Word combinations in english language

A
word-combination is a compound nominative unit of speech, which is
semantically both global and articulated. There are some differences
in the terminology in the Russian- and the English-speaking
linguistic tradition. In the Russian terminological system the term
словосочетание
is
used
to
denote the unit mentioned above, Englishmen use it to denote any
combination of words, but the usual term, which corresponds to our
approach to словосочетание,
is
collocation.

Word-combinations
— are the «building material» for syntax. Syntax as a
science of ordered speech deals with two basic problems:

the
first one -> what are those ultimate units that constitute
speech,

the
second one -> how these units are organized in actual speech.

To
understand the division of the sentence into the parts, it is
important to first see the syntagmatic relationships between the
elements. Word-combination is a unit of both, syntagmatics and
syntax.

Thus,
the interdependence between the syntactic and the syntagmatic
analysis is the main stumbling block for understanding. To fully
convey the purport of an utterance, it is necessary to penetrate into
the lexical-phraseological connections between the ultimate
meaningful units of the language.

The
difference between the syntagmatic and the syntactic analysis of
speech may be explained by means of the following example:

Simon
had become to look for himself at the family foto.

If
one analyses this sentence syntagmatically, it is clear that here to
become to look for oneself and
family
foto —
are word-combinations, functionally, they are equivalent to a word.
From the point of view of syntax, had
become is
a predicate, to
look for —
an adverb, foto
— an
object, family
— an
attribute.

The
unity of colligation and collocation which is so important for
syntactic study in general, has no less importance for the study of
word-combinations.

Syntactic
relationships may restrict the collocability of one word with
another. Thus, the word much
may
be used before prefer
in
a sentence like In
international political arena Mr. Bush much prefer the position of
power. But
it is a mistake if the word much
is
used at the end of the sentence. Colligation and collocation may put
intralinguistic restriction upon the freedom with which the speaker
chooses the combination of words. First of all, a speaker while
bringing words together should follow some grammatical rules. At the
same time the process of combining words is restricted by the
lexical-phraseological valences of the words.

The
difference between a word-combination and a combination of words is
the following: a combination of words presupposes the possibility of
combining words together in the process of speech production; f
word-combination should be regarded as a free equivalent of a
phraseological unit.

The
«building material» for the construction of sentences
consists of

1)
word,

2)
phraseological unit,

3)
word-combination.

Thus,
to
pay a call is
a phraseological unit, which is equivalent to the word to
visit. To go to see is
a word-combination, which is a free equivalent of the phraseological
unit and of the word to
visit.

There
are some types of word-combinations in the English language:

nominal
word-combinations:
adjective
+ noun: pretty
woman;

noun
+ preposition + noun: brick
at the top;

noun
+ preposition + adjective + noun: a
man with small nose;

noun
+ preposition + verbal -ing:
difficulty
in understanding;

noun
+ infinitive: a
book to read;

verbal
word-combinations:
verb
+ noun: to
give a speech;
verb
+ infinitive: to
forget to post;
verb
+ verbal -ing:
to
stop doing;

verb
+ preposition + verbal -ing:
to
insist on going;

adverb
+ verb: completely
forgot;

verb
+ adverb: to
forget completely;

adjectival
word-combinations:
adjective
+ infinitive: nice
to meet;
adjective
+ preposition + noun: full
of water;
adjective
+ preposition + verbal -ing:
fond
of reading.

All
the above-mentioned word-combinations function as global wholes, as
«the prefabricated units» in speech. The syntactic bond
that connects the elements of word-combinations is very tight,
usually it is the attributive bond or the closest types of the
completive bond. A very important parameter in the study of the
expression plane of word-combinations is prosody.

There
exist different methods of study of word-combinations, but bearing in
mind the idea of the unity of collocation and colligation, the
categorial method seems to be most fruitful. This method is based on
the opposition of the marked and unmarked element of the category.

There
exist five categories of word-combinations in English:

1) The
category of connotativeness.

The
opposition here is connotative word-combinations vs non-connotative
word-combinations. Connotative word-combinations fulfil the function
of impact, they possess expressive-emotional-evaluative connotations.
Non-connotative word-combinations are neutral, they fulfil the
function of message. Thus, in the sentence In
her tone, she made the understanding clear —
they
were of the same kind, he and she, a sort of diabolic free-masonry
subsisted between them the
word-combination diabolic
free-masonry is
connotative, while in the sentence He
speaks English fluently the
word-combination to
speak fluently is
non-connotative.

