Word form is the process of changing

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For the geological formation, see Word Formation. For the study of the origin and historical development of words, see Etymology.

In linguistics, word formation is an ambiguous term^[1] that can refer to either:

• the processes through which words can change^[2] (i.e. morphology), or
• the creation of new lexemes in a particular language

Morphological[edit]

A common method of word formation is the attachment of inflectional or derivational affixes.

Derivation[edit]

Examples include:

• the words governor, government, governable, misgovern, ex-governor, and ungovernable are all derived from the base word (to) govern^[3]

Inflection[edit]

Inflection is modifying a word for the purpose of fitting it into the grammatical structure of a sentence.^[4] For example:

• manages and managed are inflected from the base word (to) manage^[1]
• worked is inflected from the verb (to) work
• talks, talked, and talking are inflected from the base (to) talk^[3]

Nonmorphological[edit]

Abbreviation[edit]

Examples includes:

• etc. from et caetera

Acronyms & Initialisms[edit]

An acronym is a word formed from the first letters of other words.^[5] For example:

• NASA is the acronym for National Aeronautics and Space Administration
• IJAL (pronounced /aidʒæl/) is the acronym for International Journal of American Linguistics

Acronyms are usually written entirely in capital letters, though some words originating as acronyms, like radar, are now treated as common nouns.^[6]

Initialisms are similar to acronyms, but where the letters are pronounced as a series of letters. For example:

• ATM for Automated Teller Machine
• SIA for Singapore International Airlines^[1]

Back-formation[edit]

In linguistics, back-formation is the process of forming a new word by removing actual affixes, or parts of the word that is re-analyzed as an affix, from other words to create a base.^[3] Examples include:

• the verb headhunt is a back-formation of headhunter
• the verb edit is formed from the noun editor^[3]
• the word televise is a back-formation of television

The process is motivated by analogy: edit is to editor as act is to actor. This process leads to a lot of denominal verbs.

The productivity of back-formation is limited, with the most productive forms of back-formation being hypocoristics.^[3]

Blending[edit]

A lexical blend is a complex word typically made of two word fragments. For example:

• smog is a blend of smoke and fog
• brunch is a blend of breakfast and lunch.^[5]
• stagflation is a blend of stagnation and inflation^[1]
• chunnel is a blend of channel and tunnel,^[1] referring to the Channel Tunnel

Although blending is listed under the Nonmorphological heading, there are debates as to how far blending is a matter of morphology.^[1]

Compounding[edit]

Compounding is the processing of combining two bases, where each base may be a fully-fledged word. For example:

• desktop is formed by combining desk and top
• railway is formed by combining rail and way
• firefighter is formed by combining fire and fighter^[3]

Compounding is a topic relevant to syntax, semantics, and morphology.^[2]

Word formation vs. Semantic change[edit]

There are processes for forming new dictionary items which are not considered under the umbrella of word formation.^[1] One specific example is semantic change, which is a change in a single word’s meaning. The boundary between word formation and semantic change can be difficult to define as a new use of an old word can be seen as a new word derived from an old one and identical to it in form.

References[edit]

See also[edit]

• Neologism

Definition

Word Formation Process (also called Morphological Process) is a means by which new words are produced either by modification of existing words or by complete innovation, which in turn become a part of the language.

Types of Word Formation Processes

Different types of word formation processes are employed to create new words. However, all word formation processes basically bring either inflectional or derivational changes. Therefore, inflection (also called inflexion) and derivation are the two core processes of word formation. Inflection differs from derivation to the following extent:

The major word formation processes include but are not limited to the following:

Affixation

It is a word formation process wherein an affix is attached to a root (also called stem; base) to form a new word. A root is a free morpheme (also called unbound morpheme) that can appear alone. On the other hand, an Affix is a bound morpheme which never occurs by itself, but is always attached to some free morpheme and can be either inflectional or derivational. An Inflectional affix modifies the form/grammatical category of a word, i.e., tense, person, number, gender, case, etc. For example: rat → rats. Contrariwise, a derivational affix modifies the parts of speech of the root, while leaving the grammatical category unchanged. In this way, there is a change of meaning of the root. For example: write → writer.

In English there are two types of affixations:

1. Prefixation: In this morphological process words are formed by adding an affix to the front of a root. The type of affix used in this process is referred to as prefix. For example: un + tidy → untidy
2. Suffixation: In this morphological process words are formed by adding an affix to the end of a root. The type of affix used in this process is referred to as suffix. For example: fear + less → fearless

Conversion

This refers to the change of function or parts of speech of a word without adding an affix. Conversion is also called zero derivation or null derivation since the functional change is brought about by supplementing an invisible affix. Sometimes it is also called functional shift. Typically conversion is made from “noun to verb” and from “verb to noun”. Less frequently, conversion is also done from “adjective to verb” and “adjective to noun”. For instance:

 Noun to Verb:  

• access
• email
• film
• name
• shape

Verb to Noun:

• attack
• alert
• hope
• increase
• visit
• cover

Adjective to Verb:

• brown
• black
• slow

Adjective to Noun:

• crazy
• nasty

Back-formation

Back-formation is a morphological process in which new word is created by extracting affixes from another word. In this way, it is the reverse of affixation, in which affixes are added. Back-formation is also different from clipping since it brings a change in the parts of speech or the word’s meaning. For example: the noun insertion has been back-formed into verb insert by removing the suffix ion.

Clipping

As the name suggests, clipping is the word formation process in which a word is reduced to a shorter form. With a sharp contrast to back-formation, clipping keeps the original word meaning intact. These words are very common in everyday speech. For instance: lab is the clipped form of laboratory. . There are four types of clippings:

1. Back clipping: (also called final clipping; apocope) it involves the truncation of end of a word as in ad from advertisement.
2. Fore-clipping: (also called initial clipping; apheresis) it is the removal of the beginning of a word as in phone from telephone.
3. Middle clipping: (also medial clipping; syncope) it is the extraction of the beginning and end of a word as in flu from influenza.
4. Complex clipping: is removing multiple parts from multiple words as in cablegram from cabletelegram.

