Word combination в английском языке

Within
the domain of syntax two levels should be distinguished: that of
phrases and that of sentences.

The
phrase can generally be defined as a combination of two or more words
which is a grammatical unit but is not an analytical form of some
word. The constituent elements of a phrase may belong to any part of
speech. A word-combination can also be defined as a compound
nominative unit of speech which is semantically global and
articulated.

The
difference between a phrase and a sentence is a fundamental one. A
phrase is a means of naming some phenomena or processes, just as a
word is. Each component of a phrase can undergo grammatical changes
while a sentence is a unit with every word having its definite form.
A change in the form of one or more words would produce a new
sentence.

Grammar
has to study the
aspects of phrases which spring from the grammatical peculiarities of
the words making up the phrase, and of the syntactical functions
of the phrase as a whole, while lexicology has to deal with the
lexical meaning of the words and their semantic groupings. For
example from
the grammatical point of view the two phrases
read
letters and
invite
friends are
identical (the
same pattern verb +
noun
indicating the object of the
action).

Phrases
can be divided according
to their function in the sentence into:

(1)
those
which
perform the function of one or more parts of the sentence (predicate,
or predicate and object, or predicate and adverbial
modifier, etc.)

(2)
those
which do not perform any such function
but whose function is equivalent to that of a preposition, or
conjunction, and which are equivalents
of those parts of speech.

1.3. Syntagmatic Connections of Words.

Words
in an utterance form various syntagmatic connections with one
another:

1. syntagmatic
   groupings of notional words alone,

Such
groups (notional phrases) have self-dependent nominative destination,
they denote complex phenomena and their properties (semi-predicative
combinations): a
sudden trembling; a soul in pain; hurrying along the stream;
strangely familiar; so sure of their aims.

1. syntagmatic
   groupings of notional words with functional words,

Such
combinations (formative phrases) are equivalent to separate words by
their nominative function: with
difficulty; must finish; but a moment; and Jimmy; too cold; so
unexpectedly.
They are contextually dependent (synsemantism).

1. syntagmatic
   groupings of functional words alone.

They
are analogous to separate functional words and are used as connectors
and specifiers of notional elements:
from out of; up to; so that; such as; must be able; don’t let’s.

Combinations
of notional
words
fall into two mutually opposite types:

1)
combinations of words related to one another on an equal rank
(equipotent
combinations)

2)
combinations of words which are syntactically unequal (dominational
combinations)

Equipotent
connection
is realised with the help of conjunctions (syndetically), or without
the help of conjunctions (asyndetically):
prose and poetry; came and went; on the beach or in the water; quick
but not careless; —
no
sun, no moon; playing, chatting, laughing; silent, immovable, gloomy;
Mary’s, not John’s.

The
constituents of such combinations form coordinative consecutive
connections.

Alongside
of these, there exist equipotent connections of a non-consecutive
type. In such combinations a sequential element is unequal to the
foregoing element in its character of nomination connections is
classed as (cumulative connections): agreed,
but reluctantly; satisfied, or nearly so.

Dominational
connection
is effected in such a way that one of the constituents of the
combination is principal (dominating/headword) and the other is
subordinate (dominated/adjunct, adjunct-word, expansion).

Dominational
connection can be both consecutive
and cumulative:
a
careful observer; an observer, seemingly careful; definitely out of
the point;
out
of the point, definitely; will be helpful in any case will be
helpful;
at
least, in some cases.

The
two basic types of dominational connection are:

1. bilateral
   (reciprocal, two-way) domination (in predicative connection of
   words);

2. monolateral
   (one-way) domination (in completive connection of words).

The
predicative connection
of words, uniting the subject and the predicate, builds up the basis
of the sentence. The nature of this connections is reciprocal (the
subject dominates the predicate and vice versa).

