Word communication in other languages

In the XXI century, intercultural communication is an integral part of any person’s life. This is due to the ongoing processes of globalization of the economic, political and cultural aspects of cooperation. In this regard, the study of the features and factors contributing to effective intercultural communication is a promising and relevant area of scientific research. First of all, it is necessary to ensure effective communication between representatives of different cultures for the general development and promotion of cooperation.

Expansion of the information base of intercultural communication, increase of competence of intercultural communication of the modern manager is a requirement of the epoch. The practice of looking at the experience of other cultures is called «intercultural communication.» Due to the increase in international relations and the interaction of different cultures, their research attracts a lot of attention. The attention to the issue of intercultural communication is growing day by day. National culture, reflections of behavior are expressed through communication. The same verbal and non-verbal symbols of communication more strongly represent the customs, culture, characteristics of the people and the country.

Probably, the date of birth of intercultural communication as an academic discipline should be considered 1954, when E. Hall’s book was published and D. Traggepa «Culture as Communication» («Culture as communication»), in which the authors first proposed for widespread use the term «Intercultural communication», reflecting, in their opinion, a special area human relation. Later, the main provisions and ideas of intercultural communications were more elaborated in the famous work of E. Hall. The Silent Language (1959), where the author showed a close connection between culture and communication. Developing his ideas about the relationship between culture and communication, Hall came to the conclusion that it is necessary to teach intercultural communication. The process of formation of intercultural communication as an academic discipline began in the 1960s, when this subject became taught at a number of US universities.

On the European continent, the formation of the academic discipline «intercultural communication» took place somewhat later than in the United States, and it was caused by other reasons. The creation of the European Union opened the borders for the free movement of people, capital and goods. Practice has set the problem of mutual communication between carriers of different cultures. Against this background, the interest of scientists in the problems of intercultural communication was gradually formed. In domestic science and the education system, the initiators of the study foreign language teachers, who were the first to realize that for effective communication with representatives of in other cultures, knowledge of a foreign language is not enough. Each culture has its own language system, with the help of which it carriers have the ability to communicate with each other. In science, various forms of linguistic communication are called verbal means of communication.

The most famous verbal means of communication is, first of all, human speech. However, human speech is only one of the elements of language, and therefore its functionality is much less than the entire language system as a whole. Language does not exist outside of culture. This is one of the most important components of culture, the form of thinking, the manifestation of specifically human life activity, which itself, in turn, is the real being of the language. Therefore, language and culture are inseparable. The relationship between language and culture is a complex and multifaceted issue. Topics however, their close relationship is obvious. As noted in one of his works S.G. Ter-Minasova, “language is a mirror of culture, it reflects not only the real world surrounding a person, not only the real conditions of his life, but also public self-awareness of the people, their mentality, national character, way of life, traditions, customs, morality, value system, attitude, vision of the world”. Language is not just a tool for reproducing thoughts, it is itself shapes our thoughts. Language does not just represent the world, it builds an ideal world is in our mind, it constructs a second reality. Man sees the world the way he says. Therefore, people speaking different languages see the world differently. Thus, thinking stands between the real world and language, the word reflects not the object itself or the phenomenon of the surrounding world, but how a person sees him through the prism of the picture of the world that exists in his mind and which is defined by his culture. After all, the consciousness of each person is formed both under the influence of his individual experience, and as a result of communication, in during which he learns the experience of previous generations.

A promising direction in the study of intercultural communication in modern society has become the emergence and development of trends aimed at study of the features of verbal etiquette (language tendency) and non-verbal etiquette (cultural and behavioral tendency). Etiquette situations are closely related to everyday communication, which is diverse and can vary widely depending on various factors. Variety of etiquette situations may depend on gender, age, origin, meeting place, time of day and / or year, occupation, social status, etc.

Today, within the framework of the study of intercultural communication, such a term as «global village» (world global village). It was introduced by Marshall McLuhan to describe the prevailing a new communication and later cultural situation. McLuhan describes how the globe «shrank» to the size of a village as a result of the development of electronic means of communication, when it became possible to instantly transfer information from any continent to any part of the world. Today the term “global village” is mainly used as a metaphor to describe Internet and World Wide Web. On the Internet, the physical distance between interlocutors do not play an essential role for communication, they are erased not only space and time, but there is a convergence of cultures, worldviews, traditions and values. Communicating with each other through electronic means of communication, people reason and act in such a way as if they were very close, they would live in «one village». Are they willingly or involuntarily more and more deeply intrude into each other’s lives, reasoning about everything seen and heard. In this context, intercultural verbal communication is an extremely interesting process, although it may be insufficiently studied. In this sense, effective verbal intercultural communication is not an easy and accessible mechanism interaction in intercultural contacts.

To conclude, we would like to mention that it is very important to speak foreign language, especially English language to understand the people of the world. As our president N.A.Nazarbaev integrates triangle of three languages: Kazakh, Russian and English, we can surely say that for bright future of tolerant and peaceful nation Intercultural communication should be under great consideration.



The article is devoted to interlingual verbal lacunarity as a process that not only complicates the interaction between different cultures in the modern world but also provides the enrichment of them through the communication. Here are presented the examples of lacunae in different languages, such as Russian, English, German, Dutch, and Japanese. In this paper, we pay special attention to interlingual lacunae, that makes possible to find similar and different traits in the semantics of different languages. This problem was studied by many scientists: I. A. Sternin, E. M. Vereshchagin, V. G. Kostomarov. In this article, we presented the theoretical aspects of lacunology, the main problems of its study, as well as its manifestation on the examples of verbal vocabulary of different languages obtained in the experiment conducted in the framework of our dissertation research. The practical application of this data could be found in the field of teaching foreign languages and contrasting linguistics.

Keywords: interlingual lacunarity, lacuna, communication, language, culture.

