действию, выраженному соответствующим глаголом |
|
| -less: образует прилагательные от существительных и означает отсутствие качества |
|
| -ish: национальная принадлежность; качество |
|
| -y: образует прилагательные от существительных |
|
|
Образование глагола |
|
| -en: образует глаголы от прилагательных и существительных |
|
| -fy, -ify: обычно образует глаголы от прилагательных |
|
| -ise, -ize: обычно образует глаголы от существительных |
|
Таблица 3. Конверсия
Конверсия – переход слова в другую часть речи, без изменения его структуры.
|
Глагол > существительное |
|
| to call (кричать, звонить) | call (крик, телефонный звонок) |
| to hope (надеяться) | hope (надежда) |
| to attack (атаковать) | attack (атака) |
|
Глагол > существительное (с изменением ударения и произношения) |
|
| to ac’cent (акцентировать) | ‘accent (акцент) |
| to use (использовать): буква s читается как русская з | use (использование): буква s читается как русская с |
| to excuse (извиняться): буква s читается как русская з | excuse (извинение): буква s читается как русская с |
| to pre’sent (дарить) | ‘present (подарок) |
|
Существительное > глагол |
|
| love (любовь) | to love (любить) |
| trip (путешествие) | to trip (отправляться в путешествие) |
| film (фильм) | to film (снимать фильм) |
|
Прилагательное > существительное |
|
| calm (спокойный) | calm (спокойствие) |
| black (чёрный) | black (чёрный цвет) |
| dead (мёртвый) | dead (мертвец) |
Таблица 4. Словосложение
Словосложение – соединение двух слов и более в сложное слово. Такие слова пишутся как через дефис, так и слитно.
|
Сложные существительные |
|
| toothpaste (зубная паста) | существительное (tooth) + существительное (paste) |
| highway (большая дорога, шоссе) | прилагательное (high) + существительное (way) |
| underworld (преисподняя) | предлог (under) + существительное (world) |
| haircut (стрижка, причёска) | существительное (hair) + глагол (cut) |
|
Сложные глаголы |
|
| to babysit (присматривать за ребенком) | существительное (baby) + глагол (sit) |
| to window-shop (рассматривать витрины) | существительное (window) + существительное (shop) |
| to downgrade (понижать) | наречие (down) + существительное (grade) |
| to blackwash (клеветать) | прилагательное (black) + существительное (wash) |
|
Сложные прилагательные |
|
| smoke-free (бездымный) | существительное (smoke) + прилагательное (free) |
| part-time (занимающий меньше стандартного времени) | существительное (part) + существительное (part) |
| short-sighted (близорукий) | прилагательное (short) + глагол (sighted) |
|
Сложные наречия |
|
| outside (снаружи) | предлог (out) + существительное (side) |
| everywhere (везде, всюду) | прилагательное (every) + наречие (where) |
Таблица 5. Сокращение
|
Усеченные слова |
||
| laboratory | lab | лаборатория |
| refrigerator | fridge | холодильник |
| cinematograph | cinema | кинематограф |
|
Аббревиатуры и сокращения |
||
| electronic mail | электронная почта | |
| between | betw. | между, в промежутке |
| United Nations Organization | U.N.O. | Организация Объединённых Наций (ООН) |
|
Слова-гибриды (образование нового слова путем сочетания частей нескольких слов) |
||
| documentary + drama | docudrama | документальная драма |
| science + fiction | sci-fi | научная фантастика |
| smoke + fog | smog | густой туман с дымом и копотью; смог |
Другие полезные материалы
1. Упражнение на словообразование (с ответами)
Методическая
разработка по английскому языку для учащихся 10-11 классов
ЛЕКСИКО
ГРАММАТИЧЕСКИЕ ЗАДАНИЯ
Задания на
словообразование (Word Formation)
Основная цель данной разработки
состоит в том, чтобы помочь учащимся в кратчайшие
сроки активизировать ранее изученный лексико- грамматический материал и под
готовиться к успешной сдаче ЕГЭ по английскому языку.
Данные задания направлены на проверку
знаний основных проблемных областей грамматики и лексики,
без которых невозможна успешная сдача ЕГЭ. Упражнения снабжены краткими справочными материалами. После каждого
раздела вы найдёте ключи к заданиям.
TASK 1
Complete the mind maps with the words in the table to form adjectives ending in
able, ous, ful.
 |
A B
C
TASK 2
A. Fill in the suffix table. For each verb write the
corresponding noun form in the appropriate column.
|
ation |
ment |
or |
|
|
0. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. |
generation |
B. Complete the gaps with the verbs or nouns from Part A.
1.
The tourists stopped at the top of the mountain the view.
2.
The best for a cold is to drink hot tea with honey.
3.
Mr. Smith offered no for his absence
at the conference.
4.
He wants the money his uncle left him.
5.
People of his have never heard
of an iPod.
6.
Since Megan left university she has sent off about twenty job .
7.
It is almost impossible all my ideas
in one book.
8.
We managed to find a very good ski .
9.
Wood is a poor of heat.
10.
I will not his awful behaviour any longer!
TASK 3
Circle the correct word in each sentence.
A. Suffixes
1.
It was nice and shadow/shady/shadable under the trees.
2.
They finally agreed to accompany us, but with reluctance/reluctment/reluctant.
3.
This picture is absolutely amaze/amazement/amazing.
4.
This football player passes the ball with great accuracy/accurate/accurateness.
5.
The days length/lengthy/lengthen as summer approaches.
6.
This part of the country is only acess/accessable/accessible by
helicopter.
7.
Her answer left us speech/speechless/speechful with
indignation.
8.
I had to write
a composition/composer/compose about
my summer holidays.
B. Prefixes
1.
To my mind, this TV programme
is absolutely ininteresting/uninteresting/disinteresting.
2.
We received unnumerable/innumerable/misnumerable presents and flowers.
3.
It was dishonest/unhonest/dehonest of
you to say such things
about Kate.
4.
How did you manage
to disspell/unspell/misspell your
own name?
5.
She has an irrational/unrational/disrational fear of dogs.
6.
Don’t be so unpatient/impatient/dispatient. I am walking
as fast as I can.
7.
It is illegal/inlegal/unlegal to sell tobacco
and alcohol to children.
8.
She was a woman of unordinary/disordinary/extraordinary beauty.
TASK 4
Read the
sentences below. Think what part of speech you must form to fill the
gaps. Add suffixes to the words given in capitals.
1. Mike is so – every time he doesn’t want to finish his work, PREDICT he says that he has a splitting headache.
2.
The actor’s was pure perfection. PERFORM
3. The absence of this witness may the case against WEAK the accused.
4.
This supermarket is offering
huge price on winter holidays. REDUCE
5.
The firm needs a reference from my last __________. EMPLOY
6.
He began his career at the age of 14. MUSIC
7.
Harry was very , and we liked him immediately. FRIEND
8.
He was a very rich man and his house was full of antiques. PRICE
9.
A
lot of money was spent to classrooms. MODERN
10.
The government was planning
to the tax system. SIMPLE
11.
It was warm in the evening. SURPRISE
12.
The child’s progress at school was very . IMPRESS
TASK 5
Use some prefixes to form the antonyms of the following words.
|
NOUNS |
ADJECTIVES |
VERBS |
|
comfort – security – order |
legal – appropriate – polite |
fasten – connect – activate |
TASK 6
Read the
sentences below. Think what part of speech you must form to fill the
gaps. Add prefixes to the words given in capitals.
1. It was highly of her to leave her little son on his
own RESPONSIBLE in the garden.
2.
Ann doesn’t love Nick because she can’t forget
her . HUSBAND
3.
Wednesday’s a bit for me. Let’s meet tomorrow
at 5. CONVENIENT
4.
Many countries have already
passed laws. SMOKING
5.
The children are punished
every time they . BEHAVE
6. A is one of two sports games whose
winners then FINAL compete against each other to decide who wins the whole competition
7.
He is a pleasant
child, but when he is tired he can OBEDIENT be very .
8.
Everybody should
understand that we live in CULTURAL a society.
9.
A is someone who is studying at a university GRADUATE to get a master’s degree or a PhD.
10.
You are late! Did you again? SLEEP
11. 
He lives in poverty
and suffers from . NOURISHMENT
12.
A discussion in
which people in different places talk to each CONFERENCE
other using telephones or video equipment
is called
a .
TASK 7
Read the text below.
Think what part of speech you must
form to fill the gaps. Add suffixes
or prefixes to the words given in capitals. There is an example at the beginning.
From «The
Dove Who Spoke the Truth.»
by Abbie Farwell Brown (adapted) The Curious Book of Birds
The dove and the bat were once caught in a storm and
came to old Master Owl to ask him for a shelter.
(0)
Gruffly (GRUFF) the old owl bade them enter, and
(1) (GRUDGE) invited them to share his supper.
