Word classes function words - Word и Excel - помощь в работе с программами

Both
the traditional and the syntactico — distributional classifications
divide parts of speech into notional
and
functional.

Criteria
for differentiating:

the
prominence of their lexical meaning
peculiarities
of their combinability
ability
to be substituted by a word of a more general meaning
ability
to create/add new items

Notional
words

Complete
nominative force
Self-dependent
functions in a sentence
Can
be used in isolation
Can
be substituted by a word of a more general meaning
Open
classes (new items can be added to them, they are indefinitely
extendable)

Functional
words

Incomplete
nominative force
Non-self-dependent
mediatory functions:
linking
or specifying
Obligatory
combinability
Cannot
be substituted
Closed
classes (closed
systems, including a limited number of members. As a rule, they
cannot be extended by creating new items)

The
main notional
parts of speech are nouns,
verbs, adjectives and adverbs. Members of these four classes are
often connected by derivational relations: strength
—
strengthen;-
strong —
strongly.

Functional
parts of speech are
prepositions, conjunctions, articles, particles.

Pronouns
constitute a class of words which takes an intermediary position
between notional and functional words. On the one hand, they can
substitute for nouns and adjectives, on the other hand, pronouns are
used as connectives and specifiers.

Groups
of functional words (function words — Ch. Fries)

With
a
unilateral combinability
– articles, auxiliaries, modals, particles
With
a
bilateral combinability
– prepositions and conjunctions which connect 2 or more notional
words or word- groups
Heterogeneous
subclass
uniting introductory it/there, interrogative words, interjections
etc

There
may be also groups of closed-system items(functional words) within an
open class notional words)- e.g. notional,
functional and auxiliary verbs.

A
word in English is very often not marked morphologically and it is
easy for words to pass from one class to another (round
as
a noun, adjective, verb, preposition). Such words arc treated either
as lexico-grammatical homonyms or as words belonging to one class.

7.The noun. The category of number

Noun
as a part of speech:

Semantic
– a part of speech which categorial meaning is thingness
Formal
– a) form-building – the category of number, the category of
case, the category of gender, the category of article determination

b)
derivational – typical word-building patterns: suffixation,
compounding, convertion (to walk – a walk)

3)
Functional – a) combinability: left-hand prepositional
combinability with another N/V/Adj./Adv. [+ prep.Noun],casal
combinability [N’s+N](
.:
the
speech of the President —
the
President’s speech),
contact comb-ty [N+N]- stone-wall constructions, take
an intermediary position between compound nouns and noun phrases
(stone wall, car roof, speech sound),
comb-ty with articles and other determiners [art./det. + N]

b)
Syntactic functions – subject, object, other functions are less
typical

Nouns
fall into several subclasses which differ as to their semantic and
grammatical properties: common — proper, concrete — abstract,
countable — uncountable (count — non-count, count — mass),
animate — inanimate, personal — non-personal (human —
non-human).

Lexico-
semantic variants of nouns may belong to different subclasses: paper
— a paper, etc.

The
class of nouns can be described as a lexico-grammatical field.
Nouns denoting things constitute the centre (nucleus) of the field.
Nouns denoting processes, qualities, abstract notions (predicate
nouns) are marginal, peripheral elements of the field.

Nucleus
and periphery are distinguished on the basis of lexico-semantic
properties and morph. characteristics – subclasses of Nouns
The
nucleus -> common- concrete-countable- animate Nouns
The
periphery -> abstract – material- uncountable Nouns

The
category of number

The
only category of nouns, which is generally accepted, is the category
of number. Many scholars think that the notion of case applies to
English pronouns, but not to nouns. Gender distinctions are not
marked morphologically.

