It is not always easy to know which preposition to use after a particular noun, verb or adjective. Here are some of the most common combinations.
Accuse somebody of something
She accused me of breaking the flower-vase.
Afraid of
I am afraid of the dark.
Agree with a person, opinion or policy
I couldn’t agree with him.
Fatty foods don’t agree with me.
He left the firm because he couldn’t agree with their marketing policy.
Agree about a subject of discussion
We agree about most things.
Agree on a matter for decision.
We still haven’t agreed on a date.
Agree to a suggestion
I will agree to your suggestion if you lower the price.
Angry with / at a person for doing something
She was angry with / at me for using her car without her permission.
Angry about something / angry at something
What are you so angry about?
Anxious about (= worried about)
I am getting anxious about your safety.
Anxious for (= eager to have)
We are anxious for an end to this misunderstanding.
Anxious to (= eager, wanting)
She is anxious to leave. (= She is eager to leave.)
Apologize to somebody for something
We must apologize to him.
I must apologize for interrupting you.
Arrive at / in
What time does the plane arrive at New York?
When did you arrive in Canada?
Divide into
He divided the cake into eight parts.
Dream of (= think of, imagine)
He always dreams of becoming a famous writer.
Dressed in
She came dressed in white.
Drive into
Susie drove into a tree again yesterday.
Enter into an agreement, a discussion etc.
We have just entered into an agreement with them.
Enter is used without a preposition when it means ‘enter a place’.
The conversation stopped as we entered the temple.
Explain something to somebody
Could you please explain this to me?
Fight with / struggle with / quarrel with / argue with
Their children are very badly brought up – they are constantly fighting with each other.
As already
mentioned, only those combinations of words (or single
words) which convey communication are sentences —
the
object of
syntax. All other combinations of words regularly formed in the
process of speech are the object of morphology as well as single
words. Like separate words they name things, phenomena, actions,
qualities, etc., but in a complex way, for example: manners
and
table
manners, blue and
dark
blue, speak and
speak
loudly. Like
separate words they serve as a building material for sentences.
70
21
The
combinability of words is as a rule determined by their meanings,
not their forms. Therefore not every sequence of words may be
regarded as a combination of words. In the sentence Frankly,
my friend, I have told you the truth neither
Frankly,
my friend nor
friend,
I …
are
combinations of words since their meanings are detached and do not
unite them.
On the
other hand, some words may be inserted between the components of a
word combination without breaking it. Compare: a) read
books; b)
read
many books; c)
read
very many books. In
case (a) the combination read
books is
uninterrupted.
In
cases (b) and (c) it is interrupted,
or
discontinuous
(read
…
books).
The
combinability of words depends on their lexical, grammatical and
lexico-grammatical meanings. It is owing to lexical meanings of the
corresponding lexemes that the word hot
can be
combined with the words water,
temper, news, dog and
is hardly combinable with the words ice,
square, information, cat.
The
lexico-grammatical meanings of -er
in
runner
(a
noun) and -ly
in
quickly
(an
adverb) do not go together and prevent these words from forming a
combination, whereas quick
runner and
run
quickly are
regular word combinations.
The
combination ^students
writes is
impossible owing to the grammatical meanings of the corresponding
grammemes (Remark:
with «*»
we
mark grammatically incorrect word-combinations or sentences).
Thus one
may speak of lexical,
grammatical and
lexico-grammatical
combinability,
or the combinability of lexemes, grammemes and parts of speech.
Each word
belonging to a certain part of speech is characterized by valency
(валентнють)
or,
in other words, the combinability of lexical
units. For example, in the sentence /
tell
you a joke the
verb tell
is
two valent, and in the sentence /
will
tell you a joke about a Scotchman —
three
valent. We can also say that modal verbs are valent for infinitives
and not valent for gerunds, e.g. I
can’t sing; nouns
are valent for an article, e.g. a
(the) table, that
is modal verbs are combined with infinitives not gerunds, and nouns
are practically the only part of speech that can be combined with
articles.
It is
convenient to distinguish right-hand
and
left-hand
l
onnections or combinability. In the combination my
friend the
word my
has
a right-hand connection with the word friend
and
the latter has n lelt-hand connection with the word my.