The poor dove was so tired that she could
(2)
(SCARCE) eat, but the (3) (GREED)
bat’s spirits rose as soon as he saw the viands spread before him. He was a sly
fellow, and (4) (IMMEDI
ATE) began to flatter his host into good humor. He praised the owl’s (5)
(WISE) and his courage, his (6) (GALLANT)
and his (7) (GENEROUS) – though every
one knew that however wise old Master
Owl might be, he was neither brave nor gallant.
During this time the dove sat quite still staring at the bat, and wondering to hear such
(8) (SINCERE) speeches of (9) (FLATTER).
(10) (SUDDEN) the owl turned to her.
«As for you, Miss Pink Eyes,» he said gruffly,
«you keep (11) (CARE)
(12) (SILENT).
Pray, have you nothing to say for yourself?»
«Yes,» exclaimed the mischievous bat; «our kind host deserves
some return for this
(13) (WONDER),
(14) (AGREE),
(15) (TASTE),
(16) (LUXURY), and altogether (17) (ACCEPT)
banquet. Have you no praise for his noble character as well as for his (18) (GOOD)
to us? You do not deserve such (19) (HOSPITAL).»
The dove remained silent. She could not speak (20) (TRUTH)
even for her own (21) (HAPPY).
«You are an (22) (GRATEFUL) bird, Miss, and the bat is right. Leave my
(23) (DWELL)!
« snarled the owl.
And the two (24) (HEART)
(25) (CREATE) fell upon the poor little dove
and drove her out into the dark and (26) (STORM) night…
TASK 8
Read the text below.
Think what part of speech you must
form to fill the gaps. Add suffixes
or prefixes to the words given in capitals. There is an example at the beginning.
A city is a (0) relatively (RELATIVE) large
and permanent (1) (SETTLE). Although
there is no (2) (AGREE) on how a city is
distinguished from a town within general English
language (3) (MEAN),
many cities have a particular
(4) (ADMINISTRATE), legal, or (5) (HISTORY)
status based on local law.
Towns and cities have a long history. A city formed
as (6) (CENTRE) places of trade facilitates
(7) (INTERACT) of all kinds. Benefits
include reduced transport costs, sharing of (8) (NATURE)
resources, (9) (RUN) water, sewage (10) (DISPOSE)
and many others. Possible costs would include higher rate of crime,
higher (11) (MORTAL) rates, higher
cost of
(12) (LIVE), worse (13) (POLLUTE), etc.
In the first true towns the inhabitants were no longer (14) (SIMPLE)
(15) (FARM) of the (16) (SURROUND) area, but began to take on
specialized (17) (OCCUPY). Trade, food (18) (STORE)
and power was centralized there.
One (19) (CHARACTER) that can be used to distinguish a small city from
a large town is organized (20) (GOVERN). A
town accomplishes common goals through (21) (FORMAL)
(22) (AGREE) between neighbors or the (23) (LEADER)
of a chief. A city has (24) (PROFESSION)
(25) (ADMINISTRATE), (26) (REGULATE), and some form of
(27) (TAX) to feed the (28) (GOVERN)
(29) (WORK). Societies that live in cities
are often called (30) (CIVILIZE).
(from www.en.wikipedia.org)
KEYS
|
TASK A. curable, changeable, washable, flammable B. envious, spacious, disastrous, monotonous C. successful, hopeful, graceful, |
TASK A 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. investment/ investor B 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. |
TASK A 1. 2. reluctance 3. amazing 4. accuracy 5. lengthen 6. 7. speechless 8. composition B 1. 2. innumerable 3. dishonest 4. misspell 5. irrational 6. 7. illegal 8. extraordinary |
TASK 1. 2. performance 3. weaken 4. reductions 5. employer 6. 7. friendly 8. priceless 9. 10. simplify 11. 12. impressive |
|
TASK Nouns: discomfort, insecurity, disorder, non violence, inaction Adjectives: illegal, inappropriate, impolite, irregular, uninteresting Verbs: unfasten, disconnect, deactivate, |
TASK 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. undernourish ment 12. |
TASK 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. |
TASK 1. settlement 2. agreement 3. meanings 4. administrative 5. historical 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. disposal 11. 12. living 13. pollution 14. simply 15. farmers 16. 17. occupations 18. storage 19. 20. 21. informal 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. |
Modern English Word-Formation
C H A P T E R I
The ways in which new words are
formed, and the factors which govern their acceptance into the language, are
generally taken very much for granted by the average speaker. To understand a
word, it is not necessary to know how it is constructed, whether it is simple
or complex, that is, whether or not it can be broken down into two or more
constituents. We are able to use a word which is new to us when we find out
what object or notion it denotes. Some words, of course, are more ‘transparent’
than others. For example, in the words unfathomable and indescribable
we recognize the familiar pattern of negative prefix + transitive word +
adjective-forming suffix on which many words of similar form are constructed.
Knowing the pattern, we can easily guess their meanings – ‘cannot be fathomed’
and ‘cannot be described’ – although we are not surprised to find other
similar-looking words, for instance unfashionable and unfavourable
for which this analysis will not work. We recognize as ‘transparent’ the
adjectives unassuming and unheard-of, which taking for granted
the fact that we cannot use assuming and heard-of. We accept as
quite natural the fact that although we can use the verbs to pipe, to
drum and to trumpet, we cannot use the verbs to piano
and to violin.
But when we meet new coinages, like tape-code,
freak-out, shutup-ness and beautician, we may not readily
be able to explain our reactions to them. Innovations in vocabulary are capable
of arousing quite strong feelings in people who may otherwise not be in the
habit of thinking very much about language. Quirk[1]
quotes some letter to the press of a familiar kind, written to protest about
‘horrible jargon’, such as breakdown, ‘vile’ words like transportation,
and the ‘atrocity’ lay-by.
Many linguists agree over the fact
that the subject of word-formation has not until recently received very much
attention from descriptive grammarians of English, or from scholars working in
the field of general linguistics. As a collection of different processes
(compounding, affixation, conversion, backformation, etc.) about which, as a
group, it is difficult to make general statements, word-formation usually makes
a brief appearance in one or two chapters of a grammar. Valerie Adams
emphasizes two main reasons why the subject has not been attractive to
linguists: its connections with the non-linguistic world of things and ideas,
for which words provide the names, and its equivocal position as between
descriptive and historical studies. A few brief remarks, which necessarily
present a much over-simplified picture, on the course which linguistics has
taken in the last hundred years will make this easier.
The nineteenth century, the period of
great advances in historical and comparative language study, saw the first
claims of linguistics to be a science, comparable in its methods with the
natural sciences which were also enjoying a period of exciting discovery. These
claims rested on the detailed study, by comparative linguists, of formal
correspondences in the Indo-European languages, and their realization that such
study depended on the assumption of certain natural ‘laws’ of sound change. As
Robins[2] observes in his discussion of the
linguistics of the latter part of the nineteenth century:
The history of a language is traced
through recorded variations in the forms and meanings of its words, and
languages are proved to be related by reason of their possession of worlds
bearing formal and semantic correspondences to each other such as cannot be
attributed to mere chance or to recent borrowing. If sound change were not
regular, if word-forms were subject to random, inexplicable, and unmotivated
variation in the course of time, such arguments would lose their validity and
linguistic relations could only be established historically by extralinguistic
evidence such as is provided in the Romance field of languages descended from
Latin.
The rise and development in the
twentieth century of synchronic descriptive linguistics meant a shift of
emphasis from historical studies, but not from the idea of linguistics as a
science based on detailed observation and the rigorous exclusion of all
explanations depended on extralinguistic factors. As early as 1876, Henry Sweet
had written:
Before history must come a knowledge of what exists.
We must learn to observe things as they are, without regard to their origin,
just as a zoologist must learn to describe accurately a horse or any other
animal. Nor would the mere statements that the modern horse is a descendant of
a three-toed marsh quadruped be accepted as an exhausted description… Such
however is the course being pursued by most antiquarian philologists.[3]
The most influential scholar
concerned with the new linguistics was Ferdinand de Saussure, who emphasized
the distinction between external linguistics – the study of the effects on a
language of the history and culture of its speakers, and internal linguistics –
the study of its system and rules. Language, studied synchronically, as a
system of elements definable in relation to one another, must be seen as a
fixed state of affairs at a particular point of time. It was internal
linguistics, stimulated by de Saussure’s works, that was to be the main concern
of the twentieth-century scholars, and within it there could be no place for
the study of the formation of words, with its close connection with the
external world and its implications of constant change. Any discussion of new
formations as such means the abandonment of the strict distinction between
history and the present moment. As Harris expressed in his influential Structural
Linguistics[4]:
‘The methods of descriptive linguistics cannot treat of the productivity of
elements since that is a measure of the difference between our corpus and some
future corpus of the language.’ Leonard Bloomfield, whose book Language[5]
was the next work of major influence after that of de Saussure, re-emphasized
the necessity of a scientific approach, and the consequent difficulties in the
way of studying ‘meaning’, and until the middle of the nineteen-fifties,
interest was centered on the isolating of minimal segments of speech, the
description of their distribution relative to one another, and their
organization into larger units. The fundamental unit of grammar was not the
word but a smaller unit, the morpheme.