Compounding

Also called composition, by this process two or more than two words are combined together to create a single word, having a single idea and function. In English, there are compound nouns, compound adjectives, and compound verbs. Customarily compound words are spelt as a single word, or as two or more hyphenated words, and even as two or more separate words. For example:

• life + style → lifestyle
• mother + in + law → mother-in-law
• shopping + mall → shopping mall

There are no specific rules for hyphenated compounds. Generally, some new and original compound nouns are hyphenated, but the hyphen is ignored when they become more familiar. However, there are some compound adjectives that are always hyphenated. For instance: state-of-the-art. The hyphen is often retained when two vowels come together, such as: Co-operation. Hyphens are often used to tell the ages of people and things, for example: 10-year-old. The general rule is that words are combined with hyphens to avoid confusion.

Borrowing

This refers to the words adopted from other languages. There are two types of borrowings:

1. Loan-word: By this process, a word is borrowed from another language without translating it into the target language. For example: the phrase tour-de-force is borrowed directly from French, which means a masterly or brilliant feat.
2. Loan-translation: Also known as calque, a morphological process wherein a word or phrase from another language is borrowed by literally translating it into the target language. For example: the phrase point of view has been translated into English from the French phrase point de vue.

Coinage

Also called invention, is a morphological process by which new words are invented. Sometimes popular trademark names of various products are adopted by people so extensively that they ultimately become the everyday words of language. For example:

• Heroin
• Aspirin
• Escalator
• Xerox
• Kerosene
• Nylon
• Band-Aid
• Vaseline
• Margarine
• Videotape

Again, some words are being invented due to rapid cultural changes and the spread of information technology, mass media, internet, etc. For example:

• Google
• Blog
• Hotspot
• Netbook
• Tablet
• Tweet
• Emoticon
• Smartphone

Blending

Blending (also called portmanteau) is a morphological process in which the parts of two or more words are combined together to form a new word. Usually, the parts consist of the beginning of one word and the end of the other word(s). Typically, the meaning of the blended word reverberates with the meanings of the original words. For example:

• breakfast + lunch → brunch
• motor+hotel → motel

However, blending should not be confused with compounding, which combines two words without truncation of parts of the roots of the blended words.

Acronyms

These words are formed with the initial letters or each of the major parts of a word or a longer phrase. With a few exceptions, acronyms are usually capitalized. Some linguists confuse acronyms with initialisms, which are also abbreviations formed in the similar manner as the former. In essence, there is a sharp difference between the two. In language, an acronym is pronounced as a single word rather than just a sequence of individual letters, which is characteristic of initialisms. For example:
Acronyms:

• United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization → UNESCO
• Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation → Laser
• International Criminal Police Organization → Interpol

Initialisms:

• Personal Computer → PC
• Asian Development Bank → ADB
• Liquid Crystal Display → LCD

Reduplication

Reduplication (also called cloning; doubling; duplication; repetition; tautonym) is a word formation process in which a new word is created by repeating all or part of a root or a stem, often with a change of vowel or initial consonant. Reduplication is not a major means of creating lexemes in English, but it is perhaps the most unusual one. Based on their usage, the techniques of reduplication could be classified in the following manner:

1. Repetition without Change: bye-bye, tick-tick
2. Rhyming Reduplication: ding-dong, super-duper, bow-wow
3. Repetition with Change of Vowel: tiptop, chitchat, flip-flop, ping-pong, dilly-dally, wishy-washy
4. Repetition with Change of Initial Consonant: teeny-weeny

References

“English Word Formation Processes.” Really Learn English. 2016. Really-Learn-English.com.

14 July 2016 <http://www.really-learn-english.com/word-formation-processes.html>.

 “Inflection.” Wikipedia. 2016. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. 14 July 2016

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflection>.

“Morphological Derivation.” Wikipedia. 2016. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. 14 July 2016

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphological_derivation>.

Yule, George. The Study of Language. 2^nd ed. Cambridge: CUP, 1996.

“Word Formation.” Wikipedia. 2016. Wikimedia Foundation Inc. 14 July 2016

<https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_formation>.

What is Word Formation?

Word formation process is subject of morphology where we learn how new words are formed. In linguistics, word formation process is the creation of a new word by making changes in existing words or by creating new words. In other words, it refers to the ways in which new words are made on the basis of other words.

Different Forms of Word Formation

Word Formation process is achieved by different ways to create a new word that includes; coinage, compounding, borrowing, blending, acronym, clipping, contraction, backformation, affixation and conversion.

Compounding

Compounding is a type of word formation where we join two words side by side to create a new word. It is very common type of word formation in a language. Some time we write a compound word with a hyphen between two words and some time we keep a space and sometime we write them jointly. All these three forms are common in all languages.

Common examples of word compounding are:

·         Part + time = part-time

·         Book + case = bookcase

·         Low + paid = low-paid

·         Door + knob = doorknob

·         Finger + print = fingerprint

·         Wall + paper = wallpaper

·         Sun + burn = sunburn

·         Text + book = textbook

·         Good + looking = good-looking

·         Ice + cream = Ice-cream

Borrowing

In word formation process, borrowing is the process by which a word from one language is adapted for use in another language. The word that is borrowed is called a borrowing, a loanword, or a borrowed word. It is also known as lexical borrowing. It is the most common source of new words in all languages.

Common Examples of borrowed words in English language are:

·         Dope (Dutch)

·         Croissant (French)

·         Zebra (Bantu)

·         Lilac (Persian)

·         Pretzel (German)

·         Yogurt (Turkish)

·         Piano (Italian)

·         Sofa (Arabic)

·         Tattoo (Tahitian)

·         Tycoon (Japanese)

Blending

Blending is the combination of two separate words to form a single new word. It is different from compounding where we add two words side by side to make a new word but in blending we do not use both words in complete sense but new/derived word has part of both words e.g. word smog and fog are different words and when we blend them to make a new word, we use a part of each word to make a new word that is smog. We took first two letters from first word (sm) from smoke and last two (og) from fog to derive a new word smog.

Some more examples of blending are:

·         Smoke + murk=smurk

·         Smoke + haze= smaze

·         Motel (hotel + motor)

·         Brunch (breakfast + lunch )

·         Infotainment ( information + entertainment)

·         Franglais ( French + English)

·         Spanglish (Spanish + English )

.

