WORD COMBINATIONS IN MODERN ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY
WORD COMBINATIONS Words traditionally collocated in speech tend to make up so called cliches or traditional word combinations. In traditional combinations words retain their full semantic independence although they are limited in their combinative power (e. g. : to wage a war, to render a service, to make friends). Words in traditional combinations are combined according to the patterns of grammatical structure of the given language.
WORD COMBINATION it should be pointed out that the syntactic terminology varies from author to author. Thus, Professor Illiysh operates with the term “phrase”. The definition given by the scholar to the phrase (“every combination of two or more words which is a grammatical unit but is not an analytical form of some word”) leaves no doubt as to its equivalence to the term “word combination”. The word combination, along with the sentence, is the main syntactic unit. The smallest word combination consists of two members, whereas the largest word combination may theoretically be indefinitely large though this issue has not yet been studied properly.
WORD COMBINATION Despite its cornerstone status for the syntactic theory, the generally recognized definition of the word combination has not been agreed upon: it receives contradictory interpretations both from different linguists. The traditional point of view, dating back to Prof. Vinogradov’s works (i. e. to the middle of the 20 th century), interprets the word combination exclusively as subordinate unit. Meanwhile, many linguists tend to treat any syntactically organized group of words as word combination regardless the type of relationship between its elements.
Free and bound (phraseological) word combinations Another definition of word combination says that. . A Word combination (phrase ) is a non-predicative unit of speech which is, semantically, both global and articulated. In grammar, it is seen as a group of words that functions as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence. It is an intermediate unit between a word and a sentence. The main function of a word combination is polinomination (it describes an object, phenomenon or action and its attributes and properties at the same time). There are two types of word combinations (also known as setexpressions, set-phrases, fixed word-groups, etc. ): Free word combinations in which each component may enter different combinations Set (phraseological) combinations consist of elements which are used only in combination with one another
Traditional combinations fall into structural types as: 1. V+N combinations E. G. : deal a blow, bear a grudge, take a fancy, etc 2. V+ preposition + N E. G. : fall into disgrace, go into details, go into particular, take into account, come into being, etc.
Traditional combinations fall into structural types as: 3. V + Adj. : E. G. : work hard, rain heavily etc. 4. V + Adj. : E. G. : set free, make sure, put right etc.
Traditional combinations fall into structural types as: 5. Adj. + N. : maiden voyage, ready money, dead silence, feline eyes, aquiline nose, auspicious circumstances etc. 6. N + V: time passes / flies / elapses, options differ, tastes vary etc. 7. N + preposition + N: breach of promise, flow of words, flash of hope, flood of tears.
SET-PHRASES OR PHRASEOLOGICAL UNITS The degree of structural and semantic cohesion of words within word-groups may vary. Some word-groups are functionally and semantically inseparable, e. g. rough diamond, cooked goose, to stew in one’s own juice. Such word-groups are traditionally described as set-phrases or phraseological units. Characteristic features of phraseological units are non-motivation for idiomaticity and stability of context. The cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready-made units.
WORD-GROUPS Every utterance is a patterned, rhythmed and segmented sequence of signals. On the lexical level these signals building up the utterance are not exclusively words. Alongside with separate words speakers use larger blocks consisting of more than one word. Words combined to express ideas and thoughts make up word-groups.
FREE WORD-GROUPS The component members in other word-groups possess greater semantic and structural independence, e. g. to cause misunderstanding, to shine brightly, linguistic phenomenon, red rose. Word-groups of this type are defined as free word-groups for free phrases. They are freely made up in speech by the speakers according to the needs of communication.
SET EXPRESSIONS Set expressions are contrasted to free phrases and semi-fixed combinations. All these different stages of restrictions imposed upon co-occurance of words, upon the lexical filling of structural patterns which are specific for every language. The restriction may be independent of the ties existing in extra-linguistic reality between the object spoken of and be conditioned by purely linguistic factors, or have extralinguistic causes in the history of the people
STRUCTURE OF WORD GROUPS Structurally word-groups may be approached in various ways. All word-groups may be analysed by the criterion of distribution into two big classes. Distribution is understood as the whole complex of contexts in which the given lexical unit can be used. If the word-group has the same linguistic distribution as one of its members, It is described as endocentric, i. e. having one central member functionally equivalent to the whole wordgroup. The word-groups, e. g. red flower, bravery of all kinds, are distributionally identical with their central components flower and bravery: I saw a red flower — I saw a flower. I appreciate bravery of all kinds — I appreciate bravery.