Today, special attention is paid to intercultural communication. In modern conditions, the development of cultural relations takes place in various spheres of human life. Moreover, the social, political and economic changes that have taken place in the world in recent years have led to large-scale migration, resettlement, intermixture and confrontation among peoples. As a result of these processes, more and more people are overcoming cultural barriers that used to divide them. They are forced to get acquainted with foreign cultures, collaborate with them. Therefore, the real interaction of cultures is carried out through contacts between individuals. In fact, they represent the process of intercultural communication. But this process is complicated because of the fact that the language system has a lot of lacunar units, incomprehensible to the interlocutor. The analyzed question received a versatile development in the works of such scientists as G. V. Bykova, S. V. Vlasenko, P. N. Donets, etc.

National and cultural originality of vocabulary can be manifested not only in the presence of a series of specific words, but also in the absence of words for meanings (denotations) expressed in other languages. Such concepts and words expressing them are called ‘lacunae’ and are visible only in the comparison of languages. If we compare languages and cultures of different peoples, we can distinguish elements that coincide and differ. Language is certainly a component of culture. Linguists believe that the concept of non-equivalent vocabulary is a very close concept to the concept of ‘lacuna’, which is the basis of the so-called problem of ‘lacunarity’ in intercultural communication [1].

Lacuna is the absence in one of the languages of the name of a concept. The conditions of socio-political, socio-economic, cultural life of the people, their worldview, psychology, traditions, etc. determine the emergence of concepts that are principally not present in other languages. Accordingly, in other languages there will be no one-word lexical equivalents for their transferring. In linguistics and psycholinguistics, ‘lacunae’ refers to the basic elements of the national specificity of the linguo-cultural community, making it difficult for foreign recipients to understand some fragments of texts. The term ‘lacuna’ was introduced into the Soviet linguistics by Yu.S. Stepanov, who called them ‘gaps’, ‘white spots on the semantic map of the language’. Even though Lacunology studies are more and more recognized and widely implemented in the international literature of intercultural communication, lately many diverse terms are used to characterize the same notion.

National-specific (divergent, divisive) elements in the lexical systems of languages and cultures in the last decade, are described by native and foreign researchers in various aspects through a variety of terms: lacunae (Vinay, Darbelnet, V. L. Muravijev), gap, blank (K. Hale), antiwords, spaces, white spots on the semantic map of the language (Y. S. Stepanov), examples of the untranslatable nature (V. G. Chernov), non-equivalents, lexical null, null lexeme (I. A. Sternin), non-equivalent or background vocabulary (L. Barkhudarov, E. Vereshchagin, V. Kostomarov), dark places in the texts of one language, occasional lacunae (L. Barkhudarov), non-transferable vocabulary, non-adequate vocabulary, ‘words for the national-specific realities’ (A. Fyodorov).

The main method by which it is possible to identify lacunar lexeme is to compare semantically similar units of vocabulary from two different language systems and to understand whether there are equivalents for these units. Lacunae can be found through bilingual dictionaries, and in the process of communicating with a representative of a different culture. During the conversation, the speaker, as often happens, may encounter unfamiliar words or phrases that denote and describe the subject or phenomenon that are present in the language of the interlocutor. All of these methods are somehow related to the contrast. Thus, lacunar lexemes can be detected in a ‘contrasting’ study.

As already mentioned above, in the case when there is no definition for any phenomenon or concept in the analyzed language, we call such ‘gap’ lacuna. We adhere To L. K. Bayramova’s point of view on the importance of distinguishing the concepts of lacuna and lacunar unit. In a number of works on research of lacunae there is no this differentiation, as a result it complicates the analysis. It is important to know on what material there is a study of lacunae. On the material of one language we study intralingual lacunae. When comparing two or more languages, the interlingual lacunae are analyzed. In the absence of a distinction between the terms ‘lacuna’ and ‘lacunar unit’, it is difficult to define an interlingual lacuna.

L. K. Bayramova defines interlingual lacunar unit ‘as such, which in other language is a space, skip, void, i.e. the lacuna is a null correlate of the lacunar unit. Thus, lacunar unit is part of one language (language A), and lacuna belongs to another language (language B). Lacunary units and lacunae are the components of the category of lacunarity’ [2]. So, for example, a common Russian verb, as ‘uspevat’’ has no equivalent in the form of one word in the English language and is often translated by such phrases as ‘to be on time’ or ‘not to be late’ depending on situation of its use. In this case the Russian verb ‘uspevat’’ is lacunar unit and the English absence (gap) of such notion is called lacuna.

Comparing the facts of different languages, it is easy to make sure that often the lexical unit of one language does not find the dictionary equivalent in another. The theory and practice of translation, as well as the methodology of teaching foreign languages, knows many examples when the concept expressed in one language does not have a name in another language. For example, English verb ‘to case’, that can’t be transformed into the Russian language as one-worded equivalent and is translated as phrase ‘klast’ v yashik’; on the other hand, Russian verb ‘dochitat’’ can be transferred into the English language as phrase ‘to read to the end’. Another Russian verb ‘kvasit’’ also can’t be translated as one word equivalent and is transmitted as phrase ‘to prepare products for the future’ in the English language; in its turn English verb ‘to shuck’ is transferred as phrase ‘to remove oysters from the shell’ in the Russian language [3]. Thus, lacuna is a virtual lexical entity, sememe, which does not have a material embodiment in the form of a lexeme, but can manifest itself at the level of syntactic objectification in case of a communicative relevance for the concept.

The living conditions of the people give rise to concepts that are fundamentally absent from native speakers of other languages. Accordingly, in other languages there will be no one-word lexical equivalents for their transferring. There is a good example of lacuna in English and Russian contrasted to the lacunar unit appeared on national specifics of culture in German language. The verb ‘mitdenken’ that, as the Germans themselves say, reflects their state of mind. That is why we can’t find any single-word equivalent neither in the English language nor in Russian one. The meaning of this verb can be transformed into English with the help of such phrases as ‘to participate in the decision-making process’ or ‘to think along’ or sometimes, in order to convey the depth of the meaning, it can be even transferred with the help of long explanation such as ‘To anticipate the actions and needs of the people around you, assist accordingly, and also avoid obstructing them. To act in a way that maximizes the efficiency of everyone’s work all around you.’ As for transmission into the Russian language, it can be done with the help of the next phrases — ‘dumat’ vmeste s kem-libo’, ‘sledovat’ za chodom myslei (sobesednika)’. Here we can say that such concept, which naturally exists in the mindset of German nation, is absent from the mentality of other peoples, i. e. English and Russian.