There
are two main parameters which help to understand the real meaning of
word-combinations — context and prosody. Thus, a word-combination
may be quite neutral, taken in isolation, for example, to
break the vessel. But
within a context it becomes connotative: He
knew how near to breaking was the vessel that held his life.
In connection with the category of connotativeness it is important to
note that connotations may be inherent.

In
oral speech, connotative word-combinations are usually determined by
prosody.

1. The
   category of reproducibility.
   (this category is also called the category of «clicheed
   expressions»)

The
opposition here is clicheed vs non-clicheed word-combinations or
usual vs occasional word-combinations. In ordinary speech people
hardly ever coin word-combinations of their own, usually they use the
already existing ones. For example, in the sentence: My
favourite book was written by the famous writer, the
word-combinations favourite
book and famous writer are
quite usual word-combinations for our speech.

As
for the non-clicheed word-combinations — they should be created
anew or for the nonce, usually they are not reproducible. For
example, in the sentence Nurse
placed her in my lap, a squiggling bundle of life the
word-combination a
squiggling bundle of life is
a creation of the writer of the book. This kind of word-combinations
is usually very connotative.

Word-combinations
that belong to this category are characterised by the non-idiomatic
globality. These word-combinations may be segmented into separate
words, but depending on the reproducibility they tend to fuse into a
global concept.

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This article returns to the area of multi-word expressions. To achieve a level 7 or above grade, you need to show a familiarity with the different ways that words can be combined. Specifically, the IELTS descriptor for level 7 ‘ Lexical Resource’ states that a student at this level should be able to ‘use less common lexical items with some awareness of style and collocation’.

As well as noticing noun, verb and adjective combinations, you should also build up your knowledge of prepositional phrases and fixed expressions.

The following exercises will help you to assess the level of your own knowledge regarding word combinations and help you decide how much extra work you need to do in this area.

Noun Combinations

Nouns often combine with specific verbs or adjectives.

Exercise 1

Complete the following sentences by adding the appropriate adjective or verb with a  noun from the columns below. They are all sentences that could be used in the following task 2 essay.

Motorways help people to travel quickly and cover long distances but they also cause problems. What are the problems of motorways and hat solutions are there?

Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own knowledge or experience.

1. Motorways also have …… ……. such as speeding, damage to the environment and pollution.

2. Accidents due to tiredness are a fairly ……. ………..  on motorways.

3. There are ……. …….. about whether or not motorways encourage more dangerous driving.

Exercise 2

This exercise focuses on adjective – noun combinations frequently used when discussing a topic.

Rewrite the following sentences using the words in brackets following each sentence.

The sentences could all be possibly made in the following essay.

Action movies with spectacular car chases are very popular with young people. it is often said that these sorts of movies lead to an increase in car accidents among young drivers as they try to copy what they have seen in the films.

Do you agree that such movies increase the amount of bad driving? What can be done to encourage young people to drive more safely?

1. Many people are critical of the influence of high speed driving in films on young people. (widespread opposition)

2. People on both sides of the argument agree that any favourable presentation of drink driving is unacceptable. (common ground)

3. Any high-speed crash is bound to involve serious injury. (inevitable consequence)

If you are serious about taking your IELTS writing to the next level, sign up for your FREE 3 part IELTS writing video course that takes you through both task 1 and task 2. The video lessons are led by our highly experienced UK native IELTS teacher, Katherine. We also provide you with exercises to test your understanding!

Sign up your FREE IELTS writing video course by clicking here.

Verb Combinations

As well as noun-verb combinations, common verb-adverb and verb-preposition combinations need to be learned.

Exercise 3

Choose the most suitable verb from the options below.
The sentences could all be possibly made in the following essay.

Some people think that there are things individuals can do to help prevent global climate change. Others believe that action by individuals is useless and irrelevant and that it is only governments and large businesses which can make a difference.

Discuss both these views and give your own opinion.

1. Scientists have been closely following/identifying/discussing trends in climate change for the last fifty years.

2. The general indifference of most of the population to the threat we are avoiding / facing/ making makes me pessimistic about any plan that relies on individual contributions.

3. Research clearly examines /demonstrates/ raises the need for taking urgent action now.

Add the missing prepositional phrase.
The sentences could all be possibly made in the following essay.

Children should never be educated at home by their parents. Do you agree or disagree?
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages for young people who decide to do this.

1. The exam results of children educated at home seem to be much better ………….. those of children educated in schools.

2. …………………..a comparative lack of resources, there is no strong evidence to suggest that home-educated children are any less familiar with their subjects than their school counterparts.