STRUCTURE OF WORD GROUPS If the distribution of the word-group is different from either of its members, it is regarded as exocentric, i. e. as having no such central member, for instance side by side or grow smaller and others where the component words are not syntactically substitutable for the whole word-group. In endocentric word-groups the central component that has the same distribution as the whole group is clearly the dominant member or the head to which all other members of the group are subordinated. In the word-group red flower the head is the noun flower and in the word-group kind of people the head is the adjective kind.
PREDICATIVE AND NONPREDICATIVE GROUPS Word-groups are also classified according to their syntactic pattern into predicative and non-predicative groups. Such word-groups, e. g. John works, he went that have a syntactic structure similar to that of a sentence, are classified as predicative, and all others as non-predicative. Non-predicative word-groups may be subdivided according to the type of syntactic relation between the components into subordinative and coordinative. Such word-groups as red flower, a man of wisdom and the like are termed subordinative in which flower and man are headwords and red, of wisdom are subordinated to them respectively and function as their attributes. Such phrases as woman and child, day and night, do or die are classified as coordinative. Both members in these wordgroups are functionally and semantically equal.
SUBORDINATIVE WORDGROUPS Subordinative word-groups may be classified according to their head-words into nominal groups (red flower), adjectival groups (kind to people), verbal groups (to speak well), pronominal (all of them), statival (fast asleep). The head is not necessarily the component that occurs first in the word-group. In such nominal wordgroups as e. g. very great bravery, bravery in the struggle the noun bravery is the head whether followed or preceded by other words.
THE LEXICAL MEANING OF THE WORD-GROUP The lexical meaning of the word-group may be defined as the combined lexical meaning of the component words. Thus the lexical meaning of the word-group red flower may be described denotationally as the combined meaning of the words red and flower. The meaning of the component words are mutually dependent and the meaning of the word-group naturally predominates over the lexical meanings of its constituents.
PATTERN OF ARRANGEMENT Word-groups possess not only the lexical meaning, but also the meaning conveyed by the pattern of arrangement of their constituents. Such word-groups as school grammar and grammar school are semantically different because of the difference in the pattern of arrangement of the component words.
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING What do we call word groups? What are set expressions? What does the term linguistic distribution mean and what are their types? What do you know about predicative and nonpredicative groups? The classification of subordinative word-groups is… What does the pattern of arrangement mean? What is another term for traditional word combinations?
Collocability
(lexical
valency)
is the aptness of lingual units to appear in different combinations
when forming lingual units of the upper level. Lexical collocability
is the realization of syntagmatic relations.
Word-combination
is the combination of two or more words, organized according to the
laws of a given language, which represent complex nominations of
various referents.
All word-combinations are
divided into free and bound ones.
Free
word-combinations preserve
the lexical meaning of their notional components:
to
read a book,
a piece of bread,
a piece of chalk.
Set
expression
– the lexical meanings of its components are weak or lost: as hard
as nails,
железная
дорога,
бить
баклуши.
Phraseological
units
are set word-groups with idiomatic or partially idiomatic meaning.
Features
of phraseological units:
1)
structural criterion:
—
structural
invariability
or morphological
stability
means the permanence of lexical composition, no (or few)
substitutions of components are possible:
to bend over backward to do something (*turn over sideward).
The are also strict restrictions on the componential extension and
grammatical changes of components of phraseological units: a
white elephant (*a
big white elephant)
‘an expensive but useless thing’,
from head to foot (*feet);
2) semantic criterion:
—
phraseological units are characterized by semantic
unity,
that means that the meaning in phraseological unit is created by
mutual interaction of elements, i.e.
its meaning cannot be deduced from the meaning of its components,
e.g.
to kick the bucket ‘to
die’,
to
be in deep water
‘in trouble or difficulty’;
— phraseological
meaning conveys
a single concept and this makes phraseological units similar to
words, e.g. in
a brown study ‘gloomy’;
3) syntactic criterion:
— phraseological
units are characterized by syntactic
fixity,
that means that phraseological
units are functionally inseparable and like words they perform one
common syntactic function in the sentence,
for example, the phraseological unit off
the record ‘not
yet official’
functions
as an adverb;
—
phraseological units are characterized by ready
made reproduction;
they
cannot be freely made up in speech but are reproduced as ready made
units, e.g. red
tape
‘bureaucratic methods’, to
get rid of,
to take place,
to lead
the dance,
to
take care.