With
analytical forms inside
and
outside
connections
are also possible.
In the combination has
already done the
verb has an inside connection
with the adverb and the latter has an outside connection with the
verb.
It
will also be expedient to distinguish unilateral,
bilateral and
multilateral
combinability
(одностороння,
двостороння та багатосто-роння
сполучуванкяъ). For
instance, we may say that the articles in English have unilateral
right-hand connections with nouns: a
book, the hoy. Such
linking words as prepositions, conjunctions, link verbs and modal
verbs are characterized by bilateral combinability: book
of John, John and Marry, this is John, the boy must leave. Most
verbs may have:
/его (Go!),
unilateral
(boys
<r-jump),
bilateral
(Krdid-^-it),
p 1
i у
and
multilateral (Yesterday
I <—
saw—>
him
there) I
Onnections. In other words, the combinability of verbs is variable.
One
should also distinguish direct
and
indirect
connections.
In (he
combination Look
at him the
connection between look
and
at,
be!
ween at
and
him
are
direct, whereas the connection between look
ind
him
is
indirect, though the preposition at
[24;
28-31].
■ 5. The
notions of grammatical opposition
and grammatical category
There
is essential difference in the way lexical and grammatical meanings
exist in the language and occur in speech. Lexical meanings i
in be found in a bunch only in a dictionary or in a memory of a man,
0Г,
scientifically,
in the lexical system of a language. In actual speech .i lexical
morpheme displays only one meaning of the bunch in each case,
and that meaning is singled out by the context or the situation of
ipeech
(in grammar terms, syntagmatically). As mentioned already, words
of the same lexeme convey different meanings in different
lurroundings.
22
23
The
meanings of a grammatical morpheme always come together in the word.
In accordance with their relative nature they can be singled out
only relatively in contrast to the meanings of other grammatical
morphemes (in grammar terms, paradigmatically).
Supposing
we want to single out the meaning of «non-continuous aspect»
in the word runs.
We
have then to find another word
which has all the meanings of the word runs except that of
«non-continuous
aspect». The only word that meets these requirements is the
analytical word is
running. Run and
is
running belong
to the same lexeme
and their lexical meanings are identical. As to the grammatical
meanings
the two words do not differ in tense («present»), number
(«singular»), person («third»), mood
(«indicative»), etc. They differ only in aspect. The word
runs
has
the meaning of «non-continuous aspect» and is
running —
that
of «continuous aspect».
When
opposed, the two words, runs
and
is
running, form
a particular language unit. All their meanings but those of aspects
counterbalance
one another and do not count. Only the two particular
meanings
of «non-continuous» and «continuous» aspect
united by the general
meaning
of «aspect» are revealed in this opposition
or
opposeme.
The
general meaning of this opposeme («aspect») manifests
itself in the two particular meanings («non-continuous aspect»
and «continuous aspect») of the opposite
members (or
opposites)
[24;
22-24].
Thus,
the elements which the opposition/opposeme is composed of
are called opposites
or
members
of the opposition. Opposites
can be different: 1)
non-marked,
2) marked.
Compare the pair of noun forms table
—
tables.
Together
they create the «number» opposeme, where table
represents
the singular number expressed by a zero morpheme that is why it is
called the non-marked member of the opposition, and tables
— the
plural number expressed by the positive morpheme -s
is
called the marked member of the opposition. Non-marked opposite is
used more often than the marked opposite is. The marked opposite is
peculiar by its limited use.
Ferdinand
de Saussure claimed that everything in language is based
on opposition. On phonetic level we have opposition of sounds. On
all levels of the language we have opposition. Any grammatical
form has got its contrast or
counterpart. Together they make up a grammatical category.
A part
of speech is
characterized by its grammatical
categories manifested
in the opposemes
(the
elements of the opposition
—
оппозема, член опозицп) and
paradigms of its lexemes. Nouns have
the categories of number and case. Verbs possess the categories of
tense, voice, mood etc. That is why paradigms belonging to different
parts of speech are different. The paradigm of a verb lexeme is
long: write,
writes, wrote, will write, is writing etc.
The paradigm of n noun lexeme is much shorter: sister,
sister’s, sisters, sisters’. The
paradigm of an adjective lexeme is still shorter: cold,
colder, coldest. The
paradigm of an adverb always
consists
only of one word.