3. ……………, home education seems to be a far more effective way of educating a child.

Answers to exercises

Exercise 1

1. Motorways also have negative aspects such as speeding, damage to the environment and pollution.

2. Accidents due to tiredness are a fairly common phenomenon on motorways.

3. There are conflicting claims about whether or not motorways encourage more dangerous driving.

Exercise 2

1. There is widespread opposition in many places about the influence of high speed driving in films on young people.

2. There is common ground that any favourable presentation of drink driving is unacceptable.

3. Serious injury is an inevitable consequence of any high speed crash.

 Exercise 3

(Combinations to learn are in bold)

1. Scientists have been closely following trends in climate change for the last fifty years.

2. The general indifference of most of the population to the threat we arefacing makes me pessimistic about any plan that relies on individual contributions.

3. Research clearly demonstrates the need for taking urgent action now.

Exercise 4

1. The exam results of children educated at home seem to be much better in comparison with those of children educated in schools.

2. In spite of a comparative lack of resources, there is no strong evidence to suggest that home-educated children are any less familiar with their subjects than their school counterparts.

3. In most respects, home education seems to be a far more effective way of educating a child.

If you feel you need to widen your range of word combinations, the best way is to read more and to specifically look for examples of the types of combinations referred to in the above exercises.

If you are serious about taking your IELTS writing to the next level, sign up for your FREE 3 part IELTS writing video course that takes you through both task 1 and task 2. The video lessons are led by our highly experienced UK native IELTS teacher, Katherine. We also provide you with exercises to test your understanding!

Sign up your FREE IELTS writing video course by clicking here.

Don’t forget to COMMENT and SHARE with friends and classmates who are doing the IELTS exam also.

Compare the thesaurus’s “similar words” for the verb “laugh”:

The similar words allow you to choose from among words for more specific kinds of laugh: from a quiet titter to a hearty guffaw. The Word Combinations allow you to choose from among adverbs that writers frequently use to modify the verb “laugh.” “Ashley laughed uneasily at the cruel joke,” you might write. Or, “Ashley laughed good-naturedly when her error was pointed out.” (Ashley’s a likable person, evidently.)

Word Combinations are the most frequent companions of the headword in published writing and broadcast speech. Thus, they represent the many ways in which the headword-concept is typically talked about and the words typically used to talk about them.

In the entries, word combinations are organized by part of speech combination. Take, for example, the word “election.” The word combinations for the noun “election” fall into four kinds:

adjective + (n.) election

verb + (n.) election 

(n.) election + verb   

noun + (n.) election

These formulas show you the kind of word (part of speech) and the position (before or after “election”) in which it appears in the corpus of texts. Notice that “election” has some verbs that appear before it and some that appear after it. Here are the full word combinations entries, with some comments in red:

adjective + (n.)election     coming, competitive, congressional, contested, democratic, direct, disputed, fair, federal, forthcoming, fraudulent, free, general, gubernatorial, judicial, legislative, local, mayoral, mid-term, multi-party, multiracial, municipal, nationwide, nonpartisan, off-year, parliamentary, periodic, presidential, primary, provincial, scheduled, statewide, transitional, upcoming

verb + (n.)election     boycott, cancel, certify, contest, delay, disrupt, influence, hold, monitor, oversee, overturn, postpone, precede, rig, schedule, steal, supervise  (These verbs that frequently have the word “election” as their object will give you a glimpse at all the things we can do to an election. )

(n.)election + verb      loom, near

(Which of these two verbs would you choose to talk about a coming election? It really depends how you feel about it.)

noun + (n.)election   ballot, boycott, candidate, eve, fall, financing, landslide, legitimacy, midterm, month, outcome, poll, primary, recall, registration, round, run-up, runoff, turnout, vote, voting

If you have read through these words, you may have noticed that some make sense when placed immediately before or after the headword “election”: “a fair election,” “postponed the election,” and “a fall [i.e., autumn] election.” True, you have to insert an article, “the” between “postpone” and “election,” but generally these are recognizable phrases that make sense.

Others, especially in the noun+noun category, don’t seem like a chunk of a sentence: “legitimacy election” and “voting election,” for example. Often a preposition will need to be inserted between the words: “the legitimacy of the election,” “voting in this election” are some possible ways the word combinations will work in these cases.

If you don’t know how to fit the two words together, a Google search on the two words will often return a number of similar examples of how they do.

You can try this little exercise to get a feel for how to fill out a word combination:

Complete these common noun + noun word combinations with the correct prepositions and articles.