The next major change of emphasis in
linguistics was marked by the publication in 1957 of Noam Chomsky’s Syntactic
Structures[6].
As Chomsky stated it, the aim of linguistics was now seen to be ‘to make
grammatical explanations parallel in achievement to the behavior of the speaker
who, on the basis of a finite and accidental experience with language can
produce and understand an indefinite number of new sentences’[7].
The idea of productivity, or creativity, previously excluded from linguistics,
or discussed in terms of probabilities in the effort to maintain the view of
language as existing in a static state, was seen to be of central importance.
But still word-formation remained a topic neglected by linguists, and for
several good reasons. Chomsky made explicit the distinction, fundamental to
linguistics today (and comparable to that made by de Saussure between langue,
the system of a language, and parole, the set of utterances of the
language), between linguistic competence, ‘the speaker-hearer’s knowledge of
his language’ and performance, ‘the actual use of language in concrete
situations’[8].
Linked with this distinction are the notions of ‘grammaticalness’ and
‘acceptability’; in Chomsky’s words, ‘Acceptability is a concept that belongs
to the study of competence’[9].
A ‘grammatical’ utterance is one which may be generated and interpreted by the
rules of the grammar; an ‘acceptable’ utterance is one which is ‘perfectly
natural and immediately comprehensible… and in no way bizarre or outlandish’[10].
It is easy to show, as Chomsky does, that a grammatical sentence may not be
acceptable. For instance, this is the cheese the rat the cat caught stole
appears ‘bizarre’ and unacceptable because we have difficulty in working it
out, not because it breaks any grammatical rules. Generally, however, it is to
be expected that grammaticalness and acceptability will go hand in hand where
sentences are concerned.
The ability to make and understand
new words is obviously as much a part of our linguistic competence as the
ability to make and understand new sentences, and so, as Pennanen[11]
points out, ‘it is an obvious gap in transformational grammars not to have made
provision for treating word-formation.’ But, as we have already noticed, we may
readily thing of words, like to piano and to violin, against
which we can invoke no rule, but which are definitely ‘unacceptable’ for no
obvious reason. The incongruence of grammaticality and acceptability that is,
is far greater where words are concerned than where sentences are concerned. It
is so great, in fact, that the exercise of setting out the ‘rules’ for forming
words has so far seemed to many linguists to be out of questionable usefulness.
The occasions on which we would have to describe the output of such rules as ‘grammatical
but non-occurring’[12]
are just too numerous. And there are further difficulties in treating new words
like new sentences. A novel word (like handbook or partial) may
attract unwelcome attention to itself and appear to be the result of the breaking
of rules rather than of their application. And besides, the more accustomed to
the word we become, the more likely we are to find it acceptable, whether it is
‘grammatical’ or not – or perhaps we should say, whether or not is was
‘grammatical’ at the time it was first formed, since a new word once
formed, often becomes merely a member of an inventory; its formation is a
historical event, and the ‘rule’ behind it may then appear irrelevant.
What exactly is a word? From Lewis
Carroll onwards, this apparently simple question has bedeviled countless word
buffs, whether they are participating in a game of Scrabble or writing an
article for the Word Ways linguistic magazine. To help the reader decide what
constitutes a word, A. Ross Eckler[13]
suggests a ranking of words in decreasing order of admissibility. A logical way
to rank a word is by the number of English-speaking people who can recognize it
in speech or writing, but this is obviously impossible to ascertain.
Alternatively, one can rank a word by its number of occurrences in a selected
sample of printed material. H. Kucera and W.N. Francis’s Computational
Analysis of Present-day English[14]
is based on one million words from sources in print in 1961. Unfortunately, the
majority of the words in Webster’s Unabridged[15]
do not appear even once in this compilation – and the words which do not appear
are the ones for which a philosophy of ranking is most urgently needed.
Furthermore, the written ranking will differ from the recognition ranking;
vulgarities and obscenities will rank much higher in the latter than in the
former.
A detailed, word-by-word ranking is
an impossible dream, but a ranking based on classes of words may be within our
grasp. Ross Eckler[16]
proposes the following classes: (1) words appearing in one more standard
English-language dictionaries, (2) non-dictionary words appearing in print in
several different contexts, (3) words invented to fill a specific need and
appearing but once in print.
Most people are willing to admit as
words all uncapitalized, unlabeled entries in, say, Webster’s New International
Dictionary, Third Edition (1961). Intuitively, one recognizes that words become
less admissible as they move in any or all of three directions: as they become
more frequently capitalized, as they become the jargon of smaller groups
(dialect, technical, scientific), and as they become archaic or obsolete. These
classes have no definite boundaries – is a word last used in 1499 significantly
more obsolete than a word last used in 1501? Is a word known to 100,000
chemists more admissible than a word known to 90,000 Mexican-Americans? Each
linguist will set his own boundaries.
The second class consists of
non-dictionary words appearing in print in a number of sources. There are many
non-dictionary words in common use; some logologists would like to draw a wider
circle to include these. Such words can be broadly classified into: (1)
neologisms and common words overlooked by dictionary-makers, (2) geographical
place names, (3) given names and surnames.
Dmitri Borgmann[17]
points out that the well-known words uncashed, ex-wife and duty-bound
appear in no dictionaries (since 1965, the first of these has appeared in the
Random House Unabridged). Few people would exclude these words. Neologisms
present a more awkward problem since some may be so ephemeral that they never
appear in a dictionary. Perhaps one should read Pope’s dictum «Be not the
first by whom the new are tried, nor yet the last to lay the old aside.»
Large treasure-troves of geographic
place names can be found in The Times Atlas of the World[18]
(200,000 names), and the Rand McNally Commercial Atlas and Marketing Guide[19]
(100,000 names). These are not all different, and some place names are already
dictionary words. All these can be easily verified by other readers; however,
some will feel uneasy about admitting as a word the name, say, of a small
Albanian town which possibly has never appeared in any English-language text
outside of atlases.
Given names appear in the appendix of
many dictionaries. Common given names such as Edward or Cornelia ought to be
admitted as readily as common geographical place names such as Guatemala, but
this set does not add much to the logological stockpile.
Family surnames at first blush appear
to be on the same footing as geographical place names. However, one must be
careful about sources. Biographical dictionaries and Who’s Who are adequate
references, but one should be cautious citing surnames appearing only in
telephone directories. Once a telephone directory is supplanted by a later
edition, it is difficult to locate copies for verifying surname claims.
Further, telephone directories are not immune to nonce names coined by
subscribers for personal reasons. A good index of the relative admissibility of
surnames is the number of people in the United States bearing that surname. An
estimate of this could be obtained from computer tapes of the Social Security
Administration; in 1957 they issued a pamphlet giving the number of Social
Security accounts associated with each of the 1500 most common family names.
The third and final class of words
consists of nonce words, those invented to fill a specific need, and appearing
only once (or perhaps only in the work of the author favoring the word). Few
philologists feel comfortable about admitting these. Nonce words range from
coinages by James Joyce and Edgar Allan Poe (X-ing a Paragraph) to
interjections in comic strips (Agggh! Yowie!). Ross Eckler and Daria
Abrossimova suggest that misspellings in print should be included here also.
In the book “Beyond Language”, Dmitri
Borgmann proposes that the philologist be prepared to admit words that may
never have appeared in print. For example, Webster’s Second lists eudaemony as
well as the entry «Eudaimonia, eudaimonism, eudaimonist, etc.» From
this he concludes that EUDAIMONY must exist and should be admitted as a word.
Similarly, he can conceive of sentences containing the word GRACIOUSLY’S («There are ten graciously’s in
Anna Karenina») and SAN DIEGOS («Consider the luster that the San Diegos of our
nation have brought to the US»). In short, he argues that these words
might plausibly be used in an English-language sentence, but does not assert
any actual usage. His criterion for the acceptance of a word seems to be its
philological uniqueness (EUDAIMONY is a short word containing all five vowels and Y).
The available linguistic literature
on the subject cites various types and ways of forming words. Earlier books,
articles and monographs on word-formation and vocabulary growth in general used
to mention morphological, syntactic and lexico-semantic types of
word-formation. At present the classifications of the types of word-formation
do not, as a rule, include lexico-semantic word-building. Of interest is the
classification of word-formation means based on the number of motivating bases
which many scholars follow. A distinction is made between two large classes of
word-building means: to Class I belong the means of building words having one
motivating base (e.g. the noun doer is composed of the base do-
and the suffix —er), which Class II includes the means of building words
containing more than one motivating base. They are all based on compounding
(e.g. compounds letter-opener, e-mail, looking-glass).
Most linguists in special chapters and manuals devoted to
English word-formation consider as the chief processes of English
word-formation affixation, conversion and compounding.
Apart from these, there is a number
of minor ways of forming words such as back-formation, sound interchange,
distinctive stress, onomatopoeia, blending, clipping, acronymy.
Some of the ways of forming words in
present-day English can be restored to for the creation of new words whenever
the occasion demands – these are called productive ways of forming words,
other ways of forming words cannot now produce new words, and these are
commonly termed non—productive or unproductive. R. S.