Thus, the paradigm of a
lexeme shows what part of speech the lexeme belongs to.
It
must be borne in mind, however, that not all the lexemes of a pari
of speech have the same paradigms. Compare:
sister book information
sister’s books —
sisters — —
sisters‘ — —
The
first lexeme has opposemes of two grammatical categories: number and
case. The second lexeme has only one opposeme —
that
of number.
It has no case opposemes. The third lexeme is outside both
I’iilegories:
it has no opposemes at all. We may say that the number (■pposeme
with its opposite grammatical meanings of «singularity»
iind «plurality» is neutralized
in
nouns like information,
bread, milk etc.
owing to their lexical meaning which can hardly be associated wilh
«oneness» or «more-than-oneness».
We may
define neutralization
as
the
reduction of an opposeme to one of its members under certain
circumstances. This
member may be
tailed
the
member of neutralization. Usually
it is the unmarked member
of an opposeme.
The term
grammatical
category implies
that: I) there
exist different morphological forms in the words of a pari
of speech possessing different referential meanings;
7Л
25
2) the
oppositions of different forms possessing referential meanings
are systematic that is they cover the whole class of words of that
part of speech.
In other
words a grammatical
category is
a systematic
opposition of different morphological forms possessing different
referential meanings. Each
grammatical category is composed of at least two contrasting forms.
Otherwise category would stop existing.
In
general, an opposeme of any grammatical category consists of as many
members (or opposites) as there are particular manifestations of the
general meaning. Thus, a morphological
opposeme is
a
minimum set of words revealing (by the difference in their forms)
only (and all) the particular manifestations of some general
grammatical meaning. Any morphological category is the system of
such opposemes whose members differ in form to express only (and
all) the particular manifestations of the general meaning of the
category [24;
23-24].
Grammatical
category unites
in itself particular grammatical
meanings. For
example, the grammatical category of gender unites the meanings of
the masculine, feminine, neuter and common genders in
the Ukrainian language. Each grammatical category is connected, as a
minimum, with two forms. For example, the grammatical category of
number comprises the forms of singularity and plurality.
Grammatical
meaning is
an abstract meaning added to the lexical meaning of a word,
expressing its relations other words or classes
of words. As a rule, a word has several grammatical meanings.
Grammatical
meanings are realized in a grammatical
word form.
Grammatical
form of a word is
the variety of the same word differing from other forms of this word
by its grammatical meaning. For example, in the Ukrainian word-form
батьку
the
ending -y
expresses
the grammatical meaning of the masculine gender, singular number,
dative case.
Grammatical
form of a word can be simple
(synthetic), in
which the grammatical meanings are formed by the ending, suffix,
prefix or stress, etc. (дощ
— дощ — дощем); or
composite
(analytical), created
by adding several words (буду
говорити, быыи привабливий). The
analytical-synthetic
grammatical
word form is a
I
ombination of two previous types of word forms. For example, в
xuiaepcumemi
(the
local case is expressed by the flexion and the preposition); малював
би, малювала б (the
grammatical meaning of number
and gender is expressed by the form of the main verb, and the
meaning
of the conditional mood —
by
the particle би)
[2; 40-41].
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This article returns to the area of multi-word expressions. To achieve a level 7 or above grade, you need to show a familiarity with the different ways that words can be combined. Specifically, the IELTS descriptor for level 7 ‘ Lexical Resource’ states that a student at this level should be able to ‘use less common lexical items with some awareness of style and collocation’.
As well as noticing noun, verb and adjective combinations, you should also build up your knowledge of prepositional phrases and fixed expressions.
The following exercises will help you to assess the level of your own knowledge regarding word combinations and help you decide how much extra work you need to do in this area.
Noun Combinations
Nouns often combine with specific verbs or adjectives.
Exercise 1
Complete the following sentences by adding the appropriate adjective or verb with a noun from the columns below. They are all sentences that could be used in the following task 2 essay.
Motorways help people to travel quickly and cover long distances but they also cause problems. What are the problems of motorways and hat solutions are there?
Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own knowledge or experience.