1. the eve   ____    ____   election

2. the outcome  ____    ____   election

3. the turnout   ____    ____   election

 Word Combinations is a subscription feature, but you can try it by signing up for a 15-day free Trial Subscription, no strings attached. (There is a Trial Subscription button on most pages of the Wordsmyth website.) We also include Word Combinations with many Academic Vocabulary of the Day posts.

Read more about collocations here.

The word in the language has a certain lexical meaning that is revealed in a particular situation. Often words acquire one or another meaning only by entering into grammatical and logical connections with other lexemes. These are stable combinations of words, where the latter, when linked together, form a new single meaning.

Lexical compatibility of words

In speech, the words are not isolated, but surrounded by other words with which they must be combined lexically, grammatically, logically. For example, the word flower requires agreement in number, gender and case, that is, the adjective or participle should be masculine, stand in the singular and in the nominative: a forest flower . If you use an adjective that is not suitable in the sense ( cloudy flower ), then the lexical compatibility of words is violated.

Stable word combinations are an absolute connection, in which components can not be replaced. So, the combination of a solar bunny has the meaning of a «reflected sunlight». If you replace one component of a given combination, it will lose its value (combinations of a sunny day, a cowardly bunny no longer have the meaning indicated). In short, the lexical compatibility of words in stable expressions is absolute and traditional.

Semantic compatibility of words, that is, semantic, is inherent in the native speakers of the language genetically. Intuitively there is the possibility of using the phrase apple orchard and the comedy of the apple garden variant.

Phraseologisms

Words that require beside themselves specific components, a lot. It happens that the reason for the restriction of the compatibility of a word lies in its attachment to a certain environment — these are stable combinations of words, they are called differently phraseological. This is the term of the French linguist Charles Bally, meaning «phrase-word». Indeed, stable combinations of words (phraseological units) consist of several components (this is typical of the phrase), but are synonymous with one word: hack on the nose — remember, water in the mouth dial — shut up, open your mouth — be surprised .

Discussions of linguists

The science that studies the structure and features of phraseological units is called phraseology. Scientists-linguists are discussing the question of its scope. There are disagreements in the theoretical substantiation of phraseological units. In certain groups of linguists any stable combinations of words that are fixed in the language are called this way. Lexicographical observations allow us to judge various approaches to this issue. Only those stable combinations in which meaning is not treated by describing individual components are considered to be phraseological units. So, phraseological units to sharpen lyas or fly in the clouds can not be explained by the description of each word. An indivisible, well-established combination makes sense of such constructions.

Many linguists do not include sayings, aphorisms, speech stamps to phraseological phrases . They believe that phraseological units (stable combinations of words) are those combinations that are equivalent to one word.

Classification of Vinogradov-Shansky

Victor Vladimirovich Vinogradov, an outstanding Russian linguist with a world name, described in detail the stable combinations of words in Russian and classified them. In his works, phraseological units are divided into phraseological fusion (idioms proper), phraseological unity and phraseological combinations. Nikolai Maksimovich Shansky expanded the classification of Vinogradov, singling out a group of phraseological expressions.

Folding

Combinations include combinations whose semantics are clear only in a concrete connection. The value of idiom components is not visible at all. The semantics of fusion is uneven hour, miracles in a sieve, throwing a glove, hitting buckshot, giving hand and others can not be explained by the interpretation of each word. The meaning of the idiom is derived from the traditionally established fusion. The formation of phraseological units is a long historical process that takes place in a specific language.

The incarnation of the history of the language is a stable combination of words. Examples of such fusion: headlong, get trapped, how to drink . They are difficult to translate, because they are not motivated by the meaning of each word. It is impossible to rearrange words and replace components in splices.

Unity

Phraseological unity, in contrast to fusion, consists of semantically motivated components. Their indivisible meaning is based on the metaphorical similarity of one of the words with the meaning of the whole phraseology. The phraseology of burying talent in the land has the meaning of «wasting its resources in vain», it is explained by a metaphor: bury it in the ground — «hide, hide.» Phraseological unity is less idiomatic than fusion. Unity can be diluted in other words, sometimes replace one of the components. For example, in the phraseology of calling things by their proper names the pronoun is sometimes replaced: to call things by their own names . Phraseological unity is called idiomatic expressions.

Combinations

The semantics of phraseological combinations consists of the values of all components that make up a stable expression. At the same time, there is a free component and a connected one in combination. The set of values of each of them reveals a single value of the expression. For example, phraseology, the sworn enemy includes the attached word sworn and free enemy . Also in the combinations of a bosom friend , a delicate position, a frosty frost , gnashing teeth and others.