Abbreviations

Abbreviation is a process where we create a new word by making a change in lexical form of a word keeping same meaning. There are three main types of abbreviations.

1.    Clipping / Shortening / Truncation

2.    Acronyms / Initialism

3.    Contraction

Clipping / Shortening / Truncation

Clipping is the type of word formation where we use a part of word instead of whole word. This form of word formation is used where there is a long/multi-syllable word and to save time we use a short one instead of that long word e.g. the word advertisement is a long word and we use its short form ad (ads for plural form) instead of whole word.

Here are some examples of clipping:

·         Ad from advertisement

·         Gas from gasoline

·         Exam from examination

·         Cab from cabriolet

·         Fax from facsimile

·         Condo from condominium

·         Fan from fanatic

·         Flu from Influenza

·         Edu from education

·         Gym from gymnasium

·         Lab from laboratory

Acronyms / Initialism

An acronym is a word or name formed as an abbreviation from the initial letters in a phrase or a multi syllable word (as in Benelux). The initials are pronounced as new single words. Commonly derived word are written in upper case e.g. NATO.

Some common examples of acronyms are:

·         CD is acronym of compact disk

·         VCR is acronym of  video cassette recorder

·         NATO is acronym of North Atlantic Treaty Organization

·         NASA is acronym of National Aeronautics and Space Administration

·         ATM is acronym of  Automatic Teller Machine

·         PIN is acronym of Personal Identification Number

Some time the word is written in lower case (Initial letter capital when at start of sentence)

·         Laser is acronym of Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

·         Scuba is acronym of  Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus

·         Radar  is acronym of Radio Detecting And Ranging

Contraction

A contraction is a word formed as an abbreviation from a word. Contractions are abbreviations in which we omit letters from the middle of a word or more than one words.

Some common contractions are below:

·         Dr is from Doctor.

·         St is from Saint.

·         He’s from He is.

·         I’ve is from I have.

Affixation

Affixation is the word formation process where a new word is created by adding suffix or prefix to a root word. The affixation may involve prefixes, suffixes, infixes. In prefixes, we add extra letters before root word e.g. re+right to make a new word rewrite. In suffix, we add some extra letters with a base/root word e.g. read+able. In infixes, the base word is changed in its form e.g. the plural of woman is women that creates new word “women”.

1.    Prefixes: un+ plug = unplug

2.    Suffixes: cut + ie = cutie

3.    Infixes: man + plural = men

Zero-derivation (Conversion)

Zero-derivation, or conversion, is a derivational process that forms new words from existing words. Zero derivation, is a kind of word formation involving the creation of a word from an existing word without any change in form, which is to say, derivation using only zero. Zero-derivation or conversion changes the lexical category of a word without changing its phonological shape. For example, the word ship is a noun and we use it also as a verb. See below sentences to understand it.

1.    Beach hotel has a ship to enjoy honeymoon.

2.    Beach hotel will ship your luggage in two days.

In first sentence, the word ship is a noun and in second sentence the word ship (verb) is derived from the action of ship (noun) that transports luggage, so the word ship (verb) has meaning of transportation.

Backformation

Backformation is the word formation process where a new word is derived by removing what appears to be an affix. When we remove last part of word (that looks like suffix but not a suffix in real) from a word it creates a new word.

Some very familiar words are below:

·         Peddle from peddler

·         Edit from editor

·         Pea from pease

Coinage / Neologism

It is also a process of word formation where new words (either deliberately or accidentally) are invented. This is a very rare process to create new words, but in the media and industry, people and companies try to surpass others with unique words to name their services or products.

Some common examples of coinage are: Kodak, Google, Bing, Nylon etc.

Eponyms

In word formation process, sometime new words are derives by based on the name of a person or a place. Some time these words have attribution to a place and sometime the words are attributes to the things/terms who discover/invent them. For example, the word volt is electric term that is after the name of Italian scientist Alessandro Volta.

Some common examples of eponyms are:

·         Hoover: after the person who marketed it

·         Jeans: after a city of Italy Genoa

·         Spangle: after the person who invented it

·         Watt: after the name of scientist James Watt

·         Fahrenheit:  after the name of German scientist Gabriel Fahrenheit

People in general have no difficulty coping the new words. We can very quickly understand a new word in our language (a neologism) and accept the use of different forms of that new word. This ability must derive in part from the fact that there is a lot of regularity in the word-formation process in our language.

In some aspects the study of the processes whereby new words come into being language like English seems relatively straightforward. This apparent simplicity however masks a number of controversial issues. Despite the disagreement of scholars in the area, there don´t seem to be a regular process involved.

These processes have been at work in the language for some time and many words in daily use today were, at one time, considered barbaric misuses of the language.

What is Coinage?

Coinage is a common process of word-formation in English and it is the invention of totally new terms. The most typical sources are invented trade names for one company´s product which become general terms (without initial capital letters) for any version of that product.

For example: aspirin, nylon, zipper and the more recent examples kleenex, teflon.

This words tend to become everyday words in our language.

What is Borrowing?

Borrowing is one of the most common sources of getting new words in English. That is the taking over of words from other languages. Throughout history the English language has adopted a vast number of loan words from other languages. For example:

• Alcohol (Arabic)
• Boss (Dutch)
• Croissant (French)
• Piano (Italian)
• Pretzel (German)
• Robot (Czech)
• Zebra (Bantu)

Etc…

A special type of borrowing is the loan translation or calque. In this process, there is a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing language. For example: Superman, Loan Translation of Übermensch, German.

What is Compounding?

The combining process of words is technically known as compounding, which is very common in English and German. Obvious English examples would be:

• Bookcase
• Fingerprint
• Sunburn
• Wallpaper
• Textbook
• Wastebasket
• Waterbed

What is Blending?

The combining separate forms to produce a single new term, is also present in the process of blending. Blending, takes only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of the other word.  For instance, if you wish to refer to the combined effects of smoke and fog, there´s the term smog. The recent phenomenon of fund rising on television that feels like a marathon, is typically called a telethon, and if you´re extremely crazy about video, you may be called a videot.

What is Clipping?

Clipping is the process in which the element of reduction which is noticeable in blending is even more apparent. This occurs when a word of more than one syllable is reduced to a shorter form, often in casual speech. For example, the term gasoline is still in use but the term gas, the clipped form is used more frequently. Examples

• Chem.
• Gym
• Math
• Prof
• Typo

What is Backformation?