-
Motorways also have …… ……. such as speeding, damage to the environment and pollution.
-
Accidents due to tiredness are a fairly ……. ……….. on motorways.
-
There are ……. …….. about whether or not motorways encourage more dangerous driving.
conflicting |
phenomenon |
negative |
concerns |
strong |
claims |
common |
aspects |
raises |
evidence |
Exercise 2
This exercise focuses on adjective – noun combinations frequently used when discussing a topic.
Rewrite the following sentences using the words in brackets following each sentence.
The sentences could all be possibly made in the following essay.
Action movies with spectacular car chases are very popular with young people. it is often said that these sorts of movies lead to an increase in car accidents among young drivers as they try to copy what they have seen in the films.
Do you agree that such movies increase the amount of bad driving? What can be done to encourage young people to drive more safely?
-
Many people are critical of the influence of high speed driving in films on young people. (widespread opposition)
-
People on both sides of the argument agree that any favourable presentation of drink driving is unacceptable. (common ground)
-
Any high-speed crash is bound to involve serious injury. (inevitable consequence)
If you are serious about taking your IELTS writing to the next level, sign up for your FREE 3 part IELTS writing video course that takes you through both task 1 and task 2. The video lessons are led by our highly experienced UK native IELTS teacher, Katherine. We also provide you with exercises to test your understanding!
Sign up your FREE IELTS writing video course by clicking here.
Verb Combinations
As well as noun-verb combinations, common verb-adverb and verb-preposition combinations need to be learned.
Exercise 3
Choose the most suitable verb from the options below.
The sentences could all be possibly made in the following essay.
Some people think that there are things individuals can do to help prevent global climate change. Others believe that action by individuals is useless and irrelevant and that it is only governments and large businesses which can make a difference.
Discuss both these views and give your own opinion.
-
Scientists have been closely following/identifying/discussing trends in climate change for the last fifty years.
-
The general indifference of most of the population to the threat we are avoiding / facing/ making makes me pessimistic about any plan that relies on individual contributions.
-
Research clearly examines /demonstrates/ raises the need for taking urgent action now.
Add the missing prepositional phrase.
The sentences could all be possibly made in the following essay.
Children should never be educated at home by their parents. Do you agree or disagree?
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages for young people who decide to do this.
-
The exam results of children educated at home seem to be much better ………….. those of children educated in schools.
-
…………………..a comparative lack of resources, there is no strong evidence to suggest that home-educated children are any less familiar with their subjects than their school counterparts.
-
……………, home education seems to be a far more effective way of educating a child.
in particular |
in comparison with |
for the most part |
in most respects |
with the exception of |
in spite of |
Answers to exercises
Exercise 1
-
Motorways also have negative aspects such as speeding, damage to the environment and pollution.
-
Accidents due to tiredness are a fairly common phenomenon on motorways.
-
There are conflicting claims about whether or not motorways encourage more dangerous driving.
Exercise 2
-
There is widespread opposition in many places about the influence of high speed driving in films on young people.
-
There is common ground that any favourable presentation of drink driving is unacceptable.
-
Serious injury is an inevitable consequence of any high speed crash.
Exercise 3
(Combinations to learn are in bold)
-
Scientists have been closely following trends in climate change for the last fifty years.
-
The general indifference of most of the population to the threat we arefacing makes me pessimistic about any plan that relies on individual contributions.
-
Research clearly demonstrates the need for taking urgent action now.
Exercise 4
-
The exam results of children educated at home seem to be much better in comparison with those of children educated in schools.
-
In spite of a comparative lack of resources, there is no strong evidence to suggest that home-educated children are any less familiar with their subjects than their school counterparts.
-
In most respects, home education seems to be a far more effective way of educating a child.
If you feel you need to widen your range of word combinations, the best way is to read more and to specifically look for examples of the types of combinations referred to in the above exercises.
If you are serious about taking your IELTS writing to the next level, sign up for your FREE 3 part IELTS writing video course that takes you through both task 1 and task 2. The video lessons are led by our highly experienced UK native IELTS teacher, Katherine. We also provide you with exercises to test your understanding!
Sign up your FREE IELTS writing video course by clicking here.
Don’t forget to COMMENT and SHARE with friends and classmates who are doing the IELTS exam also.