Expressions

The phraseological expressions isolated by NM Shansky are phraseological units consisting of free words. There are no related items. Often phraseological expressions are similar to stamps, proverbs, winged expressions and aphorisms. For example, all ages are submissive to love, all the best, to new meetings, not a day without a line . In the process of speech, phraseological expressions are not invented by the speaker, but are given up from memory.

Phraseologisms in English

A rich fund of English phraseology, which for centuries has been replenished with numerous borrowings from Latin, German, French, and Spanish, is of particular interest to linguists. Knowledge of the phraseology of a foreign language shows the level of an interpreter. High qualification of such a specialist helps to avoid language misunderstanding.

Stable combinations of words in English can be divided according to VV Vinogradov’s classification. Phraseological fusion is most difficult for translation, since the words that make up its composition are connected. The semantics of such constructions follow from the general meaning. For example, kick the bucket is not translated literally as a kick and bucket. Here the words, communicating with each other, give a special meaning, which can be translated by Russian phraseology to reach out .

Phraseological unity in English exists in parallel with homonymous free expressions. For example, to keep a dog and bark oneself as a phraseology it is important to «do the work of a hired man». The translation of the homonymous free combination means «to have a dog that barks at the master.» High expression of phraseological unity is a feature of the English language.

Phraseological combinations allow the replacement of one of the components. The composition of these includes words with a fixed value and free. The phraseology to have a narrow escape , allowing the omission of the component to have , is translated by the Russian combination to be saved by a miracle . This group of phraseological units is most simple to translate because of the inclusion in it of combinations of mythology, scripture ( Sisyphean labor, Adam’s apple, and Hill’s heel, Ariadne’s thread, apple of discord and others).

English proverbs, sayings without allegorical meaning, refer to phraseological expressions. They consist of words with free meanings, but are traditionally reproducible: many men many mind is translated by Russian phraseological expression as many people, so many opinions.

Phraseological Foundation

Phraseologisms by origin can be historical (primordial) and borrowed. Persistent are often stable combinations of words with negative pronouns, with archaisms and historicisms. For example, there is nothing to cover; Nothing at all; no one is forgotten, nothing is forgotten; Word of mouth; In the bosom of nature; One as a finger; To build up the rottenness; Not a bast shit.

Borrowed it is considered to be such stable combinations of words that entered the language in ready form, often without translation. The ways of borrowing phraseological units are different. Mythology, ancient literature, Holy Scripture, masterpieces of world literature bring into the language stable combinations of words. Examples of phraseological units, taken from the Latin language: alma mater, the idea of fix, tete-a-tete. The Bible gave such stable expressions as the prodigal son, the lamb of God, the wolf in sheep’s clothing, washing his hands and many others. From the works of fiction went into the phraseological foundation of the Russian language of expression and was there a boy? (M. Gorky), our smaller brothers (S. Esenin), the distribution of elephants (M. Zoshchenko).

The use of phraseological units in speech

Speech of the speaker, who widely uses phraseological expressions, sounds bright, beautiful and expressive. Phraseologisms emphasize a person’s fluency in a word, show the level of his education. Knowledge of the phraseology and the appropriate use of stable expressions speaks about the perfection of language proficiency.

The ability of phraseological units to make speech more imaginative and lively is appreciated by journalists, writers, politicians, diplomats and representatives of other professions connected with communicative activity and speech influence. Writers often modify phraseological units, adding components to them, often epithets, which makes the speech even more imaginative and expressive. The meaning of stable combinations of words acquires an ironic character when replacing part of a stable turnover.

The contamination of phraseological units is used by publicists in the headlines of articles, essays, complaints. Modified expressions refer to a separate group of phraseological units — occasionalisms.

Phrasebook

When using stable combinations of words, it is necessary to know exactly their semantics, to take into account the stylistic originality. Associative errors in the use of phraseological units, when the component is incorrectly called, is replaced by a paronym or a word similar in sounding ( falling in the spirit, at least counting ), speak of ignorance of the history of the language and the etymology of the language. Incorrect, inappropriate use of phraseological expressions drastically changes the meaning of the statement, distorts it, makes it ridiculous ( they sang their swan song, send school graduates to the last path ). Phraseological dictionaries help avoid such errors. They give an interpretation of the phraseological unit, explains the origin, synonymous words and expressions are given. In bilingual and multilingual editions an equivalent translation is given.