Word formation and etymology

1. The morphological structure of a word.

2. Productivity. Productive and non-productive ways of
word-formation.

3. Affixation. General
characteristics of suffixes and prefixes. Classification of prefixes.

3.1. Semantics of Affixes.

3.2. Boundary cases between derivation, inflection and composition

3.2.1 Semi-Affixes.

3.2.2. Combining forms.

4. Word — composition.
Classification of compound words.

4.1. The semantic aspect of
compound words.

4.2. The criteria of
compounds.

4.3. Pseudo-compounds.

5. Conversion.

6. Shortening.

7. Non-productive means of
word formation.

7.1. Blending.

7.2. Back-formation.

7.3. Onomatopoeia.

7.4. Sound and stress
interchange.

Recommended Literature

1. Каращук
T.M. Словообразование
английского
языка,-
М.,
1997.

2. Кубрякова Е:С. Типы языковых значений:
Семантика производного слова,- М., 1981.

3. Мостовий М.Д.
Лексиколоія
англійської
мови.-Харків,
1993.

4. Харитончик З.А Лексикология
английского языка.- Минск,
1992

5. Arnold I.V. The English Word.- M., 1973.

6. Ginsburg R.S. and others. A Course in Modem English Lexicology.-
M., 1966.

7. Marchand H. Studies in Syntax and Word-Formation.- Munchen, 1974.

9. Nikolenko
A.G. English Lexicology – Theory and Practice. – Вінниця,
Нова книга, 2007. – 567с.

10. Rayevskaya N.M. English
Lexicology,- K., 1979.

11.
Warren B.
Classifying Adjectives.-
Oostburg,
1984.

1. The morphological structure of a word.

The word is not the smallest unit of the language.
It consists of morphemes. The
term morpheme
is derived from Gr morphe
‘form’
+ -eme.
The Greek
suffix -erne
has been
adopted by linguists to denote the smallest significant or
distinctive unit.
The morpheme
may be defined as the smallest meaningful unit which has a sound form
and meaning and which occurs in speech only as a part of a word. In
other words, a
morpheme
is an association of a given meaning with a given sound pattern. But
unlike a word it is not autonomous. Morphemes occur in speech only as
constituent parts of words, not independently, although a word may
consist of a single morpheme. Nor are they divisible into smaller
meaningful units. That is why the morpheme may be defined as the
minimum meaningful language unit.

Word formation
is the creation of new words from elements already existing in the
language. Every language has its own structural patterns of word
formation.

A
form is
said to be free
if it may stand alone without changing its meaning; if not, it is a
bound
form,
so
called because it is always bound to something else. For example, if
we compare the words
sportive
and
elegant
and
their parts, we see that sport,
sportive, elegant may
occur alone as utterances, whereas eleg-,
-ive, -ant are
bound forms because they never occur alone. A word is, by L.
Bloomfield’s definition, a minimum free form. A morpheme is said to
be either bound or free. This statement should bе
taken
with caution. It means that some morphemes are capable of forming
words without adding other morphemes: that is, they are homonymous to
free forms.

According
to the role they play in constructing words, morphemes are subdivided
into
roots
and
affixes.
The latter are further subdivided, according to their position, into
prefixes,
suffixes
and
infixes,
and according to their function and meaning, into derivational
and functional
affixes, the latter also called endings
or outer formatives.

The root morpheme
is the lexical center of the word. It is the semantic nucleus of a
word with which no grammatical properties of the word are connected.
A root may be also regarded as the ultimate
constituent element which remains after the removal of all functional
and derivational affixes and does not admit any further analysis.
It is the common element of words within a
word-family.
Thus,
-heart-
is
the common root of the following series of words: heart,
hearten,
dishearten, heartily, heartless, hearty, heartiness, sweetheart,
heart-broken, kind-hearted, whole-heartedly, etc.
In some of these, as, for example,
in hearten, there
is only one root; in others the root -heart
is combined with some other root, thus
forming a compound like sweetheart.