Wordsmyth’s Word Combinations, technically known as “collocations,” provide what is almost like a thesaurus in another dimension. You will find them in most entries in the Advanced Dictionary. Instead of listing synonyms, that is, words you might use instead of the word you are using, Word Combinations provide words to use with the word you are using. In other words, they help you start building a bigger chunk of a sentence.
Compare the thesaurus’s “similar words” for the verb “laugh”:
cackle, chortle, chuckle, giggle, guffaw, howl, snicker, snigger, tee-hee, titter…
…with the Word Combination adverbs for the verb “laugh”:
The similar words allow you to choose from among words for more specific kinds of laugh: from a quiet titter to a hearty guffaw. The Word Combinations allow you to choose from among adverbs that writers frequently use to modify the verb “laugh.” “Ashley laughed uneasily at the cruel joke,” you might write. Or, “Ashley laughed good-naturedly when her error was pointed out.” (Ashley’s a likable person, evidently.)
Word Combinations are the most frequent companions of the headword in published writing and broadcast speech. Thus, they represent the many ways in which the headword-concept is typically talked about and the words typically used to talk about them.
In the entries, word combinations are organized by part of speech combination. Take, for example, the word “election.” The word combinations for the noun “election” fall into four kinds:
adjective + (n.) election
verb + (n.) election
(n.) election + verb
noun + (n.) election
These formulas show you the kind of word (part of speech) and the position (before or after “election”) in which it appears in the corpus of texts. Notice that “election” has some verbs that appear before it and some that appear after it. Here are the full word combinations entries, with some comments in red:
adjective + (n.)election coming, competitive, congressional, contested, democratic, direct, disputed, fair, federal, forthcoming, fraudulent, free, general, gubernatorial, judicial, legislative, local, mayoral, mid-term, multi-party, multiracial, municipal, nationwide, nonpartisan, off-year, parliamentary, periodic, presidential, primary, provincial, scheduled, statewide, transitional, upcoming
verb + (n.)election boycott, cancel, certify, contest, delay, disrupt, influence, hold, monitor, oversee, overturn, postpone, precede, rig, schedule, steal, supervise (These verbs that frequently have the word “election” as their object will give you a glimpse at all the things we can do to an election. )
(n.)election + verb loom, near
(Which of these two verbs would you choose to talk about a coming election? It really depends how you feel about it.)
noun + (n.)election ballot, boycott, candidate, eve, fall, financing, landslide, legitimacy, midterm, month, outcome, poll, primary, recall, registration, round, run-up, runoff, turnout, vote, voting
If you have read through these words, you may have noticed that some make sense when placed immediately before or after the headword “election”: “a fair election,” “postponed the election,” and “a fall [i.e., autumn] election.” True, you have to insert an article, “the” between “postpone” and “election,” but generally these are recognizable phrases that make sense.
Others, especially in the noun+noun category, don’t seem like a chunk of a sentence: “legitimacy election” and “voting election,” for example. Often a preposition will need to be inserted between the words: “the legitimacy of the election,” “voting in this election” are some possible ways the word combinations will work in these cases.
If you don’t know how to fit the two words together, a Google search on the two words will often return a number of similar examples of how they do.
You can try this little exercise to get a feel for how to fill out a word combination:
Complete these common noun + noun word combinations with the correct prepositions and articles.
1. the eve ____ ____ election
2. the outcome ____ ____ election
3. the turnout ____ ____ election
Word Combinations is a subscription feature, but you can try it by signing up for a 15-day free Trial Subscription, no strings attached. (There is a Trial Subscription button on most pages of the Wordsmyth website.) We also include Word Combinations with many Academic Vocabulary of the Day posts.
Read more about collocations here.
Word combinations in Modern English Lexicology of the English language
�A Word combination (phrase ) is a non-predicative unit of speech which is, semantically, both global and articulated. 1. Word combination
�In grammar, it is seen as a group of words that functions as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence. It is an intermediate unit between a word and a sentence. �The main function of a word combination is polinomination (it describes an object, phenomenon or action and its attributes and properties at the same time). 2.