Ginzburg gives the example of affixation having been a productive way of
forming new words ever since the Old English period; on the other hand,
sound-interchange must have been at one time a word-building means but in
Modern English (as we have mentioned above) its function is actually only to
distinguish between different classes and forms of words.
It follows that productivity of
word-building ways, individual derivational patterns and derivational affixes
is understood as their ability of making new words which all who speak English
find no difficulty in understanding, in particular their ability to create what
are called occasional words or nonce-words[20]
(e.g. lungful (of smoke), Dickensish (office), collarless
(appearance)). The term suggests that a speaker coins such words when he needs
them; if on another occasion the same word is needed again, he coins it afresh.
Nonce-words are built from familiar language material after familiar patterns.
Dictionaries, as a rule, do not list occasional words.
The delimitation between productive
and non-productive ways and means of word-formation as stated above is not,
however, accepted by all linguists without reserve. Some linguists consider it
necessary to define the term productivity of a word-building means more
accurately. They hold the view that productive ways and means of word-formation
are only those that can be used for the formation of an unlimited number of new
words in the modern language, i.e. such means that “know no bounds” and easily
form occasional words. This divergence of opinion is responsible for the
difference in the lists of derivational affixes considered productive in
various books on English lexicology.
Nevertheless, recent investigations
seem to prove that productivity of derivational means is relative in many
respects. Moreover there are no absolutely productive means; derivational
patterns and derivational affixes possess different degrees of productivity.
Therefore it is important that conditions favouring productivity and the degree
if productivity of a particular pattern or affix should be established. All
derivational patterns experience both structural and semantic constraints. The
fewer are the constraints, the higher is the degree of productivity, the
greater is the number of new words built on it. The two general constraints
imposed on all derivational patterns are: the part of speech in which the
pattern functions and the meaning attached to it which conveys the regular
semantic correlation between the two classes of words. It follows that each
part of speech is characterized by a set of productive derivational patterns
peculiar to it. Three degrees of productivity are distinguished for
derivational patterns and individual derivational affixes: (1) highly
productive, (2) productive or semi-productive and (3) non-productive.
R. S. Ginzburg[21]
says that productivity of derivational patterns and affixes should not be
identified with the frequency of occurrence in speech, although there may be
some interrelation between then. Frequency of occurrence is characterized by
the fact that a great number of words containing a given derivational affix are
often used in speech, in particular in various texts. Productivity is
characterized by the ability of a given suffix to make new words.
In linguistic literature there is
another interpretation of derivational productivity based on a quantitative
approach. A derivational pattern or a derivational affix are qualified as
productive provided there are in the word-stock dozens and hundreds of derived
words built on the pattern or with the help of the suffix in question. Thus
interpreted, derivational productivity is distinguished from word-formation
activity by which is meant the ability of an affix to produce new words, in
particular occasional words or nonce-words. For instance, the agent suffix –er
is to be qualified both as a productive and as an active suffix: on the one hand,
the English word-stock possesses hundreds of nouns containing this suffix (e.g.
writer, reaper, lover, runner, etc.), on the other hand, the suffix –er
in the pattern v + –er à N is freely used to coin an unlimited number
of nonce-words denoting active agents (e.g. interrupter, respecter, laugher,
breakfaster, etc.).
The adjective suffix –ful is
described as a productive but not as an active one, for there are hundreds of
adjectives with this suffix (e.g. beautiful, hopeful, useful, etc.), but
no new words seem to be built with its help.
For obvious reasons, the noun-suffix –th in terms of
this approach is to be regarded both as a non-productive and a non-active one.
Now let us consider the basic ways of
forming words in the English language.
Affixation is generally defined as the
formation of words by adding derivational affixes to different types of bases.
Derived words formed by affixation may be the result of one or several
applications of word-formation rule and thus the stems of words making up a
word-cluster enter into derivational relations of different degrees. The zero
degree of derivation is ascribed to simple words, i.e. words whose stem is
homonymous with a word-form and often with a root-morpheme (e.g. atom,
haste, devote, anxious, horror, etc.). Derived words whose bases are built
on simple stems and thus are formed by the application of one derivational
affix are described as having the first degree of derivation (e.g. atomic,
hasty, devotion, etc.). Derived words formed by two consecutive stages of
coining possess the second degree of derivation (e.g. atomical, hastily,
devotional, etc.), and so forth.
In conformity with the division of
derivational affixes into suffixes and prefixes affixation is subdivided into suffixation
and prefixation. Distinction is naturally made between prefixal and
suffixal derivatives according to the last stage of derivation, which
determines the nature of the immediate constituents of the pattern that signals
the relationship of the derived word with its motivating source unit, e.g. unjust
(un– + just), justify (just + –ify), arrangement
(arrange + –ment), non-smoker (non– + smoker). Words like reappearance,
unreasonable, denationalize, are often qualified as prefixal-suffixal
derivatives. R. S. Ginzburg[22]
insists that this classification is relevant only in terms of the constituent
morphemes such words are made up of, i.e. from the angle of morphemic analysis.
From the point of view of derivational analysis, such words are mostly either
suffixal or prefixal derivatives, e.g. sub-atomic = sub– + (atom
+ –ic), unreasonable = un– + (reason + –able), denationalize = de– +
(national + –ize), discouragement = (dis– + courage) + –ment.
A careful study of a great many
suffixal and prefixal derivatives has revealed an essential difference between
them. In Modern English, suffixation is mostly characteristic of noun and
adjective formation, while prefixation is mostly typical of verb formation. The
distinction also rests on the role different types of meaning play in the
semantic structure of the suffix and the prefix. The part-of-speech meaning has
a much greater significance in suffixes as compared to prefixes which possess
it in a lesser degree. Due to it, a prefix may be confined to one part of
speech as, for example, enslave, encage, unbutton, or may function in
more that one part of speech as over– in overkind, overfeed,
overestimation. Unlike prefixes, suffixes as a rule function in any one
part of speech often forming a derived stem of a different part of speech as
compared with that of the base, e.g. careless – care; suitable – suit,
etc. Furthermore, it is necessary to point out that a suffix closely knit
together with a base forms a fusion retaining less of its independence that a
prefix which is as a general rule more independent semantically, e.g. reading
– ‘the act of one who reads’; ‘ability to read’; and to re-read – ‘to read
again’.
Prefixation is the formation of words with the
help of prefixes. The interpretation of the terms prefix and prefixation now firmly
rooted in linguistic literature has undergone a certain evolution. For
instance, some time ago there were linguists who treated prefixation as part of
word-composition (or compounding). The greater semantic independence of
prefixes as compared with suffixes led the linguists to identify prefixes with
the first component part of a compound word.
At present the majority of scholars
treat prefixation as an integral part of word-derivation regarding prefixes as
derivational affixes which differ essentially both from root-morphemes and
non-derivational prepositive morphemes. Opinion sometimes differs concerning
the interpretation of the functional status of certain individual groups of
morphemes which commonly occur as first component parts of words. H. Marchand[23],
for instance, analyses words like to overdo, to underestimate as
compound verbs, the first component of which are locative particles, not
prefixes. In a similar way he interprets words like income, onlooker,
outhouse qualifying them as compounds with locative particles as first
elements.
R. S. Ginzburg[24]
states there are about 51 prefixes in the system of Modern English
word-formation.
Unlike suffixation, which is usually more closely bound
up with the paradigm of a certain part of speech, prefixation is considered to
be more neutral in this respect. It is significant that in linguistic
literature derivational suffixes are always divided into noun-forming,
adjective-forming and so on; prefixes, however, are treated differently. They
are described either in alphabetical order or sub-divided into several classes
in accordance with their origin,. Meaning or function and never according to
the part of speech.
Prefixes may be classified on
different principles. Diachronically distinction is made between prefixes of
native and foreign origin. Synchronically prefixes may be classified:
(1) According to the class of words they
preferably form. Recent investigations allow one to classify prefixes according
to this principle. It must be noted that most of the 51 prefixes of Modern
English function in more than one part of speech forming different structural
and structural-semantic patterns. A small group of 5 prefixes may be referred
to exclusively verb-forming (en–, be–, un–, etc.).
(2) As to the type of lexical-grammatical
character of the base they are added to into: (a) deverbal, e.g. rewrite,
outstay, overdo, etc.; (b) denominal, e.g. unbutton, detrain,
ex-president, etc. and (c) deadjectival, e.g. uneasy, biannual, etc.
It is interesting that the most productive prefixal pattern for adjectives is
the one made up of the prefix un– and the base built either on
adjectival stems or present and past participle, e.g. unknown, unsmiling,
untold, etc.
(3) Semantically prefixes fall into mono–
and polysemantic.