Backformation is a very specialized type of reduction process. Typically a word of one type, usually noun, is reduced to form another word of a different type, usually verb. A good example of backformation is the process whereby the noun television first came into ude and then the term televise is created form it.

More examples:

• Donation – Donate
• Option – Opt
• Emotion – Emote
• Enthusiasm – Enthuse
• Babysit – Babysitter

What is Conversion?

Conversion is a change in the function of a word, as for example, when a noun comes to be used as a verb without any reduction. Other labels of this very common process are “category change” and “functional shift”. A number of nouns such as paper, butter, bottle, vacation and so on, can via the process of conversion come to be used as verbs as in the following examples:

• My brother is papering my bedroom.
• Did you buttered this toast?
• We bottled the home brew last night.

What is an Acronym?

Some new words known as acronyms are formed with the initial letters of a set of other words. Examples:

• Compact Disk – CD
• Video Cassette Recorder – VCR
• National Aeronautics and Space Administration – NASA
• The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization – UNESCO
• Personal Identification Number –PIN
• Women against rape – WAR

What is Derivation?

Derivation is the most common word formation process and it accomplished by means of a large number of small bits of the English language which are not usually given separate listings in dictionaries. These small bits are called affixes. Examples:

• Unhappy
• Misrepresent
• Prejudge
• Joyful
• Careless
• Happiness

Prefixes and Suffixes

In the preceding group of words, it should be obvious that some affixes have to be added to the beginning of a word. These are called prefixes: unreliable. The other affix forms are called suffixes and are added at the end of the word: foolishness.

Infixes

One of the characteristics of English words is that any modifications to them occur at the beginning or the end; mix can have something added at the beginning re-mix or at the end, mixes, mixer, but never in the middle, called infixes.

Activities – WORDS AND WORD FORMATION PROCESSES

Activity 1

Identify the word formation process involved in the following sentences:

1. My little cousin wants to be a footballer
2. Rebecca parties every weekend
3. I will have a croissant for breakfast.
4. Does somebody know where is my bra?
5. My family is vacationing in New Zealand
6. I will babysit my little sister this weekend
7. Would you give me your blackberry PIN?
8. She seems really unhappy about her parents’ decision.
9. I always have kleenex in my car.

10.  A carjacking was reported this evening.

(To check your answers, please go to home and check the link: Activities Keyword)

*You may require checking other sources

Word formation process

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Abstract

Nowadays,
the terms ‘word formation’ does not have a clear cut, universally
accepted usage. It is sometimes referred to all processes
connected with changing the form of the word by, for example,
affixation, which is a matter of morphology. In its wider sense word formation denotes the processes
of creation of new lexical units. Although it seems that the
difference between morphological change of a word and creation
of a new term is quite easy to perceive, there is sometimes
a dispute as to whether blending is still a morphological
change or making a new word. There are, of course, numerous word formation processes that do not arouse any
controversies and are very similar in the majority of languages.
One of the distinctive properties of human language is creativity,
by which we mean the ability of native speakers of a language
to produce and understand new forms in their language. Even
though creativity is most apparent when it comes to sentence
formation, it is also manifest in our lexical knowledge, where
new words are added to our mental lexicon regularly. In this
paper the most comprehensive expositions of word formation
processes that speakers of a language use regularly (and unconsciously
too) to create new words in their language are presented.

Compounding

Noun+Noun

The most common type of word formation is the combination of two (or more)
nouns in order to form a resulting noun:

Noun + Noun = Noun

Examples: landmine, wallpaper, toothbrush

The first of the two compounds may be descriptive (i.e. tablecloth, a cloth with which to clean [or cloth] tables),
or both compounds may create a whole new meaning altogether
(i.e railroad, which is not a «road» in the typical
sense of the word.) It is also possible to form words whose
components are equally important to or descriptive of its
meaning, for example, a washer-dryer refers to an object combining two functions.

There are, of course, many more different ways how compound nouns can
be related to each other and how their new meanings can best
be explained grammatically. In most cases, however, the nature
of these compounds is self-explanantory, and their meanings
are quite comprehensible even for those who encounter them
for the first time.

Note that compound nouns usually appear as two separate words, only those
more commonly used, those found in every-day language, and
usually compounds with no more than three syllables are found
as one word. Hyphens (-) between the segments of a compound
noun are absolutely exceptional. Examples:

windowsill (the sill attached under a window), shopwindow
(a shop’s window), doorkey (a key for the door), bookpage
(a page in a book), silverspoon (a spoon made of silver),
waterpipe (a pipe that carries water), dockyard (a yard for
docks), fireman (somebody who fights fire), wallpaper («paper»
one glues to walls), Independence Day (anniversary of the
Declaration of Independence), office supply (goods for office
use), water shortage (shortage of water), labour riot (employees
rioting), television set (a set for watching television),
headache (an aching head), snowfall (snow falling), answerphone
(a phone that answers), air-conditioner (a machine conditioning
air), gunfight (a fight carried out with guns)

Verb+Noun

Here verbs describe what is done with an object or what a subject «does»,
in short, a new noun is formed, usually referring to something
concrete, and the verb defines the action related to it:

Verb + Noun = Noun: draw + bridge = drawbridge.

A drawbridge is a bridge that can be inclined in order to allow ships
to pass, or «drawn». Here, the noun is the direct
object.

hitman = a man who carries out «dirty jobs», or,
who «hits». Here, the word as part of speech is
the subject.

Besides that, both segments can be related in other ways, i.e. the noun
may stand for a adverb of place: walkway
= people walk on the walkway.

The usual rules apply to spelling. More examples:

walkway (a way to walk on), divecenter (a place where
one goes diving), runway (a strip of flat land where aircraft
start or land [«run»]), filter-paper (paper used
for filtering liquids or gases), driveway (a road leading
to a garage or a building), payday (the day one receives his
or her salary), paycheck (a check used for the payment of
wages or salaries),

Noun+Adjective

Nouns and adjectives can also be compounded in the opposite order:

Noun + Adjective = Adjective

Camera + shy = camera-shy (Shy in respect
of appearing or speaking before cameras).