� There are two types of word combinations (also known as set-expressions, set-phrases, fixed word-groups, etc): � Free word combinations in which each component may enter different combinations � Set (phraseological) combinations consist of elements which are used only in combination with one another 3.
�Differences between free and set word combinations: SEMANTIC CRITERION �The meaning in phraseological units has partially or fully shifted. The words have a transferred (metaphorical or metonymical) meaning. �cf: a wolf in sheep’s clothing – a man in cheap clothing 4.
STRUCTURAL CRITERION. � Phraseological units are characterized by stability of components: � It is impossible to change the components of a phraseological unit; e. g. to have a bee in the bonnet (hat) � It is impossible to add new components; � It is impossible to change grammatical form of components, even if their form violates grammar rules: e. g. at (the) first sight, from head to foot (feet), to find faults with � However the degree of stability varies: a skeleton/skeletons in the cupboard, a (big) white elephant. � Other features ensuring stability are rhythm, alliteration, contrast, repetition, simile etc. � e. g. on and on, safe and sound, as busy as a bee � Free 5. word combinations allow any changes.
Classifications of phraseological units � According to thematic (etymological) classification, idioms are classified according to their sources of origin. ◦ E. g. Word-groups associated with the sea and the life of seamen are especially numerous in English vocabulary. Thus there may be singled out a group of “marine” phraseological units. � To be all at sea — to be unable to understand; to be in a state of ignorance or bewilderment about something (e. g. How can I be a judge in a situation in which I am all at sea? I’m afraid I’m all at sea in this problem � To sink or swim — to fail or succeed (e. g. It is a case of sink or swim. All depends on his own effort. ) � In deep water — in trouble or danger. � In low water, on the rocks — in strained financial circumstances. 6.
Semantic classification � describes word combinations from the viewpoint of the shift in meaning of words: � Phraseological fusions (idioms) are most idiomatic, the meaning of both words is fully transferred. � e. g. tit for tat, to skate on thin ice � Phraseological unities are motivated semantically, based on imagination. Usually one of the components has retained its meaning. � e. g. to fall ill, to fall in love, small talk � Phraseological combinations are less idiomatic, most motivated � e. g. as dead as mutton 7.
Structural classification takes into consideration the fact that phraseologisms are, in fact, equivalents of words. Phraseological units can perform the same functions as words. So, set expressions are classified according to their function. � Verbal : to run for one’s life, to get the upper hand � Substantive: dog’s life, red tape � Adjectival: high and mighty, safe and sound � Adverbial: high and low � Equivalents of auxiliary parts of speech: by way of, as long as, Good God! � Stereotyped sentences: take your time! 8.
Stylistic classification �Set expressions, as well as words, may be stylistically neutral and stylistically marked. �e. g. it’s raining cats and dogs (bookish) �to do smb. brown (colloquial) 9.
Notions related to set expressions �A simile is a figure of speech that directly compares two different things, usually by employing the words «like» , «as» , or «than» . �Even though both similes and metaphors are forms of comparison, similes indirectly compare the two ideas and allow them to remain distinct in spite of their similarities, whereas metaphors compare two things directly. �e. g. as alike as two peas in a pod (identical or nearly so) �as blind as a bat (completely blind) 10.
�A cliché is a stereotyped expression mechanically reproduced in speech, very often overused to the point of losing its intended force or novelty. �e. g. Love is blind. ◦ Put two and two together. 11.
�A proverb is a simple and concrete saying popularly known and repeated, which expresses a truth, based on common sense or the practical experience of mankind. They are often metaphorical. A proverb that describes a basic rule of conduct may also be known as a maxim. �If a proverb is distinguished by particularly good phrasing, it may be known as an aphorism. 12.
�A collocation is sequence of words or terms which co-occur more often than would be expected by chance. e. g. �time flies �Times passes �the appointed time �Present time �Right time �Wrong time �Opening time �Closing time 13.
�A phrasal verb is a phrase (as take off or look down on) that combines a verb with a preposition or adverb or both and that functions as a verb whose meaning is different from the combined meanings of the individual words. 14.