Such
word combinations are divided into:

1. complete
   predicative combinations (the subject + the finite verb-predicate);

2. incomplete
   predicative/semi-predicative/potentially-predicative combinations (a
   non-finite verbal form + a substantive element): for
   the pupil to understand his mistake; the pupil’s understanding his
   mistake;
   the
   pupil understanding his mistake.

Monolateral
domination is considered as subordinative since the syntactic status
of the whole combination is determined by the head-word:
a nervous wreck. astonishingly beautiful.

The
completive connections fall into two main divisions:

1. objective
   connections

2. qualifying
   connections.

Objective
connections
reflect the relation of the object to the process. By their form
these connections are subdivided into:

1. non-prepositional;

2. prepositional.

From
the semantico-syntactic point of view they are classed as:

1. direct
   (the immediate transition of the action to the object);

2. indirect
   or oblique (the indirect relation of the object to the process).

Direct
objective connections are non-prepositional, the preposition serving
as an intermediary of combining words by its functional nature.
Indirect objective connections may be both prepositional and
non-prepositional.

Further
subdivision of objective connections is realised on the basis of
subcategorising the elements of objective combinations, and first of
all the verbs; thus, we recognise objects of immediate action, of
perception, of speaking, etc.

Qualifying
completive connections
are divided into

1. attributive
   (an
   enormous appetite; an emerald ring; a woman of strong character, the
   case for the prosecution);

They
unite a substance with its attribute expressed by an adjective or a
noun.

1. adverbial:

   1. primary
      (the verb + its adverbial modifiers):
      to talk glibly, to come nowhere; to receive (a letter) with
      surprise; to throw (one’s arms) round a person’s neck; etc

   2. secondary
      (the non-verbal headword expressing a quality + its adverbial
      modifiers):
      marvellously becoming; very much at ease; strikingly alike; no
      longer oppressive; unpleasantly querulous; etc.

Completive
noun combinations are directly related to whole sentences
(predicative combinations of words): The
arrival of the train → The train arrived. The baked potatoes →
The potatoes are baked. The gifted pupil → The pupil has a gift.

Completive
combinations of adjectives and adverbs (adjective-phrases and
adverb-phrases) are indirectly related to predicative constructions:
utterly
neglected — utter neglect — The neglect is utter; very carefully
— great carefulness — The carefulness is great; speechlessly
reproachful — speechless reproach
— The reproach is speechless.

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Основная цель нашей речи – и устной, и письменной – состоит в том, чтобы четко и ясно изложить информацию, донести мысль до слушателя или читателя, убедить его в своей правоте. Для достижения этой цели нужно последовательно излагать идеи, логически выстраивать свое повествование и выделять главные мысли. Слова-связки в английском языке предназначены именно для этого: они помогают показать связи между идеями, упорядочить высказывание, сделать его цельным и понятным аудитории.

Что такое слова-связки

Слова-связки (linking words) – это слова, которые используются для объединения частей высказывания, связи идей и создания логичного перехода от одной мысли к другой. Связующие слова и фразы могут соединять части сложного предложения или части текста. Они помогают автору речи делать акценты, выводить одну мысль из другой и шаг за шагом излагать свои мысли, как бы проводя аудиторию за руку от одной идеи к другой. Связки важны как для говорения, так и для письма.

Связки могут принадлежать разным частям речи. Самые простые примеры связок – and (и), but (но), so (таким образом), because (потому что). Они часто используются в повседневной речи и знакомы даже начинающим. В статье мы приведем примеры более сложных слов и фраз, которые могут пригодиться в деловых переговорах, публичных выступлениях, а также в написании текстов для ОГЭ и эссе для ЕГЭ.

Виды слов-связок для письма и говорения

Рассмотрим разные виды связующих слов в зависимости от их значения и роли в тексте.

• Sequence (последовательность)

Следующие слова помогут вам организовать логическую последовательность в тексте, упорядочить мысли. Их можно разделить на три группы: начало речи, продолжение, подведение итогов.