As the result of this incomplete equivalence of denotative sememes of different languages there is such a phenomenon as lacuna: the absence in one of the comparable languages of the name of a concept present in another language.

There are a lot of examples of lacunae between many other languages, not only between Russian and English. For instance, between the German language, the Russian language and the English language. So, for example, German verb ‘verdursten’ has no equivalent in the form of one word in the Russian language, and its meaning is transmitted with the help of such phrase as ‘umirat’ ot zhazhdy’. The same situation with transmission of the meaning of this verb is in the English language. Here it is translated by such phrase as ‘to die of thirst’. This doesn’t mean that English and Russian culture don’t possess the realia that reflects this notion but it just means that these languages don’t have naming for it, that could be justified by irrelevance. [4] Almost the same situation is with the German verb ‘kaputtverbessern’, the meaning of which can be explained into the English language with the help of such phrase as ‘to try to improve something that was broken without any background knowledge’. Meanwhile literally the adjective ‘kaputt’ means ‘broken’ and the verb ‘verbessern’ means ‘to improve’, so this verb can be translated as ‘to improve smth. broken’, that doesn’t coincide with its true meaning of ‘making the breakage worse while trying to fix it’ and doesn’t reveal the full meaning of the verb. Transmission of the meaning of this German verb into the Russian language is even in the worse state. There is no such word neither in dictionaries nor in Internet translators. The meaning can be transmitted only by double translation from German into English and only then into the Russian language. So that the situation of lacuna will be repeated and the most appropriate equivalent of the meaning of the verb ‘kaputtverbessern’ will be the ‘sdelat’ polomku huzhe, starayas’ ee pochinit’’. Another example of lacuna between the German and the Russian languages, the Russian verb ‘priletat’’. The meaning of it in the German language has no single-word equivalent and is transferred in the form of phrase ‘ange­flogen kommen’.

There is a very interesting example of lacuna in English and Russian in the contrast to the Dutch language. It is the verb ‘uitwaaien’ that is lacunar unit in relation to the English and the Russian languages, where the one-word equivalent for this notion doesn’t exist. The meaning of this verb can be fully transmitted into English by such phrase as ‘to go out for a walk or to the countryside in order to clear one’s mind’. Meanwhile, for example the Grandiloquent dictionary offers for this verb such translation as ‘to walk in a windstorm for no reason or for fun’, while such source as Van Dale Handwoordenboek Nederlands-Engels translates it by phrase ‘to get a breath of (fresh) air’ but both of them as we consider doesn’t fully convey the meaning [5]. As for the transmission of this lacunar unit into the Russian language, it is difficult because the Dutch-Russian Dictionary suggests only such translations as ‘zadut’, razvevat’sya, unosit’ (vetrom), pogasnut’ (ot vetra)’, which obviously don’t reveal the meaning explained above, that is why here again can be applied double translation from Dutch into English and then into the Russian language. Here the literal translation will be ‘poiti gulyat’ ili poechat’ na prirody s cel’yu proyasnit’ razum’. Although this phrase most completely convey the meaning, it can be reduced so that the best variant for transferring the meaning of Dutch verb ‘uitwaaien’ for the Russian language will be the phrase ‘poiti na prirodu, chtoby razveyat’sya’. We are making such suggestion by relying on the fact that according to Ozhegov’s Explanatory Dictionary, the Russian verb ‘razveyat’sya’ has the meaning ‘otvlechsya ot zabot, dum’ and by this verb Russian native speakers may already understand the meaning of clearing one’s mind [6].

There is also a good example of lacuna in the English language in the contrast to the Japanese language. The lacunar unit ‘tsundoku’. This word has its origins in the very beginning of modern Japan, the Meiji era (1868–1912). That is syntactically a Japanese noun but it was formed from two verbs. It literally means ‘reading pile’. In the Japanese language it is written as 積ん読. ‘Tsunde oku’ is written 積んでおく and originally it means ‘to pile something up’. But with time, as it sometimes happens in languages, someone replaced ‘oku’ (おく) in ‘tsunde oku’ with ‘doku’ (読) — that means ‘to read’. Then because the phrase ‘tsunde doku’ is hard to say, the word got the omission of sounds in speech, that is known in phonetics as process of elision, and was formed into the word ‘tsundoku’. It is obvious that there is no one-word equivalent for this notion in the English language. That is why this Japanese lacunar unit presents a lacuna in the English language, the meaning of which can be transferred through the phrase ‘to buy books and let them pile up unread’.

The emergence of these lacunae could be due to the fact that in public practice of the carriers of other languages’ native speakers there are no relevant realities or due to the lack of lexical units in a particular language, denoting the relevant concepts. In all cases (and they are countless) speakers, usually without noticing, deal with the universal phenomenon of lacunarity — the lack of units in the system of language. Differences (mismatches in languages and cultures) are recorded at different levels and described by different authors in different terms. Such terminological discordance indicates, generally, that the issues related to the lacunarity, cause scientific controversy and are still awaiting their resolution.

Lacunae create inconveniences in speech. Not accidentally, the native speakers tend to get rid of the dissected denotation of realities trying to express any ideal content devoid of ‘lexical cover’ with one word. This is a universal phenomenon for all languages.

However, the phenomenon of lacunarity keeps our language ‘alive as life’. As pointed out by E. V. Kuznetsova ‘the gradual archaization of certain parts of the vocabulary organically combines with its constant (nowadays — intense) updating with new words — neologisms. Neologisms usually do not stay on the periphery, but start being widely used since their emergence in most cases, dictated by urgent public needs’ [7].