In this case, the resultant is an adjective, while the noun explaines
the objective.

Another possibility is that the noun supports the adjective, i.e. as an
intensifier:

dirt-cheap = cheap as dirt; paper-thin
= thin as paper

Those rules do also apply to the linking of nouns and participial adjectives:

English-speaking; soul-destroying; frost-bitten

More common and shorter compounds appear as one word whereas those longer
and less common are linked by a hyphen. More examples of all
subtypes:

waterproof (proof or resistant against water), seaworthy
(a ship withstanding the dangers of the sea), airworthy (an
aircraft safely flyable), blameworthy (a person deserving
blame), bookworthy (something worth being published), trustworthy
(somebody who can be trusted), jet black (deep black), footsore
(having a sore foot), heart-sick (a person suffering from
heart disease), seasick (being sick from the effects of a
stormy sea), home-made (made privately at home), power-mad
(mad about or craving power), colour-blind (unable to discriminate
colours other than black and white and grey),

Other
Compounds

There are various other types of compounds. A selection of which is shown
below.

Adjective+Adjective

bitter-sweet, deaf-mute, aural-oral, Anglo-Saxon

Adjective
+ Participle

far-reaching, far fetched, narrow-minded, single-minded,
high-climbing, low-yielding, red-painted, bare-handed

Prefixes

In contrast to compounding, affixation links so-called prefixes and suffixes,
which are not independent words, to words of all types. The
type of affix determines the effect the affixation will have
on the word. Here, we discuss supportive and opposing prefixes.
They are used to express support for or disapproval of whatever
is expressed by the word they’re attached to.

Supportive
and opposing Prefixes (Prefixes of attitude)

pro = on the side of, supporting: pro-choice, pro-life,
pro-market, pro-libertarian; added to: nouns, adjectives
of denomination.

anti = against, counteracting: anti-missile, anti-social,
antibody, anti-abortion, anti-regulatory; = antagonistic:
anti-hero, antichrist; added to: nouns, adverbs, denominal
adjectives.

counter = in opposition to: to counteract, counter-revolution,
counter-example, counter-espionage, counter-productive;
added to: verbs, abstract nouns, adjectives.

contra = contrasting, against: contraception, contraindicate,
contraflow, contradistinction; added to: abstract nouns,
verbs.

Negative
Prefixes

A rough outline of negative prefixes and their usage is given below.

a = not, lacking in, not affected by, devoid of quality: atheist, amoral (not subject to moral standards), asymmetry, apolitical,
asexual; added to: adjectives, nouns.

dis = not, absolute opposite of what is meant by the second element: disloyal, distrust, disagree, dislike, disfavour, disadvantage;
added to: adjectives, abstract nouns, verbs.

un = not, the opposite of; before words of french origin: in-, il-(before
l), im-(before p), ir-(before r). Note: These are the most
commonly used prefixes of negation. Examples: unfair,
unassuming, unexpected, unproductive, insane, injustice, intolerance,
impatience, imperfect, irregular, illegal, incapable, illogical,
improper, irrelevant; added to: adjectives, participles
(only un-).

non = not, not regarded as: non-stop,
non-interference, non-aggression, non-smoker, non-drip (paint),
non-person, non-event; added to: varios types of words
and expressions, mainly nouns and verbs.

Prefixes
of Place (Locative Prefixes)

Locative prefixes determine the place, or relative place, or (relative)
direction, of action or objects. Also, abstract nouns and
processes or relations are determined in terms of locality.
Perhaps a look at the following will provide a clear picture:

ante = before (locally): antechamber, anteroom;
added to: nouns.

circum = around: circumnavigate, circumlocution,
circumcision; added to: verbs, nouns.

extra = outside, beyond: extramarital, extracurricular,
extrasensory, extra-pay; added to: adjectivs, nouns.

fore = in front, front part of: forefinger, foreskin,
forecourt, forehead; added to: nouns.

in = inside, into: also il-, im-, ir- ingathering,
indoors, in-patient (not impatient); added to: participles,
nouns.

inter = between, in between: interracial, international,
interdisciplinary, interrace; added to: adjectives,
nouns.

intra = inside: intramural, intra-uterine, intravenous;
added to: adjectives.

supra = above: supranational, supramundane;
added to: adjectives.

sur = above: surtax, surcharge, surtitle;
nouns, verbs.

tele = at a distance: telecommunication, television;
added to: nouns, verbs.

trans = across: transatlantic, transnational, transsexual;
added to: adjectives, geographical names.

ultra = beyond, excessively, extremely: ultra-violet,
ultra-sonic, ultra-modest, ultra-thin, ultra-modern, ultra-orthodox;
added to: adjectives.

under = below: underground, undercarriage, underclothes;
added to: nouns; = too little; undercharge,
underpay, undercook, undervalue: added to: verbs; =
subordinate: under-secretary, underclass, underling; added to: nouns.

Additional locative prefixes: Prepositions determining direction, both
locatively and figuratively applied: to bypass, to upgrade,
to downsize, to undergo, to oversee.

Prefixes
of Size, Degree and Status

These prefixes determine mostly nouns, and are self-explanatory to a large
extent:

arch = highest, worst, chief: archbishop, arch-rival,
archangel, archduke, arch-enemy; added to: nouns.

macro = large: macrocosm, macro-economics;
added to: nouns.

micro = small: microtransmitter, micro-computer,
microsurgery, micro-economics; added to: nouns.

mega = very large: megastar, megastore; added
to: nouns.

mini = small: miniseries, minibreak, minicab, miniskirt;
added to: nouns

Prefixes
of Time and Order

These prefixes determine time and order, their meanings and usage are
given below.

ante = before: antenatal, antedate; added
to: adjectives.

ex = former: ex-wife, ex-president; human
nouns.

fore = before: to foresee, to foretell, foregone;
added to: verbs, participles, nouns.

mid = middle: mid-afternoon, midwinter, midnight;
added to: nouns denoting points or periods of time.

neo = new, recent form of, revived: neo-colonialism,
neo-conservative, neo-fascist; added to: abstract nouns,
adjectives.

post = after: post-war, post-modernism, post-structuralist;
added to: nouns denoting time, abstract nouns, adjectives
denoting periods of time.

pre = before, pre-arranged before the time/period of: prepay, pre-existing, predate, preview, preschool, pre-war, pre-marital;
added to: nouns, adjectives.