Features
of free word-combinations and phraseological units can be seen in
Table 6.
Table 6.
|
Free word |
Phraseological units |
|
to get one’s foot in |
to |
|
1. They are motivated |
1. They are non-motivated |
|
2. |
2. |
|
3. Separateness of |
3. Integrity of nomination, |
|
4. Variability is possible to |
4. Variability is |
|
5.Substitution is possible to |
5. |
|
6. They are made up |
6. They are isolated from |
|
7. They are made up by the |
7. They can be freely made |
Set
non-phraseological units
stand midway between free word combinations and phraseological units,
e.g. strong
sales,
to commit suicide,
good luck,
black coffee.
They
may be characterized in the following way:
1) they are set because they
are not made up in speech but are used as ready made units;
2) they are non-phraseological
because the meaning of the whole can be inferred from the meanings of
its components;
3) they are transitional,
semi-productive.
Set expressions traditionally
make the subject of phraseology.
Phraseology
– is a branch of linguistics studying set-expressions and
collocability of words of the language.
Phraseologisms
are culturally marked, they bear a charge of country-specific
information, that’s why they often make the subject of linguistic
studies of culture.
Phraseological
stock of the language is a valuable source of information about the
culture of its people as phraseologisms always reflect views and
attitudes of the people, social order and ideology of the epoch in an
indirect way. They preserve the history of the people or ethnic
group, their mode of life, morals, myths, customs, rites, rituals,
habits, e.g. Make
hay while the sun shines.
– Готовь
сани
летом,
а телегу
зимой.
The
history of many phraseologisms is an interesting record of the
nation’s past, of its way of life, customs and traditions. Some
phraseological units are connected with commerce, e.g. to
talk shop,
to make the best of the bargain,
to have all one’s goods in the shop window,
a drug on the market,
to
shut up shop.
Many phraseological units are associated with the sea (the waves):
e.g. plain
sailing,
to be
all
at sea,
to touch bottom,
to drop the pilot,
to nail one’s colours to the mast,
to sail under false colours,
the
coast is clear.
Other phraseological units were borrowed from the Bible, e.g. the
root of all evil,
daily bread.
Cognitive
linguistics studies phraseological units to reconstruct concepts,
learn how man’s thought works, how cognition develops, and define
mentality of the given ethnic group. Mentality is a set of
thinking processes, national way of perceiving and understanding
outer reality which includes special world-mapping. Thus, most
proverbs are the stereotypes of the nation consciousness, e.g. Работа
не
волк,
в
лес
не
убежит
VS
Business before pleasure.
And
not all proverbs are studied but only those which are relevant for a
modern
consciousness. Relevance is proofed experimentally. Thus, such
phraseological units as Time
is money,
Don’t put all eggs in one basket,
Never
put off till tomorrow what you can do today,
God helps those who help themselves
are frequent in modern English, and such phraseological
units to
die in harness
‘to die while actively engaged in work or duty’ or to
sow one’s (wild)
oats
‘to indulge in dissipation while young’ are irrelevant,
out-of-date for a modern English speaker.
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Wordsmyth’s Word Combinations, technically known as “collocations,” provide what is almost like a thesaurus in another dimension. You will find them in most entries in the Advanced Dictionary. Instead of listing synonyms, that is, words you might use instead of the word you are using, Word Combinations provide words to use with the word you are using. In other words, they help you start building a bigger chunk of a sentence.
Compare the thesaurus’s “similar words” for the verb “laugh”:
cackle, chortle, chuckle, giggle, guffaw, howl, snicker, snigger, tee-hee, titter…
…with the Word Combination adverbs for the verb “laugh”:
The similar words allow you to choose from among words for more specific kinds of laugh: from a quiet titter to a hearty guffaw. The Word Combinations allow you to choose from among adverbs that writers frequently use to modify the verb “laugh.” “Ashley laughed uneasily at the cruel joke,” you might write. Or, “Ashley laughed good-naturedly when her error was pointed out.” (Ashley’s a likable person, evidently.)