The
root word heart
is
unsegmentable,
it is non-motivated morphologically. The morphemic
structure of all the other words in this word-family is obvious —
they
are segmentable
as
consisting of at least
two distinct morphemes. They may be further subdivided into:

1)
those formed by affixation
or
affixational
derivatives consisting
of a root morpheme and one or more affixes: hearten,
dishearten, heartily, heartless, hearty, heartiness;

2) compounds or
compound words containing at least two
root-morphemes: warehouse, camera-man,
sweetheart;

3)
derivational
compounds
where words of a phrase are joined together by composition and
affixation: kind-hearted.
This last process is also called phrasal
derivation
((kind
heart)+-ed)).

Monomorphic are
root-words consisting of only one root-morpheme i.e. simple words
(dry, grow,
boss, sell).

Polymorphic
are words consisting of at least one root-morpheme and a number of
derivational affixes, i.e. derivatives, compounds (customer,
payee, body-building, shipping).

Derived words
are those composed of one root-morpheme and one more derivational
morphemes (consignment,
outgoing, publicity).

Stem is that part
of a word which remains unchanged throughout its paradigm and to
which grammatical inflexions and affixes are added. The
stem expresses the lexical and the part
of speech meaning. For the word hearty
and for the paradigm heart
(sing.) — hearts
(pl.) the stem may be represented as
heart-.
This stem is a single morpheme, it contains nothing but the root, so
it is a simple stem.
It is also a free stem
because it is homonymous to the word heart.

The
stem of the paradigm hearty
— heartier
— (the)
heartiest
is hearty-.
It is a free stem, but as it consists of a root morpheme and an
affix, it is not simple but derived.
Thus, a stem containing one or more affixes is a derived stem. If
after deducing the affix the remaining stem is not homonymous to a
separate word of the same root, we call it a
bound stem.
Thus, in the word cordial
− proceeding as if from the heart, the adjective-forming suffix can
be separated on the analogy with such words as bronchial,
radial,
social.
The remaining stem, however, cannot form a separate word by itself,
it is bound. In cordially
and cordiality,
on the other hand, the derived stems are free.

Bound
stems are especially characteristic of loan words. The point may be
illustrated by the following French borrowings: arrogance,
charity,
courage,
coward,
distort,
involve,
notion,
legible,
tolerable
,etc. After the affixes of these words are taken away the remaining
elements are: arrog-,
char-,
cour-,
cow-,
-tort,
-volve,
not-,
leg-,
toler-,
which do not coincide with any semantically related independent
words.

In English words stem and
root often coincide.

Affixational morphemes
include inflections and derivational affixes.

Inflection
is an
affixal morpheme
which carries only grammatical meaning thus relevant only for the
formation of word-forms (book-s,
open-ed, strong-er).

Derivational morpheme
is an affixal morpheme which modifies the lexical meaning of the root
and forms a new word. In many cases it adds the part-of-speech
meaning to the root (manage-ment,
en-courage, fruit-ful).

Morphemes which may occur in
isolation and function as independent words are called free
morphemes
(pay, sum,
form).

Morphemes which are not
found in isolation are called bound
morphemes
(-er, un-,
-less).

The segmentation of words is
generally carried out according to the method of Immediate
and Ultimate
Constituents.
This method is based upon the binary principle, i.e. each stage of
procedure involves two components the word immediately breaks into.
At each stage these two components are referred to as the Immediate
Constituents (IС).
Each IС
at the next stage of analysis is in turn broken into smaller
meaningful elements. The analysis is completed when we arrive at
constituents incapable of further division, i.e. morphemes. These are
referred to as Ultimate Constituents (UC). The analysis of
word-structure on the morphemic level must naturally proceed to the
stage of UC-s.

The combining form allo-
from Greek allos
“other” is used in linguistic
terminology to denote elements of a group whose members together
constitute a structural unit of the language (allophones,
allomorphs). Thus, for example, -ion/-sion/-tion/-ation
are the positional variants of the same suffix. They do not differ in
meaning or function but show a slight difference in sound form
depending on the final phoneme of the preceding stem. They are
considered as variants of one and the same morpheme and called its
allomorphs.