References:

1. Vinay J. and Darbelnet J. (1995). — Comparative stylistics of French and English. Amsterdam [Netherlands]: J. Benjamins Pub. Co., 1995. — P. 60–63.
2. Байрамова Л. К. Лингвистические лакунарные единицы и лакуны. — Вестник Челябинского государственного университета. — 2011. — № 25. — С.20–25.
3. Быкова Г. В. Внутриязыковая лакунарность в лексической системе русского языка — Типография Благовещенского гос.пед. университета. — 1998.
4. Махонина А. А. К вопросу о классификации межъязыковых лакун // Язык и национальное сознание. Вып. 4. Воронеж: ВГПУ, 2003. — С. 40–45.
5. Hannay M. Van Dale woordenboek Nederlands-Engels. Utrecht/Antwerpen: Van Dale Lexicografie, 1997.
6. Ожегов С. И. Толковый словарь русского языка: Около 100 000 слов, терминов и фразеологических выражений / С. И. Ожегов; Под ред. Л. И. Скворцов. — М.: ОНИКС-ЛИТ, Мир и Образование, 2012. — 1376 c.
7. Кузнецова Н. В. К вопросу о лингвистическом прогнозировании и лингвистических перспективах новой лексики в современном английском языке // Вестник Нижегородского университета им. Н. И. Лобачевского, 2014. — Вып. 2(2), C. 380–383.

• Авторы
• Руководители
• Файлы работы
• Наградные документы

Текст работы размещён без изображений и формул.
Полная версия работы доступна во вкладке «Файлы работы» в формате PDF

International Words in the Russian and English Languages

Introduction

Expanding global contacts and the development of mass media, especially the Internet, result in the considerable growth of international vocabulary. All languages depend for their changes upon the cultural and social matrix in which they operate and various contacts between nations are part of this matrix reflected in vocabulary. International words play an especially prominent part in various terminological systems including the vocabulary of science, industry and art. The etymological sources of this vocabulary reflect the history of world culture.

The research question:to find out the percentage of international words used in the Lifestyle-Politics category via analysis of the news article.

The objectives of this research are:

to identify the difference between internationalisms and cognates

to study the origin of some international words

to design an educational wall poster on the top ten words in the Lifestyle-Politics category.

Topicality of the project

The percentage of internationalisms in the news articles and in the scientific texts is rather high, e.g. according to some linguists, in the Russian vocabulary there are more than 10 per cent of international words. They are the most easily recognizable and perceived when reading these kinds of texts. The study of international words and their origin can be very useful for those who are interested in politics and science.

Definitions

Internationalism – or international word in linguistics is a loanword that occurs in several languages with the same or at least similar meaning and etymology. These words exist in ‘several different languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from the ultimate source’ [http://en.academic.ru/].

Cognate — A word either descended from the same base word of the same ancestor language as the given word, or strongly believed to be a regular reflex of the same reconstructed root of proto-language as the given word [ http://en.wiktionary.org/ ].

Background information

One of the first linguists to pay attention to the existence of some similar words in European languages was Antoine Meillet, a French linguist of the early 20th century, one of the most influential comparative linguists of his time. He steadily emphasized that any attempt to account for linguistic change must recognize that language is a social phenomenon. He supported the use of an international auxiliary language and at the beginning of the 20h century he studied the origin of some international words. A lot of internationalisms were considered to have originated from Latin and Greek.

The cross-linguistic influence was the subject of investigation of Lev Shcherba, a Russian linguist and lexicographer specializing in phonetics and phonology.

Uriel Weinreich, a Polish-American linguist, first noted that learners of second languages consider linguistic forms from their first language equal to forms in the target language. However, the essential inequality of these forms leads to speech which the native speakers of the target language consider unequal.

Einar Haugen, Armin Schwegler, А.А. Bukov, L.A. Tarasova and some other linguists made a contribution to the study of cross-linguistic influence.

The rate of change in technology, political, social and artistic life has been greatly accelerated in the 20th century and so has the rate of growth of international word stock. A few examples of comparatively new words due to the progress of science will suffice to illustrate the importance of international vocabulary: algorithm, antenna, antibiotic, automation, bionics, cybernetics, entropy, gene, genetic code, graph, microelectronics, quant, quasars, pulsars, ribosome, etc.

Nowadays a great number of English words are to be found among the internationalisms e.g. bank, business, consult, design, disk, drive, hit, man, market, media, net, style, test etc. The English vocabulary penetrates into other languages. We find numerous English words in the field of sport: football, out, match, tennis, volley-ball, basketball, cricket, golf, time in different parts of the world.It is due to the prestigious of the English language and its status of a global language.

Internationalisms vs Cognates

In the 1950^th it was decided to differentiate the internationalisms and the cognates. It was stated that the word could be described as international if:

no fewer than three languages use it.

its spelling and pronunciation is completely or partly similar in different languages so that the word is understandable between the different languages.

its meaning is the same in different languages.

So, Internationalism – or international word in linguistics is a loanword that occurs in several languages with the same or at least similar meaning and etymology. These words exist in ‘several different languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from the ultimate source’ [http://en.academic.ru/].

European internationalisms originate primarily from Latin or Greek, but from other languages as well. Many non-European words have also become international, often by the way of one or more European languages.

Internationalisms often spread together with the innovations they designate. Accordingly, there are semantic fields of internationalisms that are dominated by specific languages, e.g. the computing vocabulary which is mainly English with internationalisms such as computer, disk, spam. New inventions, political institutions, food stuffs, leisure activities, science, and technological advances have all generated new lexemes and continue doing it.

Internationalisms are often spread by speakers of one language living in geographical regions where other languages are spoken.

In linguistics, cognates are words that have a common etymological origin. This learned term

derives from the Latin cognatus (blood relative).

Cognates do not need to have the same meaning, which may have changed as the languages developed separately. For example, consider English starve and Dutch sterven or German sterben («to die»); these three words all derive from the same Proto-Germanic root, *sterbaną («die»). English dish and German Tisch («table»), with their flat surfaces, both come from Latin discus, but it would be a mistake to identify their later meanings.

Cognates also do not need to have obviously similar forms: e.g., English father, French père, and Armenian hayr all descend directly from Proto-Indo-European *ph₂tḗr.

So, Cognate — A word either descended from the same base word of the same ancestor language as the given word, or strongly believed to be a regular reflex of the same reconstructed root of proto-language as the given word [ http://en.wiktionary.org/ ].

Analysis of the News Article

The following article is taken from the CNN official site (homepage). The underlined words can be described either as internationalisms or cognates. Some of them are proper names, geographical names or numerals.

Ukraine crisis centerstage as Obama, EU leaders meet in Belgium

By Laura Smith-Spark, CNN

March 26, 2014 — Updated 1243 GMT (2043 HKT)

(CNN)— The rapidly unfolding crisis in Ukraine is set to be the focus of talks between U.S. PresidentBarack Obama and European Union leaders Wednesday in Brussels, Belgium.

Russia’s formal annexation last week of Ukraine’s Crimea region has sparked the biggest East-West confrontation since the end of the Cold War.

Meanwhile, Moscow’s massing of troops near Ukraine’s eastern borders has worried the interim government in Kiev, as well as causing ripples of concern in other former Soviet republics that now belong to the EU and NATO.

Wednesday’s EU-U.S. summit in Brussels comes on the heels of talks on the sidelines of a nuclear security summit in The Hague, the Netherlands.

Obama will also meet with NATO Secretary General Anders Fogh Rasmussen while in Brussels.

Speaking at The Hague on Tuesday, Obama said Russia had a way out of tensions over the crisis: Negotiate with Kiev and be prepared to «act responsibly» and respond to international norms, such as respecting Ukraine’s territorial integrity.

If Russia doesn’t act responsibly, «there will be additional costs» that could hurt the global economy but will affect Russia most of all, Obama said.

The U.S. president said Russia’s annexation of Crimea «is not a done deal» because it’s not internationally recognized.

But he acknowledged that the Russian military controls Crimea, and said the world can make sure, through diplomacy and sanctions, that Russia pays a price.

Ukraine: We need support

Russia insists its actions are legitimate and denies having used its armed forces in Crimea, saying the troops that took control of key installations were local «self-defense» forces.

Russia also insists the government in Kiev is illegitimate because ousted President ViktorYanukovych, a close ally of Moscow’s, was forced out in an armed coup. Yanukovych’s ouster followed months of street protests sparked by his decision to ditch an EU trade deal in favor of closer ties to Russia.

In an interview Tuesday with PBS, acting Prime Minister Arseniy Yatsenyuk said Ukraine is struggling to maintain a fighting capability after it was «deliberately dismantled» under Yanukovych.

«What we need is support from the international community. We need technology and military support to overhaul the Ukrainian military and modernize — to be ready not just to fight, but to be ready to win,» Yatsenyuk said.

With an estimated 30,000 Russian troops now positioned near Ukraine’s eastern border, Yatsenyuk repeated his pledge to defend Ukrainian territory.

His government ceded Crimea without a shot to demonstrate to the world that Russia was the aggressor, he said — but if Moscow moves against another portion of Ukraine, the duty of all Ukrainians is «to protect our country,» he said. «We will fight.»

Moscow tightens grip

The United States and EU are seeking to exert pressure on Russia through a combination of sanctions and diplomatic isolation.

But Moscow has so far doggedly pursued its own course, even as Western leaders have denounced its actions as violations of Ukraine’s sovereignty and a breach of international law.

Amid heightened tensions within Ukraine, the Russian Foreign Ministry on Wednesday accused the Ukrainianborderservice of refusing to let air crew off Aeroflot jets for rest periods after landing in Ukraine. Aeroflot is the Russian national carrier.

This «breaks the international acts in compliance with flight safety requirements,» the ministry said in an online statement.

Meanwhile, Russia is tightening its grip on Crimea.

Crimea belonged to Russia until 1954 when it was given to Ukraine, which was then part of the SovietUnion. The region has a majority ethnic Russian population and other historic ties to Russia.

A large majority of its population voted in favor of joining Russia in a controversial referendum 10 days ago. Russian lawmakers in turn swiftly voted to absorb the Black Sea peninsula, where Russia has a major naval base, into the Russian Federation, and President Vladimir Putin signed the treaty into law.

In another step to cement the process, the vice-speaker of the Crimean parliament, Sergei Tsekov, was made a senator in Russia’s upper house Wednesday, Russia’s state-run ITAR-Tass news agencyreported.

At the same time, Kiev has ordered the withdrawal of Ukrainian armed forces from Crimea, citing Russian threats to the lives of military staff and their families effectively yielding the region to Moscow’s forces. They stormed one of Kiev’s last bases there Monday.

Aleksey Chaly, often referred to as Sevastopol’s new de facto mayor, announced Tuesday the dismissal of all «self-defense» teams, saying the «enemy» was now gone, as no forces loyal to Kiev remain in the city.

«I would like to draw the attention of some commanders of the self-defense units to the fact that the revolution is over,» he said in a video published on YouTube. «This week, federal agencies are being established, and we’re beginning to live by the laws of the Russian Federation.»

The G7 group of leading industrialized countries has condemned both the Crimean vote to secede and Russia’s annexation of Crimea. As a result, Russia has now been excluded from what was the G8.

Total: 859 words

Internationalisms Appendix I

	word	translation	origin	definition
1	aggressor (1)	агрессор, нападающая сторона	from late Latin aggredi — атака	a person or country that attacks another first
2	agency (1)	агентство	from medieval Latin agentia — агентство	a business or organization providing a particular service on behalf of another business, person, or group
3	annexation (3)	аннексия	from Latin annexus – соединение	the action of appropriating something, especially territory
4	action (2)	акция, действие	from Latin actio(n-) — действие	the fact or process of doing something, typically to achieve an aim
5	centre (1)	центр	from Latin centrum, from Greek kentron, центр	the point from which an activity or process is directed, or on which it is focused
6	commander (1)	командир	from Old French comandeor, from late Latin commandare — командир	a person in authority, especially over a body of troops or a military operation
7	combination (1)	комбинация	from late Latin combinatio(n-) – объединение	the process of combiningdifferent parts or qualities or the state of being combined
8	confrontation (1)	конфронтация	from medieval Latin confrontare – сопоставлять, сравнивать	a hostile or argumentative situation or meeting between opposing parties
9	control (2)	контроль	from medieval Latin contrarotulare – копиясвитка	the power to influence or direct people’s behaviour or the course of events
10	crisis (3)	кризис	from ancient Greek κρίσις — решение, поворотный пункт	any event that is expected to lead to an unstable and dangerous situation affecting an individual, group, community, or whole society
11	de facto (2)	фактический, реальный	from Latin, literally ‘of fact’	in fact, whether by right or not
12	demonstrate (1)	демонстрировать	from Latin demonstrat -шоу	clearly show the existence or truth of (something) by giving proof or evidence
13	diplomatic (1)	дипломатический	from Greek diplōma, —atis– официальное письмо, грамота	of or concerning diplomacy
14	effectively (1)	эффективно	from Latin ‘efficere ‘ accomplish	In such a manner as to achieve a desired result
15	federal (1)	федеральный	from Latin foedus — договор	having or relating to a system of government in which several states form a unity but remain independent in internal affairs
16	federation (2)	федерация	from late Latin foederatio(n-), from the verb foederare ‘to ally’, from foedus ‘league’.	a group of states with a central government but independence in internal affairs
17	focus (1)	фокус	from Latin focus – очаг, центр	the centre of interest or activity
18	formal (1)	формальный	from Latin formalis – формальный	done in accordance with convention or etiquette
19	General (1)	генеральный	from Latin generalis – всеобщий	chief or principal
20	global (1)	глобальный	from Latin globus — шар	relating to the whole world; worldwide
21	group (1)	группа	from French groupe, from Italian gruppo — группа	a number of people or things that are located, gathered, or classed together
22	industrialize (1)	индустриализировать	from French industriel — промышленные	develop industries in (a country or region) on a wide scale
23	installation (1)	инсталляция	from medieval Latin installare — устанавливать	The action of installing someone or something, or the state of being installed
24	integrity (1)	интеграция — связанность	from Latin integritas – сохранность, нетронутость	the state of being whole and undivided
25	international (5)	интернациональный	from French inter – между, national — национальный	agreed on by all or many nations
26	interview (1)	интервью	from French entrevue — встреча	a meeting of people face to face, especially for consultation.
27	isolation (1)	изоляция	mid 19th century: from isolate, partly on the pattern of French isolation — изоляция	the process or fact of being apart from others
28	leader (3)	лидер	from English lead – вести за собой	the person who leads or commands a group, organization, or country
29	legitimate (2)	легитимный	from Latin legitimus — законный	conforming to the law or to rules
30	local (1)	локальный	from late Latin localis — местный	relating or restricted to a particular area or one’s neighbourhood.
31	military (4)	милитаристский, военный	from French militaire or Latin militaris — военный	relating to or characteristic of soldiers or armed forces
32	ministry (2)	министерство	from Latin ministerium – служба, должность	a government department headed by a minister
33	modernize (1)	модернизировать	from late Latin modernus — современность	adapt (something) to modern needs or habits, typically by installing modern equipment or adoptingmodern ideas or methods
34	norm (1)	норма	from Latin norma — правило	a standard or pattern, especially of social behavior
35	online (1)			available on or performed using the Internet or other computer network:
36	parliament (1)	парламент	from Old French parlement ‘speaking’, from the verb parler	the highest legislature
37	period (1)	период	via Latin from Greek periodos — период	a length or portion of time
38	President (4)	президент	from Latin praesident – ‘sitting before’ – председательствующий	the elected head of a republican state
39	Prime Minister (1)	премьер-министр	from Latin primus- первый, minister –служитель, соратник	the head of an elected government; the principal minister of a sovereign or state
40	position (1)	позиция, положение	from Old French, from Latin positio -положение	a place where someone or something is located or has been put
41	process (1)	процесс	from Latin processus ‘progression, course’ — прогресс	a series of actions or steps taken in order to achieve a particular end
42	protest (1)	протест	from Latin protestari — утверждение	a statement or action expressing disapproval of or objection to something
43	referendum (1)	референдум	mid 19th century: from Latin, gerund ( ‘referring’) or neuter gerundive ( ‘something to be brought back or referred’) of referre	a general vote by the electorate on a single political question which has been referred to them for a direct decision
44	region (3)	регион	from Latin regio(n-) ‘ – регион	an administrative district of a city or country
45	republic (1)	республика	from Latin respublica, from res – суть+publicus – народ	a state in which supreme power is held by the people and their elected representatives
46	result (1)	результат	from medieval Latin resultare — отражаться	a thing that is caused or produced by something else; a consequence or outcome
47	revolution (1)	революция	from Old French, or from late Latin revolutio(n-) — революция	a forcible overthrow of a government or social order, in favour of a new system
48	sanctions (2)	санкции	from Latin sanctio(n-) — санкция	measures taken by a state to coerce another to conform to an international agreement or norms of conduct, typically in the form of restrictions on trade or official sporting participation
49	Secretary (1)	Секретарь	from late Latin secretarius – пользующийся доверием чиновник	an official in charge of a US government department
50	security (1)	секьюрити	from Latin secures – безопасный, надежный	the safety of a state or organization.
51	senator (1)	сенатор	from Latin senator	a member of a senate
52	Soviet (2)	советский	early 20th century: from Russian совет – орган государственной власти в СССР	of or concerning the former Soviet Union
53	sovereignty (1)	суверенитет	from Old French sovereinete – суверенитет	the authority of a state to govern itself or another state
54	summit (2)	саммит	From Latin summum, neuter of summus – высочайший, главный	a meeting between heads of government
55	technology (1)	технология	from Greek tekhnologia — технология	the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes, especially in industry
56	territory (2)	территория	from Latin territorium – территория, область	of or relating to the ownership of an area of land or sea
57	vice-speaker (1)	вице-спикер	from Old English sprecan	The presiding officer in a legislative assembly, especially the House of Commons
58	video (1)	видео	from Latin videre — видеть	the recording, reproducing, or broadcasting of moving visual images