The
category of number
— is a semantically rooted morphological category ,

depends
on how the referent is perceived: as a discrete, hence countable
entity, one or more than one, OR as an indiscrete indivisible, hence
uncountable entity
this
semantic contrast is revealed through lexical and morphological
means which are accompanied by syntactic marking

Lexical
( lexico-syntactic) means:

The
process of lexicalizing
semantic contrast consists in denoting a discrete countable entity
by one word – a meal and an indiscrete uncountable entity – by
another – food.

We
made a journey – we made a travel

Lexico-
grammatical means:

-s
– news – singularia tantum, goods – pluralia tantum, marked
through syntactic
patterning – the
form of the predicate verb, use of articles and corresponding
pronouns

Lexicalization
of the plural form (the
process when a word requires a new name, a word already having a
meaning gets a new one)

Colours
— > flag, pains -.> efforts

Grammatical
means:

The
morph. Category of Number is realized through inflectional
marking (categorial
forms) and/or syntactic patterning

Form:
the category of Number is constituted by the inflectional opposition
of 2 categorial forms of Noun:

Non-pl.(sg.)
— Pl⁺
binary,
privative opposition

Dog⁻
dogs⁺
⁺
—a
strong marked member, marked through the inflexion, ⁻-
zero morpheme.

Sg.
– no positive mark, zero inflexion, a weak unmarked member, many
a river

Pl.
– morpheme of plurality – (e)s, represented by:

the
allomorphs ( variants of 1 morpheme) books
(s), boys(z), boxes(iz)
by
some other allomorphs ex. oxen
internal
inflexion – sound interchange mouse-mice
zero
inflexion (NB! – only in grammar) – sheep,
means

Meaning
of their category of Number and its members the
foundation
is laid by the opposition

Discreteness
– non- discreteness which
embraces countable and uncountable nouns

Discrete
counts
form the inflexional opposition

Non-pl.-
pl.
dog⁻-dogs⁺

Non-pl.
– a single object having distinct outer boundaries

Pl.
– a set of homogeneous objects having distinct inner and outer
boundaries

Indiscrete
uncounts
constitute the lexico-gram.
opposition of subclasses of nouns:

Sg.
Only – pl. only

Sg.
only –
indiscrete entities having no boundaries ->mainly abstract and
material uncounts

Pl.only
(see
pract. Grammar)

THE
CATEGORY OF NUMBER

Discreteness
Non-discreteness

morphological
c. lexico-gram.
subclass

Non-pl.(oneness)
Sg. only

—
a single discrete entity — indiscrete
entities, no boundaries

Pl.(more
–than- oneness) Pl. only

—
multiplicity of discrete entities <…>

Bloh
Pl only

The
characteristic of the uncountable nouns which denote objects
consisting of two halves
(trousers,
scissors, tongs, spectacles, etc.),
the
nouns expressing some sort of collective meaning,
i.e. rendering the idea of indefinite plurality, both concrete and
abstract (supplies,
outskirts, clothes, parings; tidings, earnings, contents, politics;
police, cattle, poultry, etc.),
the
nouns denoting some diseases as well as some abnormal states of the
body and mind
(measles,
rickets, mumps, creeps, hysterics, etc.).
As is seen from the examples, from the point of view of number as
such, the absolute plural forms can be divided into set absolute
plural (objects of two halves) and non-set absolute plural (the
rest).

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Words don’t only mean something; they also do something. In the English language, words are grouped into word classes based on their function, i.e. what they do in a phrase or sentence. In total, there are nine word classes in English.

Word class meaning and example

All words can be categorised into classes within a language based on their function and purpose.

An example of various word classes is ‘The cat ate a cupcake quickly.’

The = a determiner
cat = a noun
ate = a verb
a = determiner
cupcake = noun
quickly = an adverb

Word class function

The function of a word class, also known as a part of speech, is to classify words according to their grammatical properties and the roles they play in sentences. By assigning words to different word classes, we can understand how they should be used in context and how they relate to other words in a sentence.

Each word class has its own unique set of characteristics and rules for usage, and understanding the function of word classes is essential for effective communication in English. Knowing our word classes allows us to create clear and grammatically correct sentences that convey our intended meaning.