An
allomorph
is defined as a positional variant of a morpheme occurring
in a specific environment and so characterised by complementary
distribution. Complementary
distribution
is said to take place when two linguistic variants cannot appear in
the same environment. Thus, stems ending in consonants take as a rule
-ation
(liberation); stems
ending in pt,
however,
take -tion
(corruption) and
the final t
becomes
fused with the suffix.

Different
morphemes are characterised by contrastive
distribution,
i.e. if they occur in the same environment they signal different
meanings. The suffixes -able
and
-ed,
for
instance, are different morphemes, not allomorphs, because adjectives
in -able
mean
“capable of being”: measurable
“capable
of being measured”, whereas -ed
as
a suffix of adjectives has a resultant force: measured
“marked
by due proportion”, as the
measured beauty of classical Greek art; hence
also “rhythmical”
and “regular in movement”, as in the
measured form of verse, the measured
tread.

In
some cases the difference is not very clear-cut: -ic
and
-ical,
for
example, are two different affixes, the first a simple one, the
second a group affix; they are said to be characterised by
contrastive distribution. But many adjectives have both the -ic
and
-ical
form,
often without a distinction in meaning. The suffix -ical
shows
a vaguer connection with what is indicated by the stem: a
comic paper but
a
comical story. However,
the distinction between them is not very sharp.

Allomorphs
will also occur among prefixes. Their form then depends on the
initials of the stem with which they will assimilate. A prefix such
as im-
occurs
before bilabials (impossible),
its
allomorph ir-
before
r
(irregular), il- before
l
(illegal). It
is in-
before
all other consonants and vowels (indirect,
inability).

Two
or more sound forms of a stem existing under conditions of
complementary distribution may also be regarded as allomorphs, as,
for instance, in long
adj
↔
length
n,
excite
v
↔
excitation
n.

Allomorphs
therefore are phonetically conditioned positional variants of the
same derivational or functional morpheme (suffix, root or prefix)
identical in meaning and function and differing in sound only
insomuch, as their complementary distribution produces various
phonetic assimilation effects.

Соседние файлы в предмете [НЕСОРТИРОВАННОЕ]

Источник

Where do new words come from? How do you figure out their histories?

An etymology is the history of a linguistic form, such as a word; the same term is also used for the study
of word histories. A dictionary etymology tells us what is known of an English word before it became the word entered
in that dictionary. If the word was created in English, the etymology shows, to whatever extent is not already
obvious from the shape of the word, what materials were used to form it. If the word was borrowed into English,
the etymology traces the borrowing process backward from the point at which the word entered English to the
earliest records of the ancestral language. Where it is relevant, an etymology notes words from other languages that
are related («akin») to the word in the dictionary entry, but that are not in the direct line of borrowing.

How New Words are Formed

An etymologist, a specialist in the study of etymology, must know a good deal about the history of English
and also about the relationships of sound and meaning and their changes over time that underline the reconstruction
of the Indo-European language family. Knowledge is also needed of the various processes by which words are created
within Modern English; the most important processes are listed below.

Borrowing

A majority of the words used in English today are of foreign origin. English still derives much of its vocabulary
from Latin and Greek, but we have also borrowed words from nearly all of the languages in Europe. In the modern
period of linguistic acquisitiveness, English has found vocabulary opportunities even farther afield. From the
period of the Renaissance voyages through the days when the sun never set upon the British Empire and up to
the present, a steady stream of new words has flowed into the language to match the new objects and
experiences English speakers have encountered all over the globe. Over 120 languages are on record as sources
of present-day English vocabulary.