(4) As to the generic denotational
meaning there are different groups that are distinguished in linguistic
literature: (a) negative prefixes such as un–, non–, in–, dis–, a–,
im–/in–/ir– (e.g. employment à unemployment, politician à non-politician, correct à incorrect, advantage à disadvantage, moral à amoral, legal à illegal, etc.); (b) reversative of privative
prefixes, such as un–, de–, dis–, dis– (e.g. tie à untie, centralize à decentralize, connect à disconnect, etc.); (c) pejorative prefixes,
such as mis–, mal–, pseudo– (e.g. calculate à miscalculate, function à malfunction, scientific à pseudo-scientific, etc.); (d) prefixes of time and
order, such as fore–, pre–, post–, ex– (e.g. see à foresee, war à pre-war, Soviet à post-Soviet, wife à ex-wife, etc.); (e) prefix of repetition re–
(e.g. do à redo, type à retype, etc.); (f) locative prefixes such
as super–, sub–, inter–, trans– (e.g. market à supermarket, culture à subculture, national à international, Atlantic à trans-Atlantic, etc.).
(5) When viewed from the angle of their
stylistic reference, English prefixes fall into those characterized by neutral
stylistic reference and those possessing quite a definite stylistic
value. As no exhaustive lexico-stylistic classification of English prefixes
has yet been suggested, a few examples can only be adduced here. There is no
doubt, for instance, that prefixes like un–, out–, over–, re–, under–
and some others can be qualified as neutral (e. g. unnatural, unlace,
outgrow, override, redo, underestimate, etc.). On the other hand, one can
hardly fail to perceive the literary-bookish character of such prefixes as pseudo–,
super–, ultra–, uni–, bi– and some others (e. g. pseudo-classical,
superstructure, ultra-violence, unilateral, bifocal, etc.).
Sometimes one
comes across pairs of prefixes one of which is neutral, the other is
stylistically coloured. One example will suffice here: the prefix over–
occurs in all functional styles, the prefix super– is peculiar to
the style of scientific prose.
(6) Prefixes may be also
classified as to the degree of productivity into highly-productive,
productive and non-productive.
Suffixation is the formation of
words with the help of suffixes. Suffixes usually modify the lexical meaning
of the base and transfer words to a different part of speech. There are
suffixes however, which do not shift words from one part of speech into
another; a suffix of this kind usually transfers a word into a different
semantic group, e. g. a concrete noun becomes an abstract one, as is the case
with child—childhood, friend—friendship, etc.
Chains of suffixes
occurring in derived words having two and more suffixal morphemes are sometimes
referred to in lexicography as compound suffixes: –ably = –able + –ly
(e. g. profitably, unreasonably) –ical–ly = –ic + –al + –ly
(e. g. musically, critically); –ation = –ate + –ion (e. g.
fascination, isolation) and some others. Compound suffixes do not
always present a mere succession of two or more suffixes arising out of several
consecutive stages of derivation. Some of them acquire a new quality operating
as a whole unit. Let us examine from this point of view the suffix –ation
in words like fascination, translation, adaptation and the like. Adaptation
looks at first sight like a parallel to fascination, translation.
The latter however are first-degree derivatives built with the suffix –ion
on the bases fascinate–, translate–. But there is no base adaptate–,
only the shorter base adapt–. Likewise damnation,
condemnation, formation, information and many others
are not matched by shorter bases ending in –ate, but only by still
shorter ones damn–, condemn–, form–, inform–. Thus, the suffix –ation
is a specific suffix of a composite nature. It consists of two suffixes –ate
and –ion, but in many cases functions as a single unit in first-degree
derivatives. It is referred to in linguistic literature as a coalescent suffix
or a group suffix. Adaptation is then a derivative of the first
degree of derivation built with the coalescent suffix on the base adapt–.
Of interest is also the
group-suffix –manship consisting of the suffixes –man and
–ship. It denotes a superior quality, ability of doing something
to perfection, e. g. authormanship, quotemanship, lipmanship, etc.
It also seems appropriate
to make several remarks about the morphological changes that sometimes
accompany the process of combining derivational morphemes with bases. Although
this problem has been so far insufficiently investigated, some observations
have been made and some data collected. For instance, the noun-forming suffix –ess
for names of female beings brings about a certain change in the phonetic shape
of the correlative male noun provided the latter ends in –er, –or, e.g.
actress (actor), sculptress (sculptor), tigress (tiger), etc. It may be
easily observed that in such cases the sound [∂] is contracted in
the feminine nouns.
Further, there are
suffixes due to which the primary stress is shifted to the syllable immediately
preceding them, e.g. courageous (courage), stability (stable), investigation
(investigate), peculiarity (peculiar), etc. When added to a base
having the suffix –able/–ible as its component, the suffix –ity
brings about a change in its phonetic shape, namely the vowel [i] is
inserted between [b] and [l], e. g. possible à possibility, changeable
à changeability, etc. Some suffixes attract the primary stress on
to themselves, there is a secondary stress on the first syllable in words with
such suffixes, e. g. ’employ’ee (em’ploy), govern’mental (govern),
‘pictu’resque (picture).
There are different
classifications of suffixes in linguistic literature, as suffixes may be
divided into several groups according to different principles:
(1) The first principle of
classification that, one might say, suggests itself is the part of speech
formed. Within the scope of the part-of-speech classification suffixes
naturally fall into several groups such as:
a)
noun-suffixes,
i.e. those forming or occurring in nouns, e. g. –er, –dom, –ness, –ation, etc.
(teacher, Londoner, freedom, brightness, justification, etc.);
b) adjective-suffixes, i.e.
those forming or occurring in adjectives, e. g. –able, –less, –ful, –ic,
–ous, etc. (agreeable, careless, doubtful, poetic, courageous, etc.);
c) verb-suffixes, i.e. those
forming or occurring in verbs, e. g. –en, –fy, –ize (darken, satisfy,
harmonize, etc.);
d) adverb-suffixes, i.e.
those forming or occurring in adverbs, e. g. –ly, –ward (quickly, eastward,
etc.).
(2) Suffixes may also be
classified into various groups according to the lexico-grammatical character of
the base the affix is usually added to. Proceeding from this principle one may
divide suffixes into:
a)
deverbal
suffixes (those added to the verbal base), e. g. –er, –ing, –ment, –able, etc.
(speaker, reading, agreement, suitable, etc.);
b) denominal suffixes (those
added to the noun base), e. g. –less, –ish, –ful, –ist, –some, etc.
(handless, childish, mouthful, violinist, troublesome, etc.);
c) de-adjectival suffixes
(those affixed to the adjective base), e. g. –en, –ly, –ish, –ness, etc.
(blacken, slowly, reddish, brightness, etc.).
(3) A classification of
suffixes may also be based on the criterion of sense expressed by a set of
suffixes. Proceeding from this principle suffixes are classified into various
groups within the bounds of a certain part of speech. For instance, noun-suffixes
fall into those denoting:
a)
the
agent of an action, e. g. –er, –ant (baker, dancer, defendant, etc.);
b) appurtenance, e. g. –an,
–ian, –ese, etc. (Arabian, Elizabethan, Russian, Chinese,
Japanese, etc.);
c) collectivity, e. g. –age,
–dom, –ery (–ry), etc. (freightage, officialdom, peasantry,
etc.);
d) diminutiveness, e. g. –ie,
–let, –ling, etc. (birdie, girlie, cloudlet, squirreling,
wolfing, etc.).
(4) Still another
classification of suffixes may be worked out if one examines them from the
angle of stylistic reference. Just like prefixes, suffixes are also
characterized by quite a definite stylistic reference falling into two basic
classes:
a)
those
characterized by neutral stylistic reference such as –able, –er, –ing,
etc.;
Suffixes with
neutral stylistic reference may occur in words of different lexico-stylistic
layers. As for suffixes of the second class they are restricted in use to quite
definite lexico-stylistic layers of words, in particular to terms, e.g. rhomboid,
asteroid, cruciform, cyclotron, synchrophasotron, etc.
(5) Suffixes are also
classified as to the degree of their productivity.
Distinction is usually
made between dead and living affixes. Dead affixes are described as those which are no longer felt in
Modern English as component parts of words; they have so fused with the base of
the word as to lose their independence completely. It is only by special
etymological analysis that they may be singled out, e. g. –d in dead,
seed, –le, –l, –el in bundle, sail, hovel; –ock in hillock; –lock
in wedlock; –t in flight, gift, height. It is quite
clear that dead suffixes are irrelevant to present-day English word-formation,
they belong in its diachronic study.
Living
affixes may be easily singled out from a word, e. g. the noun-forming suffixes –ness,
–dom, –hood, –age, –ance, as in darkness, freedom, childhood,
marriage, assistance, etc. or the adjective-forming suffixes –en, –ous,
–ive, –ful, –y as in wooden, poisonous, active, hopeful, stony, etc.
However, not
all living derivational affixes of Modern English possess the ability to coin
new words. Some of them may be employed to coin new words on the spur of the
moment, others cannot, so that they are different from the point of view of
their productivity. Accordingly they fall into two basic classes — productive
and non-productive word-building affixes.
It has been
pointed out that linguists disagree as to what is meant by the productivity of
derivational affixes.
Following the
first approach all living affixes should be considered productive in varying
degrees from highly-productive (e. g. –er, –ish, –less, re–, etc.)
to non-productive (e. g. –ard, –cy, –ive, etc.).