Translation Tips � Free word combinations and collocations are usually translated by calque (word-for-word). However, translating attributive word groups is challenging, because one and the same attributive word may be translated differently depending on the meaning of the defined head word. � E. g. public opinion – общественное мнение, jamoatchilik fikri � Public debt – государственный долг, davlat qarzlari � Public scandal – публичный скандал, ommaviy janajal � Sometimes more complicated transformations are needed: � E. g. working expectancy – ожидаемая продолжительность трудовой деятельности, ishchini kutilayotgan ishlash muddati 15.
� Phraseological unities are usually translated by one word or equivalent combinations: � e. g. to take a chance – рисковать, imkoniyat berish � To take offence – обидеться, arazlamoq � To put an end to – положить конец, преодолеть, tugatish � To take into account – принимать во внимание, e’tiborga olish � Phraseological fusions (idioms) are translated by their equivalents or analogues or description. e. g. � whip-and-carrot policy – политика кнута и пряника, qamchi va sabzi siyosati (equivalent) � To beat about the bush – ходить вокруг да около, butani o’rab olish (analogue) � Carbon footprint — негативные экологические последствия какой-либо деятельности, faoliyatni salbiy ekologik natijalari (decription) 16.
Origin of set expressions � One of the words becomes archaic: kith and kin of the meanings of a word becomes archaic: to be in two minds � An expression may pass from professional use into common use: to hit below the belt (from boxing) � Part of a proverb may become isolated: the last straw (that was the last straw which broke the camel’s neck) � Literary sources: a Troyan horse; to be or not to be � Translation borrowings: to kill two birds with one stone (calque translation from French) � 17.
� � � � � What do we call word combinations in which the components retain their main meaning, and can freely enter different combinations? What do we call word combinations in which the components typically have shifted meaning and are not freely chosen? What do we call a figure of speech that directly compares two different things, usually by employing the words «like» , «as» , or «than» ? What do we call a trite or overused phrase or expression? What is a simple and concrete saying popularly known and repeated, which expresses a truth, based on common sense or the practical experience of mankind? What do we call a familiar grouping of words that habitually appear together and thereby convey meaning by association? Which of the following underlined word combinations with the word “stand” is free and which one is fixed? a) The British government would not stand in the way of such a proposal. b) She was standing beside my bed staring down at me. 18. CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING
� Which of the following word combinations in bold are set phrases? 1) Where do you think you lost your purse? 2) Don’t lose your temper when you talk to her. 3) Have a look at the reverse side of the coat. 4) The reverse side of the medal is that we’ll have to do it ourselves. 5) Keep the butter in the refrigerator. 6) Keep an eye on the child. 19. Case study
� � � 1) lost your purse — it is a free word combination, as it allows any combinations without change of the basic (denotative) meaning of words, e. g. lost you bag, found your purse etc. 2) lose your temper – it is a set (phraseological) word combination, as the meaning of the word ‘lose’ in this combination is not direct but figurative (= to become angry). 3) reverse side of the coat — it is a free word combination, as it allows any combinations without change of the basic (denotative) meaning of words, e. g. reverse side of the dress 4) reverse side of the medal — it is a set (phraseological) word combination, as the meaning of the words in this combination is not direct but figurative (= other side of the matter) 5) Keep the butter — it is a free word combination, as it allows any combinations without change of the basic (denotative) meaning of words, e. g. keep the cheese in the refrigerator etc. 6) Keep an eye — it is a set (phraseological) word combination, as the meaning of the words in this combination is not direct but figurative (= to watch closely or carefully) 20. Key
ONE NINE TWO THREE FOUR(S) FIVE SIX(ES)S EVEN(S) TEN 1) 2) She crawled on all _____ to the window = on her knees, feet and hands. He is at _____ and _____ = He is confused and doesn’t know what to do. 3) He puts _____ and _____ together. = He begins to draw conclusions about something 4) He looks out for number _____ = He only thinks about his interests. 5) «the _____ R’s. » = The basics of education 6) He has a _____ o’clock shadow. = A man hasn’t shaved for a day or two 7) Things that are very cheap and common are _____ a penny. 
This four bedroom home, located in Country Club Estates, is completed and ready to move in. This home has «the whole _____ yards» in convenience. ’ (=all of it) 21. Fill in the blanks with proper numerals to make an idiom with the specified meaning.
1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) fours sixes and sevens two and two one three five ten nine 22. Key