Приведем примеры предложений для эссе или устной речи, где вы можете использовать эти связующие слова:

• Result (результат)

Следующие слова и фразы указывают на следствие или результат того, что было сказано в предыдущих предложениях. С их помощью вы можете выразить причинно-следственные связи.

• Emphasis (акцентирование внимания)

Слова и фразы этого типа используются, чтобы выделить особо важную мысль, подчеркнуть ключевые моменты речи, усилить определенную идею.

Перечисленные выше выражения могут встретиться как в личном письме, так и в официальной речи, например:

• Example (пример)

Приведенные ниже слова для связки предложений используются, чтобы уточнить свои идеи и проиллюстрировать их примерами.

В учебниках и научной литературе часто используются латинские фразы или аббревиатуры:

• Addition (дополнение)

При изложении основных тезисов иногда требуется ввести в речь дополнительную информацию или побочные идеи. Ниже представлен список слов и выражений, которые помогут вам в этом.

• Contrast (противопоставление)

Иногда вам нужно сравнить идеи или явления и подчеркнуть их разницу. Таблица ниже содержит примеры слов-связок, которые выражают противопоставление.

• Comparison (сопоставление)

Следующие слова можно использовать для выражения сходства идей или явлений, о которых вы говорите.

• Generalization (обобщение)

В письменных работах для ОГЭ часто требуется ввести общеизвестную мысль или обобщить идеи. Для этого используются следующие слова:

Советы по использованию linking words

Уместное употребление слов-связок поможет выстроить структуру текста и логически связать ваши мысли. Это особенно важно для сочинения на экзамене и выступления перед аудиторией. Запомните следующие правила:

• Не злоупотребляйте связками. Используйте их разумно там, где они необходимы.
• Используйте только те фразы, значение которых вам точно известно. В противном случае вы рискуете исказить свою же мысль или быть неправильно понятым аудиторией.
• Будьте разнообразны, не используйте одни и те же фразы. Постарайтесь запомнить несколько вариантов связок для разных случаев.
• Помните о пунктуации. Если связка стоит в начале предложения, после нее обычно ставится запятая. Если она используется для соединения двух предложений, обычно в конце первого предложения ставится точка с запятой, а после связки – запятая.

Словосочетание в английском языке

Словосочетание / группа слов (phrase / word-combination) — это комбинация слов, которое играет определённую роль в грамматической структуре предложения. Словосочетание может не иметь законченного значения или смысла, в том числе и за пределами предложения, но оно действует как единое целое (грамматическая единица) и имеет свою внутреннюю грамматическую связь:

Классы словосочетаний

Разделение словосочетаний на классы определяется двумя подходами, это классификация словосочетаний основанная на их внутренней структуре и классификация словосочетаний основанная на функции в предложении, которую они выполняют.

Классификация словосочетаний по внутренней структуре

Функциональная классификация словосочетаний

Примеры словосочетаний

Сноски

This article returns to the area of multi-word expressions. To achieve a level 7 or above grade, you need to show a familiarity with the different ways that words can be combined. Specifically, the IELTS descriptor for level 7 ‘ Lexical Resource’ states that a student at this level should be able to ‘use less common lexical items with some awareness of style and collocation’.

As well as noticing noun, verb and adjective combinations, you should also build up your knowledge of prepositional phrases and fixed expressions.

The following exercises will help you to assess the level of your own knowledge regarding word combinations and help you decide how much extra work you need to do in this area.

Noun Combinations

Nouns often combine with specific verbs or adjectives.

Exercise 1

Complete the following sentences by adding the appropriate adjective or verb with a  noun from the columns below. They are all sentences that could be used in the following task 2 essay.

Motorways help people to travel quickly and cover long distances but they also cause problems. What are the problems of motorways and hat solutions are there?

Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own knowledge or experience.