Consequently
it becomes important to describe the constraints imposed on and the factors
favouring the productivity of affixational patterns and individual affixes. The
degree of productivity of affixational patterns very much depends on the
structural, lexico-grammatical and semantic nature of bases and the meaning of
the affix. For instance, the analysis of the bases from which the suffix –ize
can derive verbs reveals that it is most productive with noun-stems,
adjective-stems also favour ifs productivity, whereas verb-stems and
adverb-stems do not, e. g. criticize (critic), organize (organ), itemize
(item), mobilize (mobile), localize (local), etc. Comparison of the
semantic structure of a verb in –ize with that of the base it is built
on shows that the number of meanings of the stem usually exceeds that of the
verb and that its basic meaning favours the productivity of the suffix –ize
to a greater degree than its marginal meanings, e. g. to characterize —
character, to moralize — moral, to dramatize — drama, etc.
The treatment
of certain affixes as non-productive naturally also depends on the concept of
productivity. The current definition of non-productive derivational affixes as
those which cannot hg used in Modern English for the coining of new words is
rather vague and maybe interpreted in different ways. Following the definition
the term non-productive refers only to the affixes unlikely to be used for the
formation of new words, e. g. –ous, –th, fore– and some others (famous,
depth, foresee).
If one
accepts the other concept of productivity mentioned above, then non-productive
affixes must be defined as those that cannot be used for the formation of
occasional words and, consequently, such affixes as –dom, –ship, –ful, –en,
–ify, –ate and many others are to be regarded as non-productive.
The theory of
relative productivity of derivational affixes is also corroborated by some
other observations made on English word-formation. For instance, different
productive affixes are found in different periods of the history of the
language. It is extremely significant, for example, that out of the seven
verb-forming suffixes of the Old English period only one has survived up to the
present time with a very low degree of productivity, namely the suffix –en
(e. g. to soften, to darken, to whiten).
A derivational
affix may become productive in just one meaning because that meaning is
specially needed by the community at a particular phase in its history. This
may be well illustrated by the prefix de– in the sense of ‘undo what has
been done, reverse an action or process’, e. g. deacidify (paint spray),
decasualize (dock labour), decentralize (government or management), deration
(eggs and butter), de-reserve (medical students), desegregate (coloured
children), and so on.
Furthermore,
there are cases when a derivational affix being nonproductive in the
non-specialized section of the vocabulary is used to coin scientific or
technical terms. This is the case, for instance, with the suffix –ance
which has been used to form some terms in Electrical Engineering, e. g. capacitance,
impedance, reactance. The same is true of the suffix –ity
which has been used to form terms in physics, and chemistry such as alkalinity,
luminosity, emissivity and some others.
Conversion, one of the principal
ways of forming words in Modern English is highly productive in replenishing
the English word-stock with new words. The term conversion, which some
linguists find inadequate, refers to the numerous cases of phonetic identity
of word-forms, primarily the so-called initial forms, of two words belonging to
different parts of speech. This may be illustrated by the following cases: work
— to work; love — to love; paper — to paper; brief — to brief, etc. As
a rule we deal with simple words, although there are a few exceptions, e.g. wireless
— to wireless.
It will be
recalled that, although inflectional categories have been greatly reduced in
English in the last eight or nine centuries, there is a certain difference on
the morphological level between various parts of speech, primarily between
nouns and verbs. For instance, there is a clear-cut difference in Modern
English between the noun doctor and the verb to doctor —
each exists in the language as a unity of its word-forms and variants, not as
one form doctor. It is true that some of the forms are identical
in sound, i.e. homonymous, but there is a great distinction between them, as
they are both grammatically and semantically different.
If we regard
such word-pairs as doctor — to doctor, water — to water, brief — to brief
from the angle of their morphemic structure, we see that they are all
root-words. On the derivational level, however, one of them should be referred
to derived words, as it belongs to a different part of speech and is understood
through semantic and structural relations with the other, i.e. is motivated by
it. Consequently, the question arises: what serves as a word-building means in
these cases? It would appear that the noun is formed from the verb (or vice
versa) without any morphological change, but if we probe deeper into the
matter, we inevitably come to the conclusion that the two words differ in the
paradigm. Thus it is the paradigm that is used as a word-building means. Hence,
we may define conversion as the formation of a new word through changes in its
paradigm.
It is
necessary to call attention to the fact that the paradigm plays a significant
role in the process of word-formation in general and not only in the case of
conversion. Thus, the noun cooker (in gas-cooker) is formed from
the word to cook not only by the addition of the suffix –er, but also by
the change in its paradigm. However, in this case, the role played by the
paradigm as a word-building means is less obvious, as the word-building suffix
–er comes to the fore. Therefore, conversion is characterized not simply
by the use of the paradigm as a word-building means, but by the formation of a
new word solely by means of changing its paradigm. Hence, the change of
paradigm is the only word-building means of conversion. As a paradigm is a
morphological category conversion can be described as a morphological way of
forming words.
Compounding or word-composition is one of
the productive types of word-formation in Modern
English. Composition like all other ways of deriving words has its own peculiarities
as to the means used, the nature of bases and their distribution, as to the
range of application, the scope of semantic classes and the factors conducive
to productivity.
Compounds, as
has been mentioned elsewhere, are made up of two ICs which are both
derivational bases. Compound words are inseparable vocabulary units. They are
formally and semantically dependent on the constituent bases and the semantic
relations between them which mirror the relations between the motivating units.
The ICs of compound words represent bases of all three structural types. The
bases built on stems may be of different degree of complexity as, for example,
week-end, office-management, postage-stamp, aircraft-carrier,
fancy-dress-maker, etc. However, this complexity of structure of
bases is not typical of the bulk of Modern English compounds.
In this
connection care should be taken not to confuse compound words with polymorphic
words of secondary derivation, i.e. derivatives built according to an affixal
pattern but on a compound stem for its base such as, e. g. school-mastership
([n + n] + suf), ex-housewife (prf + [n + n]), to weekend, to spotlight ([n
+ n] + conversion).
Structurally compound words are
characterized by the specific order and arrangement in which bases follow one
another. The order in which the two bases are placed within a compound is
rigidly fixed in Modern English and it is the second IC that makes the
head-member of the word, i.e. its structural and semantic centre. The
head-member is of basic importance as it preconditions both the
lexico-grammatical and semantic features of the first component. It is of interest
to note that the difference between stems (that serve as bases in compound
words) and word-forms they coincide with is most obvious in some
compounds, especially in compound adjectives. Adjectives like long, wide,
rich are characterized by grammatical forms of degrees of comparison
longer, wider, richer. The corresponding stems functioning as
bases in compound words lack grammatical independence and forms proper to the
words and retain only the part-of-speech meaning; thus compound adjectives
with adjectival stems for their second components, e. g. age-long, oil-rich,
inch-wide, do not form degrees of comparison as the compound adjective
oil-rich does not form them the way the word rich does,
but conforms to the general rule of polysyllabic adjectives and has analytical
forms of degrees of comparison. The same difference between words and stems is
not so noticeable in compound nouns with the noun-stem for the second
component.
Phonetically compounds are also
marked by a specific structure of their own. No phonemic changes of bases occur
in composition but the compound word acquires a new stress pattern, different
from the stress in the motivating words, for example words key and
hole or hot and house each
possess their own stress but when the stems of these words are brought together
to make up a new compound word, ‘keyhole — ‘a hole in a lock into
which a key fits’, or ‘hothouse — ‘a heated building for growing
delicate plants’, the latter is given a different stress pattern — a unity
stress on the first component in our case. Compound words have three stress
patterns:
a)
a
high or unity stress on the first component as in ‘honeymoon, ‘doorway,
etc.
b) a double stress, with a
primary stress on the first component and a weaker, secondary stress on the
second component, e. g. ‘blood-ֻvessel, ‘mad-ֻdoctor, ‘washing-ֻmachine,
etc.
c)
It is
not infrequent, however, for both ICs to have level stress as in, for instance,
‘arm-‘chair, ‘icy-‘cold, ‘grass-‘green, etc.
Graphically most compounds have two
types of spelling — they are spelt either solidly or with a hyphen. Both types
of spelling when accompanied by structural and phonetic peculiarities serve as
a sufficient indication of inseparability of compound words in contradistinction
to phrases. It is true that hyphenated spelling by itself may be sometimes
misleading, as it may be used in word-groups to emphasize their phraseological
character as in e. g. daughter-in-law, man-of-war, brother-in-arms or in
longer combinations of words to indicate the semantic unity of a string of
words used attributively as, e.g., I-know-what-you’re-going-to-say
expression, we-are-in-the-know jargon, the young-must-be-right attitude.
The two types of spelling typical of compounds, however, are not rigidly
observed and there are numerous fluctuations between solid or hyphenated
spelling on the one hand and spelling with a break between the components on
the other, especially in nominal compounds of the n+n type. The spelling
of these compounds varies from author to author and from dictionary to
dictionary. For example, the words war-path, war-time, money-lender are
spelt both with a hyphen and solidly; blood-poisoning, money-order,
wave-length, war-ship— with a hyphen and with a break; underfoot,
insofar, underhand—solidly and with a break[25]. It is noteworthy that new compounds
of this type tend to solid or hyphenated spelling. This inconsistency of
spelling in compounds, often accompanied by a level stress pattern (equally
typical of word-groups) makes the problem of distinguishing between compound
words (of the n + n type in particular) and word-groups especially difficult.