Word Combinations are the most frequent companions of the headword in published writing and broadcast speech. Thus, they represent the many ways in which the headword-concept is typically talked about and the words typically used to talk about them.
In the entries, word combinations are organized by part of speech combination. Take, for example, the word “election.” The word combinations for the noun “election” fall into four kinds:
adjective + (n.) election
verb + (n.) election
(n.) election + verb
noun + (n.) election
These formulas show you the kind of word (part of speech) and the position (before or after “election”) in which it appears in the corpus of texts. Notice that “election” has some verbs that appear before it and some that appear after it. Here are the full word combinations entries, with some comments in red:
adjective + (n.)election coming, competitive, congressional, contested, democratic, direct, disputed, fair, federal, forthcoming, fraudulent, free, general, gubernatorial, judicial, legislative, local, mayoral, mid-term, multi-party, multiracial, municipal, nationwide, nonpartisan, off-year, parliamentary, periodic, presidential, primary, provincial, scheduled, statewide, transitional, upcoming
verb + (n.)election boycott, cancel, certify, contest, delay, disrupt, influence, hold, monitor, oversee, overturn, postpone, precede, rig, schedule, steal, supervise (These verbs that frequently have the word “election” as their object will give you a glimpse at all the things we can do to an election. )
(n.)election + verb loom, near
(Which of these two verbs would you choose to talk about a coming election? It really depends how you feel about it.)
noun + (n.)election ballot, boycott, candidate, eve, fall, financing, landslide, legitimacy, midterm, month, outcome, poll, primary, recall, registration, round, run-up, runoff, turnout, vote, voting
If you have read through these words, you may have noticed that some make sense when placed immediately before or after the headword “election”: “a fair election,” “postponed the election,” and “a fall [i.e., autumn] election.” True, you have to insert an article, “the” between “postpone” and “election,” but generally these are recognizable phrases that make sense.
Others, especially in the noun+noun category, don’t seem like a chunk of a sentence: “legitimacy election” and “voting election,” for example. Often a preposition will need to be inserted between the words: “the legitimacy of the election,” “voting in this election” are some possible ways the word combinations will work in these cases.
If you don’t know how to fit the two words together, a Google search on the two words will often return a number of similar examples of how they do.
You can try this little exercise to get a feel for how to fill out a word combination:
Complete these common noun + noun word combinations with the correct prepositions and articles.
1. the eve ____ ____ election
2. the outcome ____ ____ election
3. the turnout ____ ____ election
Word Combinations is a subscription feature, but you can try it by signing up for a 15-day free Trial Subscription, no strings attached. (There is a Trial Subscription button on most pages of the Wordsmyth website.) We also include Word Combinations with many Academic Vocabulary of the Day posts.
Read more about collocations here.
This article returns to the area of multi-word expressions. To achieve a level 7 or above grade, you need to show a familiarity with the different ways that words can be combined. Specifically, the IELTS descriptor for level 7 ‘ Lexical Resource’ states that a student at this level should be able to ‘use less common lexical items with some awareness of style and collocation’.
As well as noticing noun, verb and adjective combinations, you should also build up your knowledge of prepositional phrases and fixed expressions.
The following exercises will help you to assess the level of your own knowledge regarding word combinations and help you decide how much extra work you need to do in this area.
Noun Combinations
Nouns often combine with specific verbs or adjectives.
Exercise 1
Complete the following sentences by adding the appropriate adjective or verb with a noun from the columns below. They are all sentences that could be used in the following task 2 essay.
Motorways help people to travel quickly and cover long distances but they also cause problems. What are the problems of motorways and hat solutions are there?
Give reasons for your answer and include any relevant examples from your own knowledge or experience.
-
Motorways also have …… ……. such as speeding, damage to the environment and pollution.
-
Accidents due to tiredness are a fairly ……. ……….. on motorways.
-
There are ……. …….. about whether or not motorways encourage more dangerous driving.
conflicting |
phenomenon |
negative |
concerns |
strong |
claims |
common |
aspects |
raises |
evidence |
Exercise 2
This exercise focuses on adjective – noun combinations frequently used when discussing a topic.
Rewrite the following sentences using the words in brackets following each sentence.
The sentences could all be possibly made in the following essay.
Action movies with spectacular car chases are very popular with young people. it is often said that these sorts of movies lead to an increase in car accidents among young drivers as they try to copy what they have seen in the films.