Shortening or Clipping

Clipping (or truncation) is a process whereby an appreciable chunk of an existing word is omitted,
leaving what is sometimes called a stump word. When it is the end of a word that is lopped off, the process
is called back-clipping: thus examination was docked to create exam and gymnasium
was shortened to form gym. Less common in English are fore-clippings, in which the beginning of a
word is dropped: thus phone from telephone. Very occasionally, we see a sort of fore-and-aft
clipping, such as flu, from influenza.

Functional Shift

A functional shift is the process by which an existing word or form comes to be used with another
grammatical function (often a different part of speech); an example of a functional shift would be the development
of the noun commute from the verb commute.

Back-formation

Back-formation occurs when a real or supposed affix (that is, a prefix or suffix) is removed from a word to
create a new one. For example, the original name for a type of fruit was cherise, but some thought that word
sounded plural, so they began to use what they believed to be a singular form, cherry, and a new word was
born. The creation of the the verb enthuse from the noun enthusiasm is also an example of a
back-formation.

Blends

A blend is a word made by combining other words or parts of words in such a way that they overlap (as
motel from motor plus hotel) or one is infixed into the other (as chortle from
snort plus chuckle — the -ort- of the first being surrounded by the ch-…-le
of the second). The term blend is also sometimes used to describe words like brunch, from
breakfast plus lunch, in which pieces of the word are joined but there is no actual overlap. The
essential feature of a blend in either case is that there be no point at which you can break the word with everything
to the left of the breaking being a morpheme (a separately meaningful, conventionally combinable element) and
everything to the right being a morpheme, and with the meaning of the blend-word being a function of the meaning of
these morphemes. Thus, birdcage and psychohistory are not blends, but are instead compounds.

Acronymic Formations

An acronym is a word formed from the initial letters of a phrase. Some acronymic terms still clearly show their
alphabetic origins (consider FBI), but others are pronounced like words instead of as a succession of
letter names: thus NASA and NATO are pronounced as two syllable words. If the form is written
lowercase, there is no longer any formal clue that the word began life as an acronym: thus radar (‘radio
detecting and ranging’). Sometimes a form wavers between the two treatments: CAT scan pronounced either like
cat or C-A-T.

NOTE: No origin is more pleasing to the general reader than an acronymic one. Although acronymic etymologies are
perennially popular, many of them are based more in creative fancy than in fact. For an example of such an alleged
acronymic etymology, see the article on posh.

Transfer of Personal or Place Names

Over time, names of people, places, or things may become generalized vocabulary words. Thus did forsythia
develop from the name of botanist William Forsyth, silhouette from the name of Étienne de Silhouette, a
parsimonious French controller general of finances, and denim from serge de Nîmes (a fabric made
in Nîmes, France).

Imitation of Sounds

Words can also be created by onomatopoeia, the naming of things by a more or less exact reproduction of the
sound associated with it. Words such as buzz, hiss, guffaw, whiz, and
pop) are of imitative origin.

Folk Etymology

Folk etymology, also known as popular etymology, is the process whereby a word is altered so as to
resemble at least partially a more familiar word or words. Sometimes the process seems intended to «make sense of» a
borrowed foreign word using native resources: for example, the Late Latin febrigugia (a plant with medicinal
properties, etymologically ‘fever expeller’) was modified into English as feverfew.

Combining Word Elements

Also available to one who feels the need for a new word to name a new thing or express a new idea is the very
considerable store of prefixes, suffixes, and combining forms that already exist in English. Some of these are native
and others are borrowed from French, but the largest number have been taken directly from Latin or Greek, and they
have been combined in may different ways often without any special regard for matching two elements from the same
original language. The combination of these word elements has produced many scientific and technical terms of Modern
English.

Literary and Creative Coinages

Once in a while, a word is created spontaneously out of the creative play of sheer imagination. Words such as
boondoggle and googol are examples of such creative coinages, but most such inventive brand-new
words do not gain sufficiently widespread use to gain dictionary entry unless their coiner is well known enough so
his or her writings are read, quoted, and imitated. British author Lewis Carroll was renowned for coinages such
as jabberwocky, galumph, and runcible, but most such new words are destined to pass in
and out of existence with very little notice from most users of English.