In this connection it
should be stressed that Modern English nouns (in the Common Case, Sg.) as has
been universally recognized possess an attributive function in which they are
regularly used to form numerous nominal phrases as, e. g. peace years,
stone steps, government office, etc. Such variable nominal phrases
are semantically fully derivable from the meanings of the two nouns and are
based on the homogeneous attributive semantic relations unlike compound words.
This system of nominal phrases exists side by side with the specific and numerous
class of nominal compounds which as a rule carry an additional semantic component
not found in phrases.
It is also important to
stress that these two classes of vocabulary units — compound words and free
phrases — are not only opposed but also stand in close correlative relations to
each other.
Semantically compound words are
generally motivated units. The meaning of the compound is first of all derived
from the combined lexical meanings of its components. The semantic peculiarity
of the derivational bases and the semantic difference between the base and the
stem on which the latter is built is most obvious in compound words. Compound
words with a common second or first component can serve as illustrations. The
stem of the word board is polysemantic and its multiple meanings
serve as different derivational bases, each with its own selective range for
the semantic features of the other component, each forming a separate set of
compound words, based on specific derivative relations. Thus the base board
meaning ‘a flat piece of wood square or oblong’ makes a set of compounds chess-board,
notice-board, key-board, diving-board, foot-board, sign-board; compounds
paste-board, cardboard are built on the base meaning ‘thick,
stiff paper’; the base board– meaning ‘an authorized body of men’,
forms compounds school-board, board-room. The same can be
observed in words built on the polysemantic stem of the word foot. For
example, the base foot– in foot-print, foot-pump, foothold,
foot-bath, foot-wear has the meaning of ‘the terminal part of the leg’, in
foot-note, foot-lights, foot-stone the base foot– has the meaning of
‘the lower part’, and in foot-high, foot-wide, footrule — ‘measure of
length’. It is obvious from the above-given examples that the meanings of the
bases of compound words are interdependent and that the choice of each is
delimited as in variable word-groups by the nature of the other IC of the word.
It thus may well be said that the combination of bases serves as a kind of
minimal inner context distinguishing the particular individual lexical meaning
of each component. In this connection we should also remember the significance
of the differential meaning found in both components which becomes especially
obvious in a set of compounds containing identical bases.
Compound words can be
described from different points of view and consequently may be classified
according to different principles. They may be viewed from the point of view:
(1) of general relationship
and degree of semantic independence of components;
(2) of the parts of speech
compound words represent;
(3) of the means of
composition used to link the two ICs together;
(4) of the type of ICs that
are brought together to form a compound;
(5) of the correlative
relations with the system of free word-groups.
From the point of view of
degree of semantic independence there are two types of relationship between
the ICs of compound words that are generally recognized in linguistic
literature: the relations of coordination and subordination, and accordingly
compound words fall into two classes: coordinative compounds (often
termed copulative or additive) and subordinative (often termed
determinative).
In coordinative
compounds the two ICs are semantically equally important as in fighter-bomber,
oak-tree, girl-friend, Anglo-American. The constituent bases belong to the
same class and той often to the same semantic group. Coordinative compounds make up
a comparatively small group of words. Coordinative compounds fall into three
groups:
a)
Reduplicative compounds which are made
up by the repetition of the same base as in goody-goody, fifty-fifty,
hush-hush, pooh-pooh. They are all only partially motivated.
b) Compounds formed by
joining the phonically variated rhythmic twin forms which either
alliterate with the same initial consonant but vary the vowels as in chit-chat,
zigzag, sing-song, or rhyme by varying the initial consonants as in clap-trap,
a walky-talky, helter-skelter. This subgroup stands very much apart. It is
very often referred to pseudo-compounds and considered by some linguists
irrelevant to productive word-formation owing to the doubtful morphemic status
of their components. The constituent members of compound words of this subgroup
are in most cases unique, carry very vague or no lexical meaning of their own,
are not found as stems of independently functioning words. They are motivated
mainly through the rhythmic doubling of fanciful sound-clusters.
Coordinative compounds of both subgroups (a, b) are
mostly restricted to the colloquial layer, are marked by a heavy emotive
charge and possess a very small degree of productivity.
c)
The
bases of additive compounds such as a queen-bee, an actor-manager,
unlike the compound words of the first two subgroups, are built on stems of the
independently functioning words of the same part of speech. These bases often
semantically stand in the genus-species relations. They denote a person or an
object that is two things at the same time. A secretary-stenographer is
thus a person who is both a stenographer and a secretary, a
bed-sitting-room (a bed-sitter) is both a bed-room and a
sitting-room at the same time. Among additive compounds there is a specific
subgroup of compound adjectives one of ICs of which is a bound root-morpheme.
This group is limited to the names of nationalities such as Sino-Japanese,
Anglo-Saxon, Afro-Asian, etc.
Additive compounds of this group are mostly fully
motivated but have a very limited degree of productivity.
However it
must be stressed that though the distinction between coordinative and subordinative
compounds is generally made, it is open to doubt and there is no hard and fast
border-line between them. On the contrary, the border-line is rather vague. It
often happens that one and the same compound may with equal right be
interpreted either way — as a coordinative or a subordinative compound, e. g. a
woman-doctor may be understood as ‘a woman who is at the same time a
doctor’ or there can be traced a difference of importance between the
components and it may be primarily felt to be ‘a doctor who happens to be a
woman’ (also a mother-goose, a clock-tower).
In
subordinative compounds the components are neither structurally nor
semantically equal in importance but are based on the domination of the
head-member which is, as a rule, the second IC. The second IC thus is the
semantically and grammatically dominant part of the word, which preconditions
the part-of-speech meaning of the whole compound as in stone-deaf, age-long which
are obviously adjectives, a wrist-watch, road-building, a baby-sitter
which are nouns.
Functionally
compounds are viewed as words of different parts of speech. It is the
head-member of the compound, i.e. its second IC that is indicative of the
grammatical and lexical category the compound word belongs to.
Compound words
are found in all parts of speech, but the bulk of compounds are nouns and
adjectives. Each part of speech is characterized by its set of derivational
patterns and their semantic variants. Compound adverbs, pronouns and
connectives are represented by an insignificant number of words, e. g. somewhere,
somebody, inside, upright, otherwise moreover, elsewhere, by means of, etc.
No new compounds are coined on this pattern. Compound pronouns and adverbs
built on the repeating first and second IC like body, ever, thing make
closed sets of words
SOME
+
BODY
ANY
THING
EVERY
ONE
NO
WHERE
On the whole
composition is not productive either for adverbs, pronouns or for connectives.
Verbs are of
special interest. There is a small group of compound verbs made up of the
combination of verbal and adverbial stems that language retains from earlier
stages, e. g. to bypass, to inlay, to offset. This type according
to some authors, is no longer productive and is rarely found in new compounds.
There are
many polymorphic verbs that are represented by morphemic sequences of two
root-morphemes, like to weekend, to gooseflesh, to spring-clean, but
derivationally they are all words of secondary derivation in which the
existing compound nouns only serve as bases for derivation. They are often
termed pseudo-compound verbs. Such polymorphic verbs are presented by two
groups:
(1) verbs formed by means of
conversion from the stems of compound nouns as in to spotlight from a
spotlight, to sidetrack from a side-track, to handcuff from
handcuffs, to blacklist from a blacklist, to pinpoint from a
pin-point;
(2) verbs formed by
back-derivation from the stems of compound nouns, e. g. to baby-sit from
a baby-sitter, to playact from play-acting, to housekeep from
house-keeping, to spring-clean from spring-cleaning.
From the point of view of the means by which the components
are joined together, compound words may be classified into:
(1) Words formed by merely
placing one constituent after another in a definite order which thus is
indicative of both the semantic value and the morphological unity of the
compound, e. g. rain-driven, house-dog, pot-pie (as opposed to
dog-house, pie-pot). This means of linking the components is typical of the
majority of Modern English compounds in all parts of speech.
As to the
order of components, subordinative compounds are often classified as:
a)
asyntactic compounds in which the
order of bases runs counter to the order in which the motivating words can be
brought together under the rules of syntax of the language. For example, in
variable phrases adjectives cannot be modified by preceding adjectives and
noun modifiers are not placed before participles or adjectives, yet this kind
of asyntactic arrangement is typical of compounds, e. g. red-hot,
bluish-black, pale-blue, rain-driven, oil-rich. The asyntactic order is
typical of the majority of Modern English compound words;
b) syntactic compounds whose
components are placed in the order that resembles the order of words in free
phrases arranged according to the rules of syntax of Modern English. The order
of the components in compounds like blue-bell, mad-doctor, blacklist (
a + n ) reminds one of the order and arrangement of the corresponding words
in phrases a blue bell, a mad doctor, a black list ( A + N ),
the order of compounds of the type door-handle, day-time, spring-lock
( n + n ) resembles the order of words in nominal phrases with
attributive function of the first noun ( N + N ), e. g. spring time,
stone steps, peace movement.