Word classes in English

In English, there are four main word classes; nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. These are considered lexical words, and they provide the main meaning of a phrase or sentence.

The other five word classes are; prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, and interjections. These are considered functional words, and they provide structural and relational information in a sentence or phrase.

Don’t worry if it sounds a bit confusing right now. Read ahead and you’ll be a master of the different types of word classes in no time!

All word classes	Definition	Examples of word classification
Noun	A word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea.	cat, house, plant
Pronoun	A word that is used in place of a noun to avoid repetition.	he, she, they, it
Verb	A word that expresses action, occurrence, or state of being.	run, sing, grow
Adjective	A word that describes or modifies a noun or pronoun.	blue, tall, happy
Adverb	A word that describes or modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb.	quickly, very
Preposition	A word that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence.	in, on, at
Conjunction	A word that connects words, phrases, or clauses.	and, or, but
Interjection	A word that expresses strong emotions or feelings.	wow, oh, ouch
Determiners	A word that clarifies information about the quantity, location, or ownership of the noun	Articles like ‘the’ and ‘an’, and quantifiers like ‘some’ and ‘all’.

The four main word classes

In the English language, there are four main word classes: nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Let’s look at all the word classes in detail.

Nouns

Nouns are the words we use to describe people, places, objects, feelings, concepts, etc. Usually, nouns are tangible (touchable) things, such as a table, a person, or a building.

However, we also have abstract nouns, which are things we can feel and describe but can’t necessarily see or touch, such as love, honour, or excitement. Proper nouns are the names we give to specific and official people, places, or things, such as England, Claire, or Hoover.

Cat

House

School

Britain

Harry

Book

Hatred

‘My sister went to school.‘

Verbs

Verbs are words that show action, event, feeling, or state of being. This can be a physical action or event, or it can be a feeling that is experienced.

Lexical verbs are considered one of the four main word classes, and auxiliary verbs are not. Lexical verbs are the main verb in a sentence that shows action, event, feeling, or state of being, such as walk, ran, felt, and want, whereas an auxiliary verb helps the main verb and expresses grammatical meaning, such as has, is, and do.

Run

Walk

Swim

Curse

Wish

Help

Leave

‘She wished for a sunny day.’

Adjectives

Adjectives are words used to modify nouns, usually by describing them. Adjectives describe an attribute, quality, or state of being of the noun.

Long

Short

Friendly

Broken

Loud

Embarrassed

Dull

Boring

‘The friendly woman wore a beautiful dress.’

Fig 1. Adjectives can describe the woman and the dress

Adverbs

Adverbs are words that work alongside verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. They provide further descriptions of how, where, when, and how often something is done.

Quickly

Softly

Very

Too

Loudly

‘The music was too loud.’

All of the above examples are lexical word classes and carry most of the meaning in a sentence. They make up the majority of the words in the English language.

The other five word classes

The other five remaining word classes are; prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, and interjections. These words are considered functional words and are used to explain grammatical and structural relationships between words.

For example, prepositions can be used to explain where one object is in relation to another.

Prepositions

Prepositions are used to show the relationship between words in terms of place, time, direction, and agency.

Towards

Through

Into

With

‘They went through the tunnel.’

Pronouns

Pronouns take the place of a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence. They often refer to a noun that has already been mentioned and are commonly used to avoid repetition.

Chloe (noun) → she (pronoun)

Chloe’s dog → her dog (possessive pronoun)

There are several different types of pronouns; let’s look at some examples of each.

He, she, it, they — personal pronouns

His, hers, its, theirs, mine, ours — possessive pronouns

Himself, herself, myself, ourselves, themselves — reflexive pronouns

This, that, those, these — demonstrative pronouns

Anyone, somebody, everyone, anything, something — Indefinite pronouns

Which, what, that, who, who — Relative pronouns

‘She sat on the chair which was broken.’

Determiners

Determiners work alongside nouns to clarify information about the quantity, location, or ownership of the noun. It ‘determines’ exactly what is being referred to. Much like pronouns, there are also several different types of determiners.

The, a, an — articles

This, that, those — you might recognise these for demonstrative pronouns are also determiners

One, two, three etc. — cardinal numbers

First, second, third etc. — ordinal numbers

Some, most, all — quantifiers

Other, another — difference words

‘The first restaurant is better than the other.’

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words that connect other words, phrases, and clauses together within a sentence. There are three main types of conjunctions;

Coordinating conjunctions — these link independent clauses together.
Subordinating conjunctions — these link dependent clauses to independent clauses.
Correlative conjunctions — words that work in pairs to join two parts of a sentence of equal importance.

For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so — coordinating conjunctions

After, as, because, when, while, before, if, even though — subordinating conjunctions

Either/or, neither/nor, both/and — correlative conjunctions

‘If it rains, I’m not going out.’

Interjections

Interjections are exclamatory words used to express an emotion or a reaction. They often stand alone from the rest of the sentence and are accompanied by an exclamation mark.

Oops!

Phew!

Ahh!

‘Oh, what a surprise!’

Word class: lexical classes and function classes

A helpful way to understand lexical word classes is to see them as the building blocks of sentences. If the lexical word classes are the blocks themselves, then the function word classes are the cement holding the words together and giving structure to the sentence.

Fig 2. Lexical and functional word classes

In this diagram, the lexical classes are in blue and the function classes are in yellow. We can see that the words in blue provide the key information, and the words in yellow bring this information together in a structured way.

Word class examples

Sometimes it can be tricky to know exactly which word class a word belongs to. Some words can function as more than one word class depending on how they are used in a sentence. For this reason, we must look at words in context, i.e. how a word works within the sentence. Take a look at the following examples of word classes to see the importance of word class categorisation.

The dog will bark if you open the door.

The tree bark was dark and rugged.

Here we can see that the same word (bark) has a different meaning and different word class in each sentence. In the first example, ‘bark’ is used as a verb, and in the second as a noun (an object in this case).

I left my sunglasses on the beach.

The horse stood on Sarah’s left foot.

In the first sentence, the word ‘left’ is used as a verb (an action), and in the second, it is used to modify the noun (foot). In this case, it is an adjective.

I run every day

I went for a run

In this example, ‘run’ can be a verb or a noun.

Word Class — Key takeaways

We group words into word classes based on the function they perform in a sentence.
The four main word classes are nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. These are lexical classes that give meaning to a sentence.
The other five word classes are prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, and interjections. These are function classes that are used to explain grammatical and structural relationships between words.
It is important to look at the context of a sentence in order to work out which word class a word belongs to.

Frequently Asked Questions about Word Class

A word class is a group of words that have similar properties and play a similar role in a sentence.

Some examples of how some words can function as more than one word class include the way ‘run’ can be a verb (‘I run every day’) or a noun (‘I went for a run’). Similarly, ‘well’ can be an adverb (‘He plays the guitar well’) or an adjective (‘She’s feeling well today’).

The nine word classes are; Nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, interjections.

Categorising words into word classes helps us to understand the function the word is playing within a sentence.

Parts of speech is another term for word classes.

The different groups of word classes include lexical classes that act as the building blocks of a sentence e.g. nouns. The other word classes are function classes that act as the ‘glue’ and give grammatical information in a sentence e.g. prepositions.

The word classes for all, that, and the is:
‘All’ = determiner (quantifier)
‘That’ = pronoun and/or determiner (demonstrative pronoun)
‘The’ = determiner (article)

Final Word Class Quiz

Word Class Quiz — Teste dein Wissen

Question

A word can only belong to one type of noun. True or false?