An etymologist tracing the history of a dictionary entry must review the etymologies at existing main entries and
prepare such etymologies as are required for the main entries being added to the new edition. In the course of the
former activity, adjustments must sometimes be made either to incorporate a useful piece of information that has
been previously overlooked or to review the account of the word’s origin in light of new evidence. Such evidence
may be unearthed by the etymologist or may be the product of published research by other scholars. In writing new
etymologies, the etymologist must, of course, be alive to the possible languages from which a new term may have
been created or borrowed, and must be prepared to research and analyze a wide range of documented evidence and
published sources in tracing a word’s history. The etymologist must sift theories, often-conflicting theories of
greater or lesser likelihood, and try to evaluate the evidence conservatively but fairly to arrive at the soundest
possible etymology that the available information permits.

When all attempts to provide a satisfactory etymology have failed, an etymologist may have to declare that a word’s
origin is unknown. The label «origin unknown» in an etymology seldom means that the etymologist is unaware of various
speculations about the origin of a term, but instead usually means that no single theory conceived by the etymologist
or proposed by others is well enough backed by evidence to include in a serious work of reference, even when qualified
by «probably» or «perhaps.»

Источник

Библиографическое описание:

Жумакулова, Ш. К. The etymology concept in linguistics / Ш. К. Жумакулова. — Текст : непосредственный // Молодой ученый. — 2020. — № 51 (341). — С. 56-57. — URL: https://moluch.ru/archive/341/76828/ (дата обращения: 15.04.2023).

This article discusses the etymology of linguistics. Along with the department of etymology, special attention is paid to the concept of etymology, the history of the origin of words, their original meaning and significance.

Keywords:

etymology, etymon, etymological analysis, diachronic, synchronous.

In linguistics etymology is the study of the origin of a word and is based on the laws of historical changes in word structure and its meanings, sound changes, and morphological changes in words.

Etymology is one of the oldest branches of linguistics and deals with the history of the origin of words, as well as the meanings of words learned from artificial, compound and foreign languages. Etymology takes into account both aspects of a word, its form and meaning. Etymology is the study of the origin of words. The word is a combination of the Greek etymology, etymon — «truth» and logos — «word». [3]

According to encyclopedic dictionaries, etymology originated in ancient Greece in Plato’s Cratilus, where the term «etymology» was coined in connection with the Stoics. [2]

According to Karpenko, V. A. Zvegintsev defined the history of the science of etymology, returning to Plato’s Cratilus, arguing that the «natural» or conditional nature of words and the dispute over their observance were primarily true, i.e. the point of view that reflects the essence of what they mean, the Stoics put forward a new task before the ancient linguistics — the discovery of the true essence or nature of words. Thus, etymology implied that a new linguistic discipline, or the science of the true meaning of a word, was encouraged for its birth. [4]

Etymology is a very ancient branch of linguistics, and BC philosophers and philologists also studied the early history of the origin of words. The term «etymology» is probably associated with the names of the ancient Roman scholars Chrysippus and Varron. The true and original meanings and forms of words are determined by comparing them with words in other languages and dialects that have the same root as the history of the language. [1] It explores the previous meanings and forms of words.

According to I. A. Buduen de Courtenay, etymology is defined as a science that deals with historical relations in terms of the structure of words and their essential parts. The scholar argues that the application of the concept of chronological sequence to individual parts of the grammar of any language should take into account the history of the language when comparing the state of a single material in different periods.

O. N. Trubachev explains that the etymology of almost every word is related to comparative grammar, and that this relationship is almost always complex and multifaceted, as etymology is a set of actions based on a set of data derived from comparative grammar. The etymology is provided by comparative grammar, and it can still add clarity and add much. Each etymology works with comparative phonetics, morphology, and word formation facts.