1. Motorways also have …… ……. such as speeding, damage to the environment and pollution.

2. Accidents due to tiredness are a fairly ……. ………..  on motorways.

3. There are ……. …….. about whether or not motorways encourage more dangerous driving.

Exercise 2

This exercise focuses on adjective – noun combinations frequently used when discussing a topic.

Rewrite the following sentences using the words in brackets following each sentence.

The sentences could all be possibly made in the following essay.

Action movies with spectacular car chases are very popular with young people. it is often said that these sorts of movies lead to an increase in car accidents among young drivers as they try to copy what they have seen in the films.

Do you agree that such movies increase the amount of bad driving? What can be done to encourage young people to drive more safely?

1. Many people are critical of the influence of high speed driving in films on young people. (widespread opposition)

2. People on both sides of the argument agree that any favourable presentation of drink driving is unacceptable. (common ground)

3. Any high-speed crash is bound to involve serious injury. (inevitable consequence)

If you are serious about taking your IELTS writing to the next level, sign up for your FREE 3 part IELTS writing video course that takes you through both task 1 and task 2. The video lessons are led by our highly experienced UK native IELTS teacher, Katherine. We also provide you with exercises to test your understanding!

Sign up your FREE IELTS writing video course by clicking here.

Verb Combinations

As well as noun-verb combinations, common verb-adverb and verb-preposition combinations need to be learned.

Exercise 3

Choose the most suitable verb from the options below.
The sentences could all be possibly made in the following essay.

Some people think that there are things individuals can do to help prevent global climate change. Others believe that action by individuals is useless and irrelevant and that it is only governments and large businesses which can make a difference.

Discuss both these views and give your own opinion.

1. Scientists have been closely following/identifying/discussing trends in climate change for the last fifty years.

2. The general indifference of most of the population to the threat we are avoiding / facing/ making makes me pessimistic about any plan that relies on individual contributions.

3. Research clearly examines /demonstrates/ raises the need for taking urgent action now.

Add the missing prepositional phrase.
The sentences could all be possibly made in the following essay.

Children should never be educated at home by their parents. Do you agree or disagree?
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages for young people who decide to do this.

1. The exam results of children educated at home seem to be much better ………….. those of children educated in schools.

2. …………………..a comparative lack of resources, there is no strong evidence to suggest that home-educated children are any less familiar with their subjects than their school counterparts.

3. ……………, home education seems to be a far more effective way of educating a child.

Answers to exercises

Exercise 1

1. Motorways also have negative aspects such as speeding, damage to the environment and pollution.

2. Accidents due to tiredness are a fairly common phenomenon on motorways.

3. There are conflicting claims about whether or not motorways encourage more dangerous driving.

Exercise 2

1. There is widespread opposition in many places about the influence of high speed driving in films on young people.

2. There is common ground that any favourable presentation of drink driving is unacceptable.

3. Serious injury is an inevitable consequence of any high speed crash.

 Exercise 3

(Combinations to learn are in bold)

1. Scientists have been closely following trends in climate change for the last fifty years.

2. The general indifference of most of the population to the threat we arefacing makes me pessimistic about any plan that relies on individual contributions.

3. Research clearly demonstrates the need for taking urgent action now.

Exercise 4

1. The exam results of children educated at home seem to be much better in comparison with those of children educated in schools.

2. In spite of a comparative lack of resources, there is no strong evidence to suggest that home-educated children are any less familiar with their subjects than their school counterparts.

3. In most respects, home education seems to be a far more effective way of educating a child.

If you feel you need to widen your range of word combinations, the best way is to read more and to specifically look for examples of the types of combinations referred to in the above exercises.

If you are serious about taking your IELTS writing to the next level, sign up for your FREE 3 part IELTS writing video course that takes you through both task 1 and task 2. The video lessons are led by our highly experienced UK native IELTS teacher, Katherine. We also provide you with exercises to test your understanding!

Sign up your FREE IELTS writing video course by clicking here.

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