Prefixes
of Number

Numeral prefixes the amount, quantity, or scope.

mono = single, one: monotheism, monorail, monoplane,
monotonous; added to: nouns, adjectives.

uni = one: unidirectional, unidimensional, unilateral;
added to: adjectives, nouns.

poly = many: polysyllabic, polytheism, polygraph;
added to: adjectives, nouns.

multi = many: multi-faith, multinational, multimillionaire,
multi-racial; added to: nouns, adjectives.

semi = half, partly: semicircle, semi-automatic,
semi-conscious, semi-official; added to: nouns, adjectives.

demi = half, partly: demisemiquaver, demigod;
added to:nouns in most cases.

Class-changing
and converting Prefixes

The prefixes a-, be-, en- and em- have the primary effect to change the
class (or type) of words, or, to convert.

a = added to verbs in order to form predicative adjectives (no synonymical
explaination possible): afloat (A ships
that’s floating is afloat), aloft (An aircraft airborne is
aloft).

be = added to nouns in order to form transitive verbs: to besiege (To surround to force into surrender), to beguile (To charm), to bewitch
(To put a magic spell on); = added to adjectives in order
to form transitive verbs: to becalm
(To calm or to make calm), to belittle (To make something or somebody seem unimportant
or of lesser value), to befoul
(To make foul or dirty; to contaminate); = added to verbs
in order to form transitive verbs, and, at the same time,
as an intensifying force for verbs: to bedazzle (To bring someone into dazzlement), to becry (To bitterly cry about), to
besmear (To make dirty), to bewail
(To mourn, or express sorrow over), to
bespatter (To cover with spots of dirt), to
bespeak (To give evidence of); = added to nouns in
order to form participial adjectives: bespectacled (Wearing spectacles), beribboned
(Wearing ribbons), bewigged (Wearing
a wig), besotted (Hopelessly in love with sb., but only in reference
to men [women are infatuated]).

Recent
Coinages of prefixed words

Here is a both complementary and concluding selection of current word
formations, clarifying the importance of word formations in
today’s English:

anti-choice, bicultural, co-presenter, counter-culture,
deselect, difunctional, disinvest, eco-tourism, Eurosceptic,
ex-directory, gigabyte, hypertext, interface, intra-uterine,
macrobiotic, maxiseries, megastar, microsurgery, minibreak,
multimedia, neo-colonialism, non-proliferation, pan-African,
paramedic, postmodernism, preschooler, proactive, reflag,
retrofire, supergun, ungreen, unisex, up-market

Note that the usual rule of hyphenizing formations of more than three
syllables is not followed in every case; the respective formation
has already become received standard, constituting an independant
word.

Suffixes

Verb Suffixes

Here, suffixes, which fulfill the function of forming verbs from other
word classes, are defined and explained.

-ify = to make, to cause: to simplify, to beautify,
to classify, to personify, to countrify, to ladify, to prettify,
to Frenchify; added to: nouns (i.e. beauty) and adjectives
(i.e. pretty) in order to form (mainly) transitive verbs.

-ize = also -ise = to make, to treat in
the way of: to scandalize, to civilize, to organize, to circularize, to mesmerize,
to Americanize, to familiarize, to legalize, to nationalize,
to soberize, to patronize, to materialize, to popularize,
to prioritize, to privatize; added to: adjectives and
nouns of romanic origin, but also proper names in order to
form mainly transitive verbs. Note that to apologize, to botanize, to sympathize are not word formations
in that respect, because the remaining stem wouldn’t be an
independent English word if «-ize» were taken away.

Adjective
Suffixes

-able (also -ible on words of Latin or French origin) — words ending -able
have to meaning «that can or deserves to be -ed»
(in which «-ed» stands for any past participle);
or, «that is able to do this»; or, “that can be
done with it”: breakable, eatable, exchangeable,
pitiable, readable, reliable, available, objectionable, treasonable,
knowledgeable, agreeable, forgettable, unthinkable, intelligible,
responsible, audible; added to: chiefly verbs of action.
Note that certain combinations like demonstrable (to demonstrate),
separable (to separate) or any one based on verbs ending -ate,
retain only the stem of the base verb instead of the whole
verb. Verbs ending -y change into -i; that, however, does
not affect the choice of -able vs. -ible, which is solely
determined by the verb’s origin. Please beware that these
forms are often used with negative prefixes: unthinkable.
Also, it is possible to make a noun out of such adjectiv:
The reliable (What can be relied
on).

-al (also -ial) — meaning «of the nature of», «belonging
to»: natural, occasional, educational,
coastal, tidal, accidental, managerial, musical, criminal,
editorial, provisional, continental; added to: nouns
in order to form primarily non-comparable adjectives. Note:
continual, corporal, individual, royal
etc. are not word formations in the English sense; however,
they resemble the principles explained above.

-an (also -ian) — meaning «in the tradition of», «coming
from», «of the nature of»: African,
Indian, Elizabethan, Victorian, republican; added to:
chiefly proper names, geographical names, well-know personal
names (Persons defining eras, ideas, or ideologies).

-less = devoid of: careless, harmless, restless,
borderless, merciless; added to: nouns (antonym of
-ful).

-like = of the nature of, behaving like: childlike,
gentlemanlike, godlike; added to: nouns.

-ly = of the nature of, periodic recurrence: cowardly,
kingly, earthly, monthly, daily; added to: nouns, denotions
of time. This is not to be confused with the formation of
adverbs, which happens when -ly is added to an adjective.

-some = productive of: burdensome, fearsome, quarrelsome,
troublesome, tiresome, lonesome; added to: nouns,verbs,adjectives.
It is highly advisable to consult a dictionary before forming
your own combinations.

-ward = in the direction of: upward, eastward, onward,
heavenward, homeward, landward, backward, forward (as
from fore); added to: locative adverbs.

-y = of the nature of: funny, rusty, smelly, sleepy,
choosy, bony, nervy, headachy, second-classy, catchy, sticky
fishy, flimsy (derobitary: fishy character); added
to: every concrete noun, some verbs.

Suffixes
of concrete nouns

Noun suffixes will form nouns from every type of word.