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Answer

This is false. A word can belong to multiple categories of nouns and this may change according to the context of the word.

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Question

Name the two principal categories of nouns.

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Answer

The two principal types of nouns are ‘common nouns’ and ‘proper nouns’.

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Question

Which of the following is an example of a proper noun?

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Question

Name the 6 types of common nouns discussed in the text.

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Answer

Concrete nouns, abstract nouns, countable nouns, uncountable nouns, collective nouns, and compound nouns.

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Question

What is the difference between a concrete noun and an abstract noun?

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Answer

A concrete noun is a thing that physically exists. We can usually touch this thing and measure its proportions. An abstract noun, however, does not physically exist. It is a concept, idea, or feeling that only exists within the mind.

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Question

Pick out the concrete noun from the following:

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Question

Pick out the abstract noun from the following:

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Question

What is the difference between a countable and an uncountable noun? Can you think of an example for each?

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Answer

A countable noun is a thing that can be ‘counted’, i.e. it can exist in the plural. Some examples include ‘bottle’, ‘dog’ and ‘boy’. These are often concrete nouns.

An uncountable noun is something that can not be counted, so you often cannot place a number in front of it. Examples include ‘love’, ‘joy’, and ‘milk’.

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Question

Pick out the collective noun from the following:

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Question

What is the collective noun for a group of sheep?

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Answer

The collective noun is a ‘flock’, as in ‘flock of sheep’.

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Question

The word ‘greenhouse’ is a compound noun. True or false?

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Answer

This is true. The word ‘greenhouse’ is a compound noun as it is made up of two separate words ‘green’ and ‘house’. These come together to form a new word.

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Question

What are the adjectives in this sentence?: ‘The little boy climbed up the big, green tree’

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Answer

The adjectives are ‘little’ and ‘big’, and ‘green’ as they describe features about the nouns.

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Question

Place the adjectives in this sentence into the correct order: the wooden blue big ship sailed across the Indian vast scary ocean.

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Answer

The big, blue, wooden ship sailed across the vast, scary, Indian ocean.

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Question

What are the 3 different positions in which an adjective can be placed?

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Answer

An adjective can be placed before a noun (pre-modification), after a noun (post-modification), or following a verb as a complement.

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Question

In this sentence, does the adjective pre-modify or post-modify the noun? ‘The unicorn is angry’.

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Answer

The adjective ‘angry’ post-modifies the noun ‘unicorn’.

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Question

In this sentence, does the adjective pre-modify or post-modify the noun? ‘It is a scary unicorn’.

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Answer

The adjective ‘scary’ pre-modifies the noun ‘unicorn’.

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Question

What kind of adjectives are ‘purple’ and ‘shiny’?

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Answer

‘Purple’ and ‘Shiny’ are qualitative adjectives as they describe a quality or feature of a noun

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Question

What kind of adjectives are ‘ugly’ and ‘easy’?

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Answer

The words ‘ugly’ and ‘easy’ are evaluative adjectives as they give a subjective opinion on the noun.

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Question

Which of the following adjectives is an absolute adjective?

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Question

Which of these adjectives is a classifying adjective?

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Question

Convert the noun ‘quick’ to its comparative form.

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Answer

The comparative form of ‘quick’ is ‘quicker’.

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Question

Convert the noun ‘slow’ to its superlative form.

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Answer

The comparative form of ‘slow’ is ‘slowest’.

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Question

What is an adjective phrase?

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Answer

An adjective phrase is a group of words that is ‘built’ around the adjective (it takes centre stage in the sentence). For example, in the phrase ‘the dog is big’ the word ‘big’ is the most important information.

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Question

Give 2 examples of suffixes that are typical of adjectives.

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Answer

Suffixes typical of adjectives include -able, -ible, -ful, -y, -less, -ous, -some, -ive, -ish, -al.

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Question

What is the difference between a main verb and an auxiliary verb?