Do you agree that such movies increase the amount of bad driving? What can be done to encourage young people to drive more safely?
-
Many people are critical of the influence of high speed driving in films on young people. (widespread opposition)
-
People on both sides of the argument agree that any favourable presentation of drink driving is unacceptable. (common ground)
-
Any high-speed crash is bound to involve serious injury. (inevitable consequence)
If you are serious about taking your IELTS writing to the next level, sign up for your FREE 3 part IELTS writing video course that takes you through both task 1 and task 2. The video lessons are led by our highly experienced UK native IELTS teacher, Katherine. We also provide you with exercises to test your understanding!
Sign up your FREE IELTS writing video course by clicking here.
Verb Combinations
As well as noun-verb combinations, common verb-adverb and verb-preposition combinations need to be learned.
Exercise 3
Choose the most suitable verb from the options below.
The sentences could all be possibly made in the following essay.
Some people think that there are things individuals can do to help prevent global climate change. Others believe that action by individuals is useless and irrelevant and that it is only governments and large businesses which can make a difference.
Discuss both these views and give your own opinion.
-
Scientists have been closely following/identifying/discussing trends in climate change for the last fifty years.
-
The general indifference of most of the population to the threat we are avoiding / facing/ making makes me pessimistic about any plan that relies on individual contributions.
-
Research clearly examines /demonstrates/ raises the need for taking urgent action now.
Add the missing prepositional phrase.
The sentences could all be possibly made in the following essay.
Children should never be educated at home by their parents. Do you agree or disagree?
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages for young people who decide to do this.
-
The exam results of children educated at home seem to be much better ………….. those of children educated in schools.
-
…………………..a comparative lack of resources, there is no strong evidence to suggest that home-educated children are any less familiar with their subjects than their school counterparts.
-
……………, home education seems to be a far more effective way of educating a child.
in particular |
in comparison with |
for the most part |
in most respects |
with the exception of |
in spite of |
Answers to exercises
Exercise 1
-
Motorways also have negative aspects such as speeding, damage to the environment and pollution.
-
Accidents due to tiredness are a fairly common phenomenon on motorways.
-
There are conflicting claims about whether or not motorways encourage more dangerous driving.
Exercise 2
-
There is widespread opposition in many places about the influence of high speed driving in films on young people.
-
There is common ground that any favourable presentation of drink driving is unacceptable.
-
Serious injury is an inevitable consequence of any high speed crash.
Exercise 3
(Combinations to learn are in bold)
-
Scientists have been closely following trends in climate change for the last fifty years.
-
The general indifference of most of the population to the threat we arefacing makes me pessimistic about any plan that relies on individual contributions.
-
Research clearly demonstrates the need for taking urgent action now.
Exercise 4
-
The exam results of children educated at home seem to be much better in comparison with those of children educated in schools.
-
In spite of a comparative lack of resources, there is no strong evidence to suggest that home-educated children are any less familiar with their subjects than their school counterparts.
-
In most respects, home education seems to be a far more effective way of educating a child.
If you feel you need to widen your range of word combinations, the best way is to read more and to specifically look for examples of the types of combinations referred to in the above exercises.
If you are serious about taking your IELTS writing to the next level, sign up for your FREE 3 part IELTS writing video course that takes you through both task 1 and task 2. The video lessons are led by our highly experienced UK native IELTS teacher, Katherine. We also provide you with exercises to test your understanding!
Sign up your FREE IELTS writing video course by clicking here.
Don’t forget to COMMENT and SHARE with friends and classmates who are doing the IELTS exam also.
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Презентация powerpoint на тему «Topic 6: word combinations». Содержит 16 слайдов. Скачать файл 0.56 Мб. Самая большая база качественных презентаций. Смотрите онлайн с анимацией или скачивайте на компьютер. Средняя оценка: 2.3 балла из 5.
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Слайд 1
TOPIC 6: WORD COMBINATIONS
Points for discussion:
6.1.Word-combination as the minimal unit of syntax theory: the definition, its main characteristics, the main criteria for classifying.
6.2 The main principals for structural classifying . The existing structural oppositions of word –combinations.
The main principals for semantical classifying. The existing semantical oppositions of word-combinations.