A. S. Karimov calls etymology the «biography» of words, the study of the history of their origin. [5] The true and original meanings and forms of words are determined by comparing them with words in other languages and dialects that have the same root. In this case, the previous meanings and forms of words are studied in depth.

The term «etymology» is used in linguistics in two senses: lexicology, the study of the history of the origin of words in a particular language, and the first meaning and form of the word.

It is easy to identify the origin of new words, but it is much harder to know when an old word appeared and from which language or dialect it was derived. In determining the origin of a word, the word is compared with the sound structure and meaning of words in related languages.

The subject of etymology as a branch of linguistics is the study of the sources and processes of formation of the vocabulary of a language, including the earliest stages of its existence. [2] Over time, the words of a language change according to certain historical patterns, which obscures the original form of the word. The etymologist must create this form, relying on the materials of the relevant languages, and explain how the word came to be in the modern form.

Historical changes in words often distort the original form and meaning of the word, and the character of the word undermines the underlying motivation, that is, it determines the difficulty of reconstructing the relationship between the original form and the meaning of the word.

The purpose of the etymological analysis of a word is to determine when, in what language, on the basis of which word formation model, on the basis of which linguistic material, in what form and in what sense the word appeared, as well as on its initial form and meaning determines what historical changes have defined the present form and meaning. Reconstruction of the original form and meaning of the word is actually the subject of etymological analysis.

Etymological analysis allows the speaker to restore the meaning of a word that was previously unknown to him, reveals its origin, allows to restore the origin of words in a foreign language. History from any moment of life helps maintain the account. The history of language as a scientific history is the study of the history of social thought without a general basis for the history of discipline, material and spiritual culture, and, above all, the imagination.

Linguist V. I. Abaev described the main functions of scientific etymological analysis as follows:

− to compare the basic, non-derivative words of a given language with the words of these opposite languages and to study the history of the form and meaning of the word according to the main language;

− to designate for Latin words within a given language and their components (roots, stems, affixes) in the language parts;

− to determine the source of borrowing for borrowed words.

The etymology of linguistics is very complex and requires a lot of time and patience. Historically, we have to admit that there is a connection between words and things from a diachronic point of view. But their history is so deep that the ability to identify all of them is practically impossible. The main reason for this conclusion is that just as everything in the world is changing and evolving, as well as words. With this in mind, it is concluded that there is no connection between words and things, given the current state of language development, that is, from a synchronic point of view.

As can be seen from the above, etymology is closely related to areas of linguistics such as lexicology. But for an etymologist to be successful, he must have in-depth knowledge in almost all areas of linguistics. He must compare the data of different languages, both modern and ancient, with his own methods in comparative historical linguistics.

References:

Abduazizov A. A. Tilshunoslik nazariyasiga kirish. — Sharq, Toshkent — 2010. — 81p.
Варбот Ж. Ж. Этимология. Большая российская энциклопедия. Том 35. Москва, 2017. — 489–490с.
Irisqulov M. T. Tilshunoslikka kirish. Yangi asr avlodi., 2009. — 96–101p.
Карпенко У. А. Трансляция смысла и трансформация значений первокорня: монография. — Киев: Освита Украины, 2013. — 496 с.
Karimov S. A. Tilshunoslik nazariyasi. Samarqand — 2012. — 21p.

Основные термины (генерируются автоматически): инструмент, ГОСТ, информация, режущий инструмент, система кодирования, автоматизированное производство, вспомогательный инструмент, инструментальный блок, код, маркировка.

Источник

Recommended Literature

1. The morphological structure of a word.

Recommended textbook solutions

Technical Writing for Success

Edge Reading, Writing and Language: Level C

Literature and Composition: Reading, Writing,Thinking

Technical Writing for Success

Where do new words come from? How do you figure out their histories?

How New Words are Formed

Borrowing

Shortening or Clipping

Functional Shift

Back-formation

Blends

Acronymic Formations

Transfer of Personal or Place Names

Imitation of Sounds

Folk Etymology

Combining Word Elements

Literary and Creative Coinages

Библиографическое описание: