Word combinations in Modern English Lexicology of the English language
�A Word combination (phrase ) is a non-predicative unit of speech which is, semantically, both global and articulated. 1. Word combination
�In grammar, it is seen as a group of words that functions as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence. It is an intermediate unit between a word and a sentence. �The main function of a word combination is polinomination (it describes an object, phenomenon or action and its attributes and properties at the same time). 2.
� There are two types of word combinations (also known as set-expressions, set-phrases, fixed word-groups, etc): � Free word combinations in which each component may enter different combinations � Set (phraseological) combinations consist of elements which are used only in combination with one another 3.
�Differences between free and set word combinations: SEMANTIC CRITERION �The meaning in phraseological units has partially or fully shifted. The words have a transferred (metaphorical or metonymical) meaning. �cf: a wolf in sheep’s clothing – a man in cheap clothing 4.
STRUCTURAL CRITERION. � Phraseological units are characterized by stability of components: � It is impossible to change the components of a phraseological unit; e. g. to have a bee in the bonnet (hat) � It is impossible to add new components; � It is impossible to change grammatical form of components, even if their form violates grammar rules: e. g. at (the) first sight, from head to foot (feet), to find faults with � However the degree of stability varies: a skeleton/skeletons in the cupboard, a (big) white elephant. � Other features ensuring stability are rhythm, alliteration, contrast, repetition, simile etc. � e. g. on and on, safe and sound, as busy as a bee � Free 5. word combinations allow any changes.
Classifications of phraseological units � According to thematic (etymological) classification, idioms are classified according to their sources of origin. ◦ E. g. Word-groups associated with the sea and the life of seamen are especially numerous in English vocabulary. Thus there may be singled out a group of “marine” phraseological units. � To be all at sea — to be unable to understand; to be in a state of ignorance or bewilderment about something (e. g. How can I be a judge in a situation in which I am all at sea? I’m afraid I’m all at sea in this problem � To sink or swim — to fail or succeed (e. g. It is a case of sink or swim. All depends on his own effort. ) � In deep water — in trouble or danger. � In low water, on the rocks — in strained financial circumstances. 6.
Semantic classification � describes word combinations from the viewpoint of the shift in meaning of words: � Phraseological fusions (idioms) are most idiomatic, the meaning of both words is fully transferred. � e. g. tit for tat, to skate on thin ice � Phraseological unities are motivated semantically, based on imagination. Usually one of the components has retained its meaning. � e. g. to fall ill, to fall in love, small talk � Phraseological combinations are less idiomatic, most motivated � e. g. as dead as mutton 7.
Structural classification takes into consideration the fact that phraseologisms are, in fact, equivalents of words. Phraseological units can perform the same functions as words. So, set expressions are classified according to their function. � Verbal : to run for one’s life, to get the upper hand � Substantive: dog’s life, red tape � Adjectival: high and mighty, safe and sound � Adverbial: high and low � Equivalents of auxiliary parts of speech: by way of, as long as, Good God! � Stereotyped sentences: take your time! 8.
Stylistic classification �Set expressions, as well as words, may be stylistically neutral and stylistically marked. �e. g. it’s raining cats and dogs (bookish) �to do smb. brown (colloquial) 9.
Notions related to set expressions �A simile is a figure of speech that directly compares two different things, usually by employing the words «like» , «as» , or «than» . �Even though both similes and metaphors are forms of comparison, similes indirectly compare the two ideas and allow them to remain distinct in spite of their similarities, whereas metaphors compare two things directly. �e. g. as alike as two peas in a pod (identical or nearly so) �as blind as a bat (completely blind) 10.
�A cliché is a stereotyped expression mechanically reproduced in speech, very often overused to the point of losing its intended force or novelty. �e. g. Love is blind. ◦ Put two and two together. 11.
�A proverb is a simple and concrete saying popularly known and repeated, which expresses a truth, based on common sense or the practical experience of mankind. They are often metaphorical. A proverb that describes a basic rule of conduct may also be known as a maxim. �If a proverb is distinguished by particularly good phrasing, it may be known as an aphorism. 12.
�A collocation is sequence of words or terms which co-occur more often than would be expected by chance. e. g. �time flies �Times passes �the appointed time �Present time �Right time �Wrong time �Opening time �Closing time 13.
�A phrasal verb is a phrase (as take off or look down on) that combines a verb with a preposition or adverb or both and that functions as a verb whose meaning is different from the combined meanings of the individual words. 14.
Translation Tips � Free word combinations and collocations are usually translated by calque (word-for-word). However, translating attributive word groups is challenging, because one and the same attributive word may be translated differently depending on the meaning of the defined head word. � E. g. public opinion – общественное мнение, jamoatchilik fikri � Public debt – государственный долг, davlat qarzlari � Public scandal – публичный скандал, ommaviy janajal � Sometimes more complicated transformations are needed: � E. g. working expectancy – ожидаемая продолжительность трудовой деятельности, ishchini kutilayotgan ishlash muddati 15.
� Phraseological unities are usually translated by one word or equivalent combinations: � e. g. to take a chance – рисковать, imkoniyat berish � To take offence – обидеться, arazlamoq � To put an end to – положить конец, преодолеть, tugatish � To take into account – принимать во внимание, e’tiborga olish � Phraseological fusions (idioms) are translated by their equivalents or analogues or description. e. g. � whip-and-carrot policy – политика кнута и пряника, qamchi va sabzi siyosati (equivalent) � To beat about the bush – ходить вокруг да около, butani o’rab olish (analogue) � Carbon footprint — негативные экологические последствия какой-либо деятельности, faoliyatni salbiy ekologik natijalari (decription) 16.
Origin of set expressions � One of the words becomes archaic: kith and kin of the meanings of a word becomes archaic: to be in two minds � An expression may pass from professional use into common use: to hit below the belt (from boxing) � Part of a proverb may become isolated: the last straw (that was the last straw which broke the camel’s neck) � Literary sources: a Troyan horse; to be or not to be � Translation borrowings: to kill two birds with one stone (calque translation from French) � 17.
� � � � � What do we call word combinations in which the components retain their main meaning, and can freely enter different combinations? What do we call word combinations in which the components typically have shifted meaning and are not freely chosen? What do we call a figure of speech that directly compares two different things, usually by employing the words «like» , «as» , or «than» ? What do we call a trite or overused phrase or expression? What is a simple and concrete saying popularly known and repeated, which expresses a truth, based on common sense or the practical experience of mankind? What do we call a familiar grouping of words that habitually appear together and thereby convey meaning by association? Which of the following underlined word combinations with the word “stand” is free and which one is fixed? a) The British government would not stand in the way of such a proposal. b) She was standing beside my bed staring down at me. 18. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
� Which of the following word combinations in bold are set phrases? 1) Where do you think you lost your purse? 2) Don’t lose your temper when you talk to her. 3) Have a look at the reverse side of the coat. 4) The reverse side of the medal is that we’ll have to do it ourselves. 5) Keep the butter in the refrigerator. 6) Keep an eye on the child. 19. Case study
� � � 1) lost your purse — it is a free word combination, as it allows any combinations without change of the basic (denotative) meaning of words, e. g. lost you bag, found your purse etc. 2) lose your temper – it is a set (phraseological) word combination, as the meaning of the word ‘lose’ in this combination is not direct but figurative (= to become angry). 3) reverse side of the coat — it is a free word combination, as it allows any combinations without change of the basic (denotative) meaning of words, e. g. reverse side of the dress 4) reverse side of the medal — it is a set (phraseological) word combination, as the meaning of the words in this combination is not direct but figurative (= other side of the matter) 5) Keep the butter — it is a free word combination, as it allows any combinations without change of the basic (denotative) meaning of words, e. g. keep the cheese in the refrigerator etc. 6) Keep an eye — it is a set (phraseological) word combination, as the meaning of the words in this combination is not direct but figurative (= to watch closely or carefully) 20. Key
ONE NINE TWO THREE FOUR(S) FIVE SIX(ES)S EVEN(S) TEN 1) 2) She crawled on all _____ to the window = on her knees, feet and hands. He is at _____ and _____ = He is confused and doesn’t know what to do. 3) He puts _____ and _____ together. = He begins to draw conclusions about something 4) He looks out for number _____ = He only thinks about his interests. 5) «the _____ R’s. » = The basics of education 6) He has a _____ o’clock shadow. = A man hasn’t shaved for a day or two 7) Things that are very cheap and common are _____ a penny. 
This four bedroom home, located in Country Club Estates, is completed and ready to move in. This home has «the whole _____ yards» in convenience. ’ (=all of it) 21. Fill in the blanks with proper numerals to make an idiom with the specified meaning.
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) fours sixes and sevens two and two one three five ten nine 22. Key
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- WORD COMBINATION
Collocability
(lexical
valency)
is the aptness of lingual units to appear in different combinations
when forming lingual units of the upper level. Lexical collocability
is the realization of syntagmatic relations.
Word-combination
is the combination of two or more words, organized according to the
laws of a given language, which represent complex nominations of
various referents.
All word-combinations are
divided into free and bound ones.
Free
word-combinations preserve
the lexical meaning of their notional components:
to
read a book,
a piece of bread,
a piece of chalk.
Set
expression
– the lexical meanings of its components are weak or lost: as hard
as nails,
железная
дорога,
бить
баклуши.
Phraseological
units
are set word-groups with idiomatic or partially idiomatic meaning.
Features
of phraseological units:
1)
structural criterion:
—
structural
invariability
or morphological
stability
means the permanence of lexical composition, no (or few)
substitutions of components are possible:
to bend over backward to do something (*turn over sideward).
The are also strict restrictions on the componential extension and
grammatical changes of components of phraseological units: a
white elephant (*a
big white elephant)
‘an expensive but useless thing’,
from head to foot (*feet);
2) semantic criterion:
—
phraseological units are characterized by semantic
unity,
that means that the meaning in phraseological unit is created by
mutual interaction of elements, i.e.
its meaning cannot be deduced from the meaning of its components,
e.g.
to kick the bucket ‘to
die’,
to
be in deep water
‘in trouble or difficulty’;
— phraseological
meaning conveys
a single concept and this makes phraseological units similar to
words, e.g. in
a brown study ‘gloomy’;
3) syntactic criterion:
— phraseological
units are characterized by syntactic
fixity,
that means that phraseological
units are functionally inseparable and like words they perform one
common syntactic function in the sentence,
for example, the phraseological unit off
the record ‘not
yet official’
functions
as an adverb;
—
phraseological units are characterized by ready
made reproduction;
they
cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready made
units, e.g. red
tape
‘bureaucratic methods’, to
get rid of,
to take place,
to lead
the dance,
to
take care.
Features
of free word-combinations and phraseological units can be seen in
Table 6.
Table 6.
|
Free word |
Phraseological units |
|
to get one’s foot in |
to |
|
1. They are motivated |
1. They are non-motivated |
|
2. |
2. |
|
3. Separateness of |
3. Integrity of nomination, |
|
4. Variability is possible to |
4. Variability is |
|
5.Substitution is possible to |
5. |
|
6. They are made up |
6. They are isolated from |
|
7. They are made up by the |
7. They can be freely made |
Set
non-phraseological units
stand midway between free word combinations and phraseological units,
e.g. strong
sales,
to commit suicide,
good luck,
black coffee.
They
may be characterized in the following way:
1) they are set because they
are not made up in speech but are used as ready made units;
2) they are non-phraseological
because the meaning of the whole can be inferred from the meanings of
its components;
3) they are transitional,
semi-productive.
Set expressions traditionally
make the subject of phraseology.
Phraseology
– is a branch of linguistics studying set-expressions and
collocability of words of the language.
Phraseologisms
are culturally marked, they bear a charge of country-specific
information, that’s why they often make the subject of linguistic
studies of culture.
Phraseological
stock of the language is a valuable source of information about the
culture of its people as phraseologisms always reflect views and
attitudes of the people, social order and ideology of the epoch in an
indirect way. They preserve the history of the people or ethnic
group, their mode of life, morals, myths, customs, rites, rituals,
habits, e.g. Make
hay while the sun shines.
– Готовь
сани
летом,
а телегу
зимой.
The
history of many phraseologisms is an interesting record of the
nation’s past, of its way of life, customs and traditions. Some
phraseological units are connected with commerce, e.g. to
talk shop,
to make the best of the bargain,
to have all one’s goods in the shop window,
a drug on the market,
to
shut up shop.
Many phraseological units are associated with the sea (the waves):
e.g. plain
sailing,
to be
all
at sea,
to touch bottom,
to drop the pilot,
to nail one’s colours to the mast,
to sail under false colours,
the
coast is clear.
Other phraseological units were borrowed from the Bible, e.g. the
root of all evil,
daily bread.
Cognitive
linguistics studies phraseological units to reconstruct concepts,
learn how man’s thought works, how cognition develops, and define
mentality of the given ethnic group. Mentality is a set of
thinking processes, national way of perceiving and understanding
outer reality which includes special world-mapping. Thus, most
proverbs are the stereotypes of the nation consciousness, e.g. Работа
не
волк,
в
лес
не
убежит
VS
Business before pleasure.
And
not all proverbs are studied but only those which are relevant for a
modern
consciousness. Relevance is proofed experimentally. Thus, such
phraseological units as Time
is money,
Don’t put all eggs in one basket,
Never
put off till tomorrow what you can do today,
God helps those who help themselves
are frequent in modern English, and such phraseological
units to
die in harness
‘to die while actively engaged in work or duty’ or to
sow one’s (wild)
oats
‘to indulge in dissipation while young’ are irrelevant,
out-of-date for a modern English speaker.
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The article deals with the word and word combinations in modern english. Today the main goal of teaching and learninig foreign laguages in the global world is developing language learners’ ability to use the target language for communication. The process of teaching English should be based on the communicative — functional approach to teaching languages. The whole process of teaching oral speech should be goal-oriented and systematic. It will make to process of teaching oral speech more effective. Today the main goal of teaching and learning foreign languages in the global world is developing language learners’ ability to use the target language for communication. The article is devoted to the role of language functions in the integration and integrity of the text. The processes of integration in the syntax of the texts of Azerbaijani and English fiction are considered. This problem is relevant for linguistics, since the last decades have been marked by the rapid development of text linguistics, whose task is to examine the text from the point of view of its semantic and ideological and artistic unity, identify the principles of organization and use of text speech means, study the functional and stylistic originality of linguistic phenomena in various texts.
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Wordsmyth’s Word Combinations, technically known as “collocations,” provide what is almost like a thesaurus in another dimension. You will find them in most entries in the Advanced Dictionary. Instead of listing synonyms, that is, words you might use instead of the word you are using, Word Combinations provide words to use with the word you are using. In other words, they help you start building a bigger chunk of a sentence.
Compare the thesaurus’s “similar words” for the verb “laugh”:
cackle, chortle, chuckle, giggle, guffaw, howl, snicker, snigger, tee-hee, titter…
…with the Word Combination adverbs for the verb “laugh”:
The similar words allow you to choose from among words for more specific kinds of laugh: from a quiet titter to a hearty guffaw. The Word Combinations allow you to choose from among adverbs that writers frequently use to modify the verb “laugh.” “Ashley laughed uneasily at the cruel joke,” you might write. Or, “Ashley laughed good-naturedly when her error was pointed out.” (Ashley’s a likable person, evidently.)
Word Combinations are the most frequent companions of the headword in published writing and broadcast speech. Thus, they represent the many ways in which the headword-concept is typically talked about and the words typically used to talk about them.
In the entries, word combinations are organized by part of speech combination. Take, for example, the word “election.” The word combinations for the noun “election” fall into four kinds:
adjective + (n.) election
verb + (n.) election
(n.) election + verb
noun + (n.) election
These formulas show you the kind of word (part of speech) and the position (before or after “election”) in which it appears in the corpus of texts. Notice that “election” has some verbs that appear before it and some that appear after it. Here are the full word combinations entries, with some comments in red:
adjective + (n.)election coming, competitive, congressional, contested, democratic, direct, disputed, fair, federal, forthcoming, fraudulent, free, general, gubernatorial, judicial, legislative, local, mayoral, mid-term, multi-party, multiracial, municipal, nationwide, nonpartisan, off-year, parliamentary, periodic, presidential, primary, provincial, scheduled, statewide, transitional, upcoming
verb + (n.)election boycott, cancel, certify, contest, delay, disrupt, influence, hold, monitor, oversee, overturn, postpone, precede, rig, schedule, steal, supervise (These verbs that frequently have the word “election” as their object will give you a glimpse at all the things we can do to an election. )
(n.)election + verb loom, near
(Which of these two verbs would you choose to talk about a coming election? It really depends how you feel about it.)
noun + (n.)election ballot, boycott, candidate, eve, fall, financing, landslide, legitimacy, midterm, month, outcome, poll, primary, recall, registration, round, run-up, runoff, turnout, vote, voting
If you have read through these words, you may have noticed that some make sense when placed immediately before or after the headword “election”: “a fair election,” “postponed the election,” and “a fall [i.e., autumn] election.” True, you have to insert an article, “the” between “postpone” and “election,” but generally these are recognizable phrases that make sense.
Others, especially in the noun+noun category, don’t seem like a chunk of a sentence: “legitimacy election” and “voting election,” for example. Often a preposition will need to be inserted between the words: “the legitimacy of the election,” “voting in this election” are some possible ways the word combinations will work in these cases.
If you don’t know how to fit the two words together, a Google search on the two words will often return a number of similar examples of how they do.
You can try this little exercise to get a feel for how to fill out a word combination:
Complete these common noun + noun word combinations with the correct prepositions and articles.
1. the eve ____ ____ election
2. the outcome ____ ____ election
3. the turnout ____ ____ election
Word Combinations is a subscription feature, but you can try it by signing up for a 15-day free Trial Subscription, no strings attached. (There is a Trial Subscription button on most pages of the Wordsmyth website.) We also include Word Combinations with many Academic Vocabulary of the Day posts.
Read more about collocations here.