-ant (as well as -ent) = who / that carries out, agentive and instrumental:
informant, claimant, solvent, inhabitant,
disinfectant, servant; added to: verbs. Consult your
dictionary when in doubt.

-er = also -or in words of latin origin: server,
dreamer, cleaner, recorder; added to: verbs. Consult
your dictionary when in doubt. These often denote person following
their profession: baker, bookseller; = device or object fulfilling the task
of: container, locker, boiler, mower;
added to: verbs. = object, agency or means performing the
task of: fixer-upper, do-gooder;
added to: verbal phrases (verb+adverb); = denotion of origin
of persons: Southerner, Londoner;
added to: geographical names.

-ing = agentive: the working (a definite article
is mandatory); added to: verbs; = activity: swimming,
gardening, manufacturing; added to: verbs; = result:
building, clothing, painting; added to: verbs. The result
is either a gerund or a participle, according to the context.

-ee = passive, affected by: employee, interviewee,
teachee, trustee, evacuee; added to: verbs. The resulting
noun must denote a person.

Adverb
Suffixes

Adverb suffixes are, like most of the other ones, class-changing. Note
that some adjectives (like friendly) cannot be converted into
an adverb; when needed to be applied as such, an inserted
paraphrase is neccesary.

-ly = in that way. -ly is the standard way to form adjectives: easy —
easily; important — importantly;
and so on. -ly is added to: adjectives not ending -ly, phrases
(matter-of-factly, full-heartedly, cold-bloodedly). It is
also added to some neologisms: transbroomstickally.
As for the aforesaid: friendly — in a
friendly manner (this applies to all adjectives ending
-ly).

-wise = in terms of …, as far as … is/are concerned: clockwise, notewise, moneywise; added to: nouns.

— ways = in the manner of: sideways, lengthways;
added to: nouns.

Recent
Coinages (Suffixes)

Below is a selection of current word formation using suffixes:

microwaveable, actional, gentrification, yuppiedom, finger-dried,
faxee, leaderene, bagger, bimbette, additive-free, kissogram,
wrinklie, gentrigy, networking, wimpish, ableism, survivalist,
recyclability, confrontive, privatize, ecomanie, user-friendliness,
returnik, retrophilia

Conversion

Conversion is the process or shifting a word into a different word class
without adding an affix (that would usually be called «derivation»).
Next, we’ll discuss how to form nouns denoting actions out
of actional verbs.

Verbs
of action into nouns

The rule: a verb becomes a noun: to swim -> a
swim. Spelling does not change, neither is anything
added.

The verb giving rise to this word formation must denote an action: to
swim, to walk, to run, to read.

The resulting noun denotes a single action, a specific instance («I had a good read«), instead of the action or activity
as such: «I like running»
would be correct, if the activity as such were to be considered.
There are, however, some exceptions (work
= working as such).

Examples:

to go for a walk, a long run, in the long run (long-term),
a good stay, work (denoting the act of working as such), dislike,
doubt, to be in the know (to know; only such use), laugh,
offer, bore (person or thing that bores), rebel, sneak, drink
(what someone drinks), find, reject, cure, polish, wrap, dump
(where something is dumped), haunt, stop

Concrete
Nouns into Verbs

Here, I’ll demonstrate a widely used possibility to employ verbal expressions
instead of nominal ones. Concrete nouns, usually denoting
things, are converted into verbs meaning something related
to the noun, as an action. This definition might sound abstract
and weird, but the following examples will make the point
clear:

The company´s headquarters really dwarf the
other buildings
(to dwarf st. = to make st. look small in comparison). Many
drivers regularly floor the pedal when driving this road
(to floor the pedal = to press it so that it reaches the floor
of a car). The satellite failed to deorbit (to deorbit = to leave its
path round the earth and return). It
is necessary to balance one´s accounts (to balance
= to arrange something [i.e. an account] so that things (expenditures/deposits)
are in balance).

Other examples: to Xerox (to copy), to fax, to phone,
to screen, to water, to fan, to litter, to bridge, to link,
to cap, to bottle, to ID.

All of the resulting verbs are transitive.

Adjectives
into Verbs

It is also possible, to form verbs from adjectives without altering the
word:

The rule: an adjective becomes a verb: faint — to faint
(to become faint), idle — to idle (to become idle), slim —
to slim (to become slim), calm — to calm (to make calm), clean
— to clean (to make clean), smooth — to smooth (to make smooth).

Applications: They consulted a shrink to smooth things
out. While suffering for more than two years, he gradually
slimmed.

Note that participial adjectives (coloured, broken) may not be converted
into verbs in this manner. Rather, you´ll need to reconvert
these participles into verbs: to colour, to break.

Remember that some adjectives change their form in order to become verbs:
low — to lower, wide — to widen, weak
— to weaken, strong — to strengthen, broad — to broaden, smart
— to smarten, easy — to ease.

Other
Wordclasses

There are still some other ways to change word classes without changing
spelling, adding or removing parts:

Adverb into Verb: They tried to out him.

Auxiliary into Noun: That course is a must for someone
like you.

Conjunctions into Nouns: Don’t give me any ifs or
buts.

Adverbs/Prepositions into Nouns: I haven’t yet learned
the ins and outs of the business.

Verb plus Adverb into Noun: I don’t have the know-how.

Participles/Adverbs into Adjectives: The meeting
had quite an up-cheering effect on the trustees. The theory
is that humans, who are after all only jumped-up animals,
…

Conversions into nouns based on various word classes, especially on sentences
and subordinate-clauses: Some local have-nots
complained about being associated with do-no-gooders. The
goings-on in the country made the president-to-be rethink
his taking-care-of-business-approach. An auxiliary army of
notorious do-gooders milled about town, pretending to provide
help-to-help-oneself to the not-so-well-off, or, as they called
them, the less-fortunate. The dowdy and apologetic I’m-a-servant-of-the-proletariat
look has gone for good.

Other Word Formations

Concluding,
here is an offer of complementary word formations that cannot
sensibly be grouped within the context of the previous sections.

Back-formation

Back-formation is the process of deriving words by dropping what is thought
to be a suffix or (occasionally) a prefix. It applies chiefly
to the coining of verbs from nouns.