The number of internationalisms found in the text – 58. Considering that some of them are repeated more often than once, the total number of international words in the text is – 86, i.e. 10 per cent.

Cognates Appendix II

	word	translation	origin	definition
1	absorb (1)	абсорбировать, впитывать, поглощать	from Latin absorbere, from ab- ‘from’ + sorbere ‘suck in’ — впитывать	take control of (a smaller or less powerful entity) and make it a part of a larger one
2	act (1)	акт, соглашение	from Latin actus ‘event, thing done’	a thing done;   a legal document codifying the result of deliberations of a committee or society or legislative body
3	base (2)	база	from Latin basis ‘base, pedestal’	A place used as a centre of operations by the armed forces or others; a headquarters
	border service	пограничная служба		a branch of State Security Service tasked with patrol of the state border
4	border (3)	бордюр, граница	from Old French bordeure — край	a line separating two countries, administrative divisions, or other areas
5	service (1)	сервис	from Latin servitium – рабство	a public department or organization run by the state
6	breach (1)	брешь, нарушение закона	from Old French breche -нарушать	an act of breaking or failing to observe a law, agreement, or code of conduct
7	cement (1)	цементировать, скреплять	from Latin caedere — высекать	to settle or establish firmly
	centerstage	основная позиция, положение		(mainly journalism) a position in which someone or something is attracting a lot of attention
8	stage (1)	стадия, период, этап	based on Latin stare – стоять. Current senses of the verb date from the early 17th century.	a scene of action or forum of debate, especially in a particular political context
9	community (1)	коммуна, сообщество	from Old French comunete — сообщество	the people of a district or country considered collectively, especially in the context of social values and responsibilities; society
10	сontroversial (1)	контроверсивный, спорный, противоречивый	from late Latin controversialis – относящийсякспору	giving rise to public disagreement
11	course (1)	курс	from Latin cursus- курс	the way in which something progresses or develops
12	ethnic (1)	этничский	from Greek ethnos ‘nation’	relating to a population subgroup with a common national or cultural tradition
13	favor (2)	фавор, протекция	from Latin favor — доброжелательность	approval, support, or liking for someone or something:
14	historic (1)	исторический	via Latin from Greek historikos	famous or important in history, or potentially so
15	mayor (1)	мэр	from the Latin adjective major ‘greater’, used as a noun in late Latin.	the head of a town
16	portion (1)	порция	from Old French porcion, from Latin portio — часть	a part of something divided between people
17	publish (1)	публиковать	from Latin publicare ‘make public	print (something) in a book or journal so as to make it generally known
18	report (1)	сообщать	from Latin reportare ‘bring back’	give a spoken or written account of something
19	respect (1)	респект, уважение	From Latin respectus – уважение	avoid harming or interfering with
20	respond (1)	отвечать, респондент –отвечающий	from Latin respondere – отвечать	say something in reply

The number of cognates found in the text – 20. Considering that some of them are repeated more often than once, the total number of cognates in the text is – 24, i.e. about 3 per cent.

The definitions of some Russian words were taken from the following dictionaries:

Словарь иностранных слов.- Комлев Н.Г.,2006.

РЕСПОНДЕНТ- соц. лицо, отвечающее на анкету социологического, демографического или психологического исследования.

САММИТ — полит. встреча, переговоры глав государств; встреча в верхах.

СЕКЬЮРИТИ — государственная безопасность; контрразведка (обычно об англосаксонских странах).

Словарь иностранных слов, вошедших в состав русского языка.- Чудинов А.Н.,1910.

БОРДЮР (франц. bordure, от bord — край). Украшение по краям чего-либо.

Толковый словарь С.И. Ожегова

II. А́КЦИЯ, -и, жен. (книжн.). Действие, предпринимаемое для достижения какой-н. цели. Дипломатическая а. Военная а.

АННЕ́КСИЯ, -и, жен. (книжн.). Насильственное присоединение государства или части его к другому государству.

КОНФРОНТА́ЦИЯ, -и, жен. (книжн.). Противостояние, противоборство. Политическая к.

ЛЕГИТИ́МНЫЙ, -ая, -ое (спец.). Признаваемый законом, соответствующий закону.

ЛОКА́ЛЬНЫЙ, -ая, -ое; -лен, -льна (книжн.). Местный, не выходящий за определённые пределы. Локальная война.

СА́НКЦИЯ, -и, жен. 2. Мера, принимаемая против стороны, нарушившей соглашение, договор, а также вообще та или иная мера воздействия по отношению к правонарушителю (спец.). Уголовные, административные, дисциплинарные санкции.

ФАВО́Р, -а, муж. (устар.). Покровительство, протекция (употр. теперь в нек-рых выражениях). Барский ф. Быть в фаворе у кого-н. (пользоваться чьим-н. покровительством; разг.). Он сейчас не в фаворе (разг.).

Толковый словарь Д.Н.Ушакова

БРЕШЬ, бреши, жен. 2. перен. Ущерб, ничем не возмещенная утрата, недостача (книжн.). Брешь в бюджете.

ИЗОЛЯ́ЦИЯ, изоляции, мн. нет, жен. 2. Состояние по гл. изолироваться; разобщенность с другими, изолированное положение (книжн.). Обвиняемый приговорен к лишению свободы со строгой изоляцией.