(2) Compound words whose ICs
are joined together with a special linking-element — the linking vowels
[ou] and occasionally [i] and the linking consonant [s/z] — which is indicative
of composition as in, for example, speedometer, tragicomic, statesman.
Compounds of this type can be both nouns and adjectives, subordinative and
additive but are rather few in number since they are considerably restricted by
the nature of their components. The additive compound adjectives linked with
the help of the vowel [ou] are limited to the names of nationalities and
represent a specific group with a bound root for the first component, e. g. Sino-Japanese,
Afro-Asian, Anglo-Saxon.
In
subordinative adjectives and nouns the productive linking element is also [ou]
and compound words of the type are most productive for scientific terms. The
main peculiarity of compounds of the type is that their constituents are
nonassimilated bound roots borrowed mainly from classical languages, e. g. electro-dynamic,
filmography, technophobia, videophone, sociolinguistics, videodisc.
A small group
of compound nouns may also be joined with the help of linking consonant [s/z],
as in sportsman, landsman, saleswoman, bridesmaid. This small
group of words is restricted by the second component which is, as a rule, one
of the three bases man–, woman–, people–. The commonest of them is man–.
Compounds may be also
classified according to the nature of the bases and the interconnection with
other ways of word-formation into the so-called compounds proper and
derivational compounds.
Derivational compounds, e. g. long-legged,
three-cornered, a break-down, a pickpocket differ from compounds
proper in the nature of bases and their second IC. The two ICs of the compound
long-legged — ‘having long legs’ — are the suffix –ed meaning
‘having’ and the base built on a free word-group long legs whose
member words lose their grammatical independence, and are reduced to a single
component of the word, a derivational base. Any other segmentation of such
words, say into long– and legged– is impossible because
firstly, adjectives like *legged do not exist in Modern English
and secondly, because it would contradict the lexical meaning of these words.
The derivational adjectival suffix –ed converts this newly formed base into a
word. It can be graphically represented as long legs à [ (long–leg) + –ed]
à long–legged. The suffix –ed becomes the grammatically and
semantically dominant component of the word, its head-member. It imparts its
part-of-speech meaning and its lexical meaning thus making an adjective that
may be semantically interpreted as ‘with (or having) what is denoted by the
motivating word-group’. Comparison of the pattern of compounds proper like baby-sitter,
pen-holder
[ n + ( v + –er ) ] with the pattern of
derivational compounds like long-legged [ (a + n) + –ed ] reveals
the difference: derivational compounds are formed by a derivational means, a
suffix in case if words of the long-legged type, which is applied
to a base that each time is formed anew on a free word-group and is not
recurrent in any other type if words. It follows that strictly speaking words
of this type should be treated as pseudo-compounds or as a special group of
derivatives. They are habitually referred to derivational compounds because of
the peculiarity of their derivational bases which are felt as built by composition,
i.e. by bringing together the stems of the member-words of a phrase which lose
their independence in the process. The word itself, e. g. long-legged,
is built by the application of the suffix, i.e. by derivation and thus may
be described as a suffixal derivative.
Derivational compounds or
pseudo-compounds are all subordinative and fall into two groups according to
the type of variable phrases that serve as their bases and the derivational
means used:
a)
derivational
compound adjectives formed with the help of the highly-productive adjectival suffix
–ed applied to bases built on attributive phrases of the A + N, Num + N,
N + N type, e. g. long legs, three corners, doll face. Accordingly
the derivational adjectives under discussion are built after the patterns [
(a + n ) + –ed], e. g. long-legged, flat-chested, broad-minded;
[ ( пит + n) + –ed], e. g. two-sided,
three-cornered; [ (n + n ) + –ed], e. g. doll-faced,
heart-shaped.
b) derivational compound nouns formed mainly by conversion applied
to bases built on three types of variable phrases — verb-adverb phrase,
verbal-nominal and attributive phrases.
The commonest type of
phrases that serves as derivational bases for this group of derivational
compounds is the V + Adv type of word-groups as in, for instance, a
breakdown, a breakthrough, a castaway, a layout. Semantically derivational
compound nouns form lexical groups typical of conversion, such as an act
or instance of the action, e. g. a holdup — ‘a
delay in traffic’’ from to hold up — ‘delay, stop by use of force’; a
result of the action, e. g. a breakdown — ‘a failure in machinery
that causes work to stop’ from to break down — ‘become disabled’;
an active agent or recipient of the action, e. g. cast-offs
— ‘clothes that he owner will not wear again’ from to cast off — ‘throw
away as unwanted’; a show-off — ‘a person who shows off’ from to show
off — ‘make a display of one’s abilities in order to impress people’.
Derivational compounds of this group are spelt generally solidly or with a
hyphen and often retain a level stress. Semantically they are motivated by
transparent derivative relations with the motivating base built on the
so-called phrasal verb and are typical of the colloquial layer of vocabulary.
This type of derivational compound nouns is highly productive due to the
productivity of conversion.
The semantic subgroup of
derivational compound nouns denoting agents calls for special mention. There is
a group of such substantives built on an attributive and verbal-nominal type of
phrases. These nouns are semantically only partially motivated and are marked
by a heavy emotive charge or lack of motivation and often belong to terms as,
for example, a kill-joy, a wet-blanket — ‘one who kills enjoyment’; a turnkey
— ‘keeper of the keys in prison’; a sweet-tooth — ‘a person who
likes sweet food’; a red-breast — ‘a bird called the robin’. The
analysis of these nouns easily proves that they can only be understood as the
result of conversion for their second ICs cannot be understood as their
structural or semantic centres, these compounds belong to a grammatical and
lexical groups different from those their components do. These compounds are
all animate nouns whereas their second ICs belong to inanimate objects. The
meaning of the active agent is not found in either of the components but is
imparted as a result of conversion applied to the word-group which is thus
turned into a derivational base.
These compound nouns are
often referred to in linguistic literature as «bahuvrihi»
compounds or exocentric compounds, i.e. words whose semantic head is outside
the combination. It seems more correct to refer them to the same group of
derivational or pseudo-compounds as the above cited groups.
This small group of
derivational nouns is of a restricted productivity, its heavy constraint lies
in its idiomaticity and hence its stylistic and emotive colouring.
The linguistic analysis
of extensive language data proves that there exists a regular correlation
between the system of free phrases and all types of subordinative (and
additive) compounds[26].
Correlation embraces both the structure and the meaning of compound words, it
underlies the entire system of productive present-day English composition
conditioning the derivational patterns and lexical types of compounds.
[1]
Randolph Quirk, Ian Svortik. Investigating Linguistic Acceptability.
Walter de Gruyter. Inc., 1966. P. 127-128.
[2]
Robins, R. H. A short history of linguistics. London: Longmans, 1967. P.
183.
[3]
Henry Sweet, History of Language. Folcroft Library Editions,1876. P.
471.
[4]
Zellig S. Harris, Structural Linguistics. University of Chicago Press,
1951. P. 255.
[5]
Leonard Bloomfield, Language. New York, 1933
[6]
Noam Avram Chomsky, Syntactic Structures. Berlin, 1957.
[7]
Ibidem, p. 15.
[8]
Ibidem, p. 4.
[9]
Ibidem, p. 11.
[10]
Ibidem, p. 10.
[11]
Jukka Pennanen, Aspects of Finnish Grammar. Pohjoinen, 1972. P. 293.
[12]
K. Zimmer, Levels of Linguistic Description. Chicago, 1964. P. 18.
[13]
A. Ross Eckler’s letters to Daria Abrossimova, 2001.
[14]
Kucera, H. & Francis, W. N. Computational analysis of present-day
American English. University Press of New England, 1967.
[15] Webster’s Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English
Language. Random House Value Pub. 1996.
[16]
A. Ross Eckler’s letters to Daria Abrossimova, 2001.
[17]
Dmitri Borgmann. Beyond Language. Charles Scribner’s Sons. 1965.
[18] The Times Atlas of the World. Times Books. 1994.
[19] Rand McNally Commercial Atlas and Marketing Guide. Rand
McNally & Co. 2000.
[20]
Prof. Smirnitsky calls them “potential words” in his book on English Lexicology
(p. 18).
[21] Ginzburg R. A Course in Modern
English Lexicology. Moscow, 1979. P. 113.
[22]
Ibidem. P. 114-115.
[23] Marchand H. Studies in Syntax and Word-Formation. Munich, 1974.
[24] Ginzburg R. A Course in Modern
English Lexicology. Moscow, 1979. P. 115.
[25]
The spelling is given according to Webster’s New Collegiate Dictionary,
1956 and H.C. Wyld. The Universal English Dictionary, 1952.
[26]
Prof. A. I. Smirnitsky as far back as the late forties pointed out the rigid
parallelism existing between free word-groups and derivational compound
adjectives which he termed “grammatical compounds”.