Examples: abled (disabled), to explete (expletive),
to enthuse (enthusiasm), to liase (liason); to burgle (burglary),
to edit (edition, editor), to peddle (peddler), to scavange
(scavanger), to sculpt (sculptor, sculpture), to swindle (swindler,
the swindle); to air-condition (air-conditioning), to baby-sit
(baby-sitter), to brainstorm (brainstorming), to brainwash
(brainwashing), to browbeat (browbeating), to dry-clean (dry-cleaner),
to house-hunt (house hunter), to sightsee (sightseeing), to
tape-record (tape-recorder); to articulate (articulate (a),
articulation), to assassinate (assassination), to coeducate
(co-education), to demarcate (demarcation), to emote (emotion),
to intuit (intuition), to legislate (legislation), to marinate
(marination), to orate (orination), to vaccinate (vaccination),
to vacation (vacation), to valuate (valuation); to diagnose
(diagnosis), to laze (lazy), to reminisce (reminiscene), to
statistic (statistics), to televise (television).

Clipping

Clipping is a shortening of a word by the omission of one or more syllables.

Examples: bike (bicycle), decaf (decaffeinated coffee),
fan (fanatic), exam (examination), phone (telephone), fax
(facsimile), fridge (refridgerator), hyper (hyperactive),
intercom (intercommunication system), lab (laboratory), medic
(medical student/doctor), memo (memorandum), mike (microphone),
movie (moving picture), photo (photograph), pub (public house),
zoo (zoological gardens), maths (mathematics).

Acronyms

Acronyms are another abreviatory device. The usually resulting word class
is that of a noun: ECU (European Currency
Unit), scuba (self-contained underwater breathing apparatus),
email (electronic mail).

Blends

Blends are also used for abreviatory purposes. Here, two or more complementing
components constitute the basis for the resultant. These components
are omitted of one or more syllables before compounded to
the blend.

Examples: bit binary+digit, camcorder camera+recorder,
contraception contrasting+conception, geep goat+sheep, glitterati
glitter+literaty, modem modular+demodulator, motel motor+hotel,
smog smoke+fog, transistor transfer+resistor.

Miscellaneous

Onomatopoeia — words felt to be suggestive of the sounds they refer to:
bubble, burp, clatter, hiss, mutter,
splash.

Words form proper names: bowdlerize, boycott, breille,
caesarean,lynch,pasteurize, platonic, sadist, sandwich.

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Admire God’s Creations

Word
formation

-Good afternoon, dear colleagues! I’d like to
introduce myself. My name is…….

Today we are going to speak
about different ways of word formation. As you know this part of grammar takes
a great deal to prepare students for the Olympiad.

We are not going to
penetrate  deeply  into the course of
theoretical grammar as we used to while studying at the university but  in any
case we’ll have to revise the material just for ourselves.

What  ways of word formation do you remember? Can you call
them? What is the exact number of them?

Even scientists don’t
know the exact number of them as they call one and the same process differently
but all in all they distinguish the following : 

ü 
affixation

ü 
composition

ü 
conversion

ü 
abbreviation      

ü 
clipping

ü 
acronyms   

ü 
sound-interchange

ü 
sound imitation

ü  ellipsis

ü 
borrowings

I’m sure you 
are accustomed  to all of them. So, let’s do the
first  task.

 Упражнение 1. Now combine the terms with the
definitions.

Answers:

1. Affixation — a basic means of forming
words in English which is divided into suffixation and prefixation.

2.Сomposition  — the
combination of two or more existing words to create a new word.  It is also
called compounding.

3.Conversion — a process of creating a
new word in a different part of speech without adding any derivative elements.

4.Abbreviation — consists
of the initial letters or parts of words.

5.Сlipping  — a process that shortens a word
by deleting one or more syllables.

6. Acronyms  — are formed by taking the
initial letters of the words in a phrase and pronouncing them as a word. NATO [] NASA []

7. Sound-interchange —  is defined as an opposition in which words or word forms are
differentiated due to the alternation in the phonemic composition of the root:
as in food(n) – feed(v), proud (adj) – pride (n)

8.Sound
imitation  — the naming of an action or thing
by a more or less exact reproduction of a sound associated with it ( buzz, moo,
quack-quack).

9. Ellipsis — a way
of word formation consisting in omission of the second element of a word
combination: a documentary ← a documentary film.

10.Borrowings  — the process of taking a word from another
language with little or no translation.

That was just a piece of theory.
Now let’s apply our knowledge in practice.

Упражнение
2.Decide what kind of word formation the underlined words belong to!

1. Can you text
her?  (verb from  noun text, meaning to send a text-message) —conversion
2.Maths is the most difficult subject for me. (mathematics) — clipping

3. The USA  is
a great country. (abbreviation)

4. OK, so the meeting is
on Tuesday. That’s a definite. (noun from adjective)- conversion.

5. I adore pop
music (popular)- clipping

6.If you’re not  careful,
some downloads can damage your computer. (noun from verb
download)- conversion

7.I do my homework
every day —   compound

8. He doesn’t like her  untidy
room. affixation

9. Snegurochka  is
a famous character in Russia — borrowing

10. She is a very beautiful
girl  —  affixation

 Упражнение 3. Gradually we have come to the most difficult part
of word formation. That is using the given word so that it fits lexically and
grammatically.

For some VISITORS (VISIT), the main attraction of Jamaica lies in its
glorious beaches and all the EXCITEMENT (EXCITE) of the nightlife that is
associated with them. And indeed, our first-class hotel is located on its own
AMAZING (AMAZE) beach on the island’s north cost. In terms of ENTERTAINMENT
(ENTERTAIN), the hotel offers the full range of THRILLING (THRILL) watersports
during the day, plus a chance to relax or dance to local music in the evening.

But, ALIKE many tourists, your contact with the real Jamaica will not be
LIMITED (LIMIT) to what you see from the window of the airport bus because we
organise trips into the DRAMATIC (DRAMA) interior of the island. You will be
DRIVEN (DRIVE) by jeep, high up into the Blue Mountains, with their ROMANTIC
(ROMANCE) mists, deep valleys and lush vegetation. Your visit to a small coffee
farm will be UNFORGETTABLE (FORGET) as you guaranteed to discover some of the
world famous coffee.