РЕСПЕ́КТ и (ирон. шутл.) решпект, респекта, муж. ( (устар.). Уважение, почтение.

СУВЕРЕНИТЕ́Т, суверенитета, мн. нет, муж. (полит.). || Независимость государства в его внутренних делах, право собственного законодательства.

Энциклопедический словарь 2009г.

ИНСТАЛЛЯ́ЦИЯ -и; ж. 2. Установочные работы, монтаж сооружений, проводка осветительной сети, сборка системы кондиционирования воздуха и т. п.

ИНТЕГРА́ЦИЯ [тэ], -и; ж. 1) Понятие, означающее состояние связанности отдельных дифференцированных частей и функций системы, организма в целое, а также процесс, ведущий к такому состоянию.

Proper names Appendix III

	word	translation	definition
1	Aeroflot (2)	Аэрофлот	the largest airline in Russia
2	Aleksey Chaly (2)	Алексей Чалый
3	Anders Fogh Rasmussen (3)	Андерс Фог Расмуссен
4	Arseniy Yatsenyuk (4)	Арсений Яценюк
5	Barack Obama (6)	Барак Обама
6	Belgium (2)	Бельгия
7	Brussels (3)	Брюссель	the capital and largest city of Belgium and the de facto capital of the European Union
8	Crimea (11)	Крым	the peninsula on the northern coast of the Black Sea that is almost completely surrounded by water
9	European Union, EU (8)	ЕС, Европейский союз	a politico-economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe
10	G7 (1)	Большая Семерка	the Group of 7 (G7) is a group consisting of the finance ministers and central bank governors of seven major advanced economies
11	G8 (1)	Большая Восьмерка
12	ITAR-TASS (1)	ИТАР-ТАСС	Russian News Agency
13	Kiev (6)	Киев	the capital of Ukraine
14	Moscow (6)	Москва	the capital of Russia
15	NATO (2)	НАТО	North Atlantic Treaty Organization
16	PBS (1)	Служба общественного вещания	Public Broadcasting Service
17	Russia (29)	Россия
18	Sevastopol (1)	Севастополь	a federal city within the Crimean Federal District
19	The Hague (2)	Гаага	one of the major cities hosting the United Nation
20	the Netherlands (1)	Нидерланды
21	Sergei Tsekov (2)	Сергей Чехов
22	Viktor Yanukovych (4)	Виктор Янукович
23	Vladimir Putin (2)	Владимир Путин
24	Ukraine (13)	Украина
25	U.S. (3)	США
26	YouTube (2)		a video-sharing website headquartered in San Bruno, California

The number of proper names found in the text – 26. Considering that some of them are repeated more often than once, the total number of proper names in the text is – 117, i.e. about 13 per cent.

Lexical Analysis of the News Article

All in all, in the presented article there are 227 words (26 per cent), which can be understood by speakers of different European languages. Taking the definite articles the (57 in the news article) into consideration, the number of easily understood words amounts to 33 per cent. This fact highlights how languages and societies are becoming ever more interwoven because of globalization.

The Origin of Internationalisms

Analysis of the data in appendix I demonstrates that most international words originated from Latin (38 out of 58, that is 65 per cent). The other international words originated from Old French – 11 words out of 58, that is 19 per cent; from Ancient Greek – 5 words out of 58, that is – 9 per cent; from English – 3 words out of 58, that is 5 per cent; from Russian – 1 word out of 58, that is 2 per cent.

Top Ten International Words in the Lifestyle-Politics Category

English	Russian	French	definition
annexation	аннексия	annexion	the action of appropriating something, especially territory
confrontation	конфронтация	confrontation	a hostile or argumentative situation or meeting between opposing parties
integrity	интеграция	intégrité	the state of being whole and undivided
international	интернациональный	international	agreed on by all or many nations
isolation	изоляция	isolation f; isolement m	the process or fact of being apart from others
protest	протест	protêt	a statement or action expressing disapproval of or objection to something
referendum	референдум	referendum	a general vote by the electorate on a single political question which has been referred to them for a direct decision
sanction	санкция	sanction	measures taken by a state to coerce another to conform to an international agreement or norms of conduct, typically in the form of restrictions on trade
sovereignty	суверенитет	souveraineté	the authority of a state to govern itself or another state
Soviet	советский	soviétique	of or concerning the former Soviet Union

Conclusion

This research work reveals that the share of international words in the Lifestyle-Politics category is considerable and amounts to 10 per cent. Most of these words originated from Latin. But with the development of communication and contacts the number of Internationalisms taken from other languages is growing.

Languages are the essential medium in which the ability to communicate across culture develops. Knowledge of one or several languages enables us to perceive new horizons, to think globally, and to increase our understanding of ourselves and of our neighbors. Languages are, then, the very lifeline of globalization: without language (or communication), there would be no globalization; and vice versa, without globalization, there would be no world languages (e.g. English, Chinese, French, Spanish, and so on).

The global language system is very much interconnected. And the existence of international words proves it.

References

Schwegler Armin Language and Globalization. University of California, Irvine, 2006

Быков А.А. Анатомия терминов 400 словообразовательных элементов из латыни и греческого. Словообразование и заимствование. http://coollib.net/b/103116/read

Тарасова Л.А. Интернациональная лексика как частный случай заимствований. http://www.rusnauka.com/23_SND_2008/Philologia/26333.doc.htm

Словарь иностранных слов.- Комлев Н.Г.,2006

Словарь иностранных слов, вошедших в состав русского языка.- Чудинов А.Н.,1910.

Толковый словарь С.И. Ожегова

Толковый словарь Д.Н. Ушакова

Энциклопедический словарь 2009г.

http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/

http://lingvo.mail.ru/

http://useful_english.enacademic.com

http://www.globalization101.org/uploads/File/Syllabus-Lang-Globalization.pdf

15

Просмотров работы: 1898