The main principals for semantical classifying. The existing semantical oppositions of word-combinations. -
Слайд 2
6.1. Syntax as part of grammar: the range problems to study, its main notions, historical review of syntax theory development
The points to clarify….
1) WHAT DOES SYNTAX STUDY?
2) WHAT NOTIONS DOES IT INCLUDE?
3) WHERE LIE THE CONNECTIONS BETWEEN SYNTAX AND OTHER DISCIPLINES? -
Слайд 3
The first point for discussion
Word-combination as the minimal unit of syntax theory: the definition, its main characteristics, the main criteria for classifying
-
Слайд 4
The difinition to follow
a word-combination is any syntactical group, consisting of at least two notional words which are combined either into free word-combinations, predicative or prepositional structures and based either on the coordinative or subordinate relations.
-
Слайд 5
The main characteristics of word-combinations
WORD-COMBINATION vsWORD
WORD-COMBINATIONvsSENTENCE
1. The meaning of the word-combination doesn’t equal the sum of meanings of the words it includes.
2. the word –combination is supposed to have some syntactical function in a sentence what the separate words can’t .word- combinations don’t have both communicative purpose and phrase stress.
The word-combination cant consist of one word but sentence can
The word –combination just name but doesn’t reflect some situation, correlated with the reality. It doest have the categories of voice, tense and aspect. -
Слайд 6
The main criteria for word-combination defining
POSITIONAL (any changes within the structure of the word-combination)
SEMANTICAL (context connections)
SYNTACTCAL (connections within the word-combinations, the origin )
-
Слайд 7
POSITIONAL CRITERION INCLUDES
The behavior of the elements in the combination
(adnocentrical– exocentirical)the hierarchy in the combination
(nuclear –nuclear free)the position of the dependant towards the nucleus (nuclear only)
( regressive — nucleus centered –progressive)morphological structure (nuclear free only)
( morphologically-similar morphologically diversed) -
Слайд 8
SEMANTICAL CRITERION INCLUDES
the degree of stylistic determination presented
(connotative — non-connotative)The degree of semantical connection presented
(idiomatic phraseological units- neutral(free) word-combinationsThe degree of contextual determination
(typical word-combinations -isolated)The degree of social determination
(sociolinguistically determined — sociolinguisticallyundetermined)
The degree of frequent usagingin speech (clicheed — non-clicheed) -
Слайд 9
SYNTACTICAL CRITERION INCLUDES
The syntactical connections
(subordinate — coordinate)The degree of the origin presented
( originally made — derivatively made)The degree of nominalisation presented
(fully nominalized — partly nominalized ) -
Слайд 10
THE SECOND POINT FOR DISCUSSION
The main principals for classifying the word-combinations on their structure.
The existing structural oppositions.
The existing structural classifications. -
Слайд 11
THE MAIN PRINCIPALS FOR STRUCTURAL CLASSIFYING
The POSIBILITY TO REPLACE other elements
(possible to replace non possible to replace )The NUCLEUS of the word-combination
( nuclear- nuclear free)The POSITION TOWARDS NUCLEUS (before- around –after)
The degree of MORPHOLOGICAL DIVERSION (diversed non diversed)
-
Слайд 12
THE THIRD POINT FOR DISCUSSION
The main principals for semantical classifying the word-combinations
The existing semantical oppositions.
The existing semantical classifications. -
Слайд 13
THE MAIN PRINCIPALS FOR SEMANTICAL CLASSIFYING
1. CONNOTATIVENESS
(connotative non-connotative)2. REPRODUCUBILITY
(clicheed non-clicheed)3. IDIOMACITY (idioms neutral)
4. CONCEPTUAL DETERMINATION (typical word-combinations isolated)
5. SOCIOLINGUISTIC DETERMINATION (sociolinguisticallydetermined undetermined
-
Слайд 14
THE LAST POINT FOR DISCUSSION
The main principals for syntactical classifying the word-combinations
The existing syntactical oppositions.
The existing syntactical classifications. -
Слайд 15
THE MAIN PRINCIPALS FOR SYNTACTICAL CLASSIFYING
1. SYNTACTICAL CONNECTIONS in the word-combination
(subordinate connected coordinate connected)2. ORIGIN (connection to the sentence expressing the same situation)
( originally made- derivatively made)3. NOMINALISATION ( the degree of being presented)
(fully nominalized partly nominalized) -
Слайд 16
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