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Answer

A main verb is a verb that can stand on its own and carries most of the meaning in a verb phrase. For example, ‘run’, ‘find’. Auxiliary verbs cannot stand alone, instead, they work alongside a main verb and ‘help’ the verb to express more grammatical information e.g. tense, mood, possibility.

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Question

What is the difference between a primary auxiliary verb and a modal auxiliary verb?

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Answer

Primary auxiliary verbs consist of the various forms of ‘to have’, ‘to be’, and ‘to do’ e.g. ‘had’, ‘was’, ‘done’. They help to express a verb’s tense, voice, or mood. Modal auxiliary verbs show possibility, ability, permission, or obligation. There are 9 auxiliary verbs including ‘could’, ‘will’, might’.

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Question

Which of the following are primary auxiliary verbs?

Is
Play
Have
Run
Does
Could

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Answer

The primary auxiliary verbs in this list are ‘is’, ‘have’, and ‘does’. They are all forms of the main primary auxiliary verbs ‘to have’, ‘to be’, and ‘to do’. ‘Play’ and ‘run’ are main verbs and ‘could’ is a modal auxiliary verb.

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Question

Name 6 out of the 9 modal auxiliary verbs.

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Answer

Answers include: Could, would, should, may, might, can, will, must, shall

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Question

‘The fairies were asleep’. In this sentence, is the verb ‘were’ a linking verb or an auxiliary verb?

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Answer

The word ‘were’ is used as a linking verb as it stands alone in the sentence. It is used to link the subject (fairies) and the adjective (asleep).

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Question

What is the difference between dynamic verbs and stative verbs?

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Answer

A dynamic verb describes an action or process done by a noun or subject. They are thought of as ‘action verbs’ e.g. ‘kick’, ‘run’, ‘eat’. Stative verbs describe the state of being of a person or thing. These are states that are not necessarily physical action e.g. ‘know’, ‘love’, ‘suppose’.

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Question

Which of the following are dynamic verbs and which are stative verbs?

Drink
Prefer
Talk
Seem
Understand
Write

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Answer

The dynamic verbs are ‘drink’, ‘talk’, and ‘write’ as they all describe an action. The stative verbs are ‘prefer’, ‘seem’, and ‘understand’ as they all describe a state of being.

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Question

What is an imperative verb?

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Answer

Imperative verbs are verbs used to give orders, give instructions, make a request or give warning. They tell someone to do something. For example, ‘clean your room!’.

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Question

Inflections give information about tense, person, number, mood, or voice. True or false?

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Question

What information does the inflection ‘-ing’ give for a verb?

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Answer

The inflection ‘-ing’ is often used to show that an action or state is continuous and ongoing.

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Question

How do you know if a verb is irregular?

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Answer

An irregular verb does not take the regular inflections, instead the whole word is spelt a different way. For example, begin becomes ‘began’ or ‘begun’. We can’t add the regular past tense inflection -ed as this would become ‘beginned’ which doesn’t make sense.

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Question

Suffixes can never signal what word class a word belongs to. True or false?

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Answer

False. Suffixes can signal what word class a word belongs to. For example, ‘-ify’ is a common suffix for verbs (‘identity’, ‘simplify’)

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Question

A verb phrase is built around a noun. True or false?

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Answer

False. A verb phrase is a group of words that has a main verb along with any other auxiliary verbs that ‘help’ the main verb. For example, ‘could eat’ is a verb phrase as it contains a main verb (‘could’) and an auxiliary verb (‘could’).

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Question

Which of the following are multi-word verbs?

Shake
Rely on
Dancing
Look up to

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Answer

The verbs ‘rely on’ and ‘look up to’ are multi-word verbs as they consist of a verb that has one or more prepositions or particles linked to it.

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Question

What is the difference between a transition verb and an intransitive verb?

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Answer

Transitive verbs are verbs that require an object in order to make sense. For example, the word ‘bring’ requires an object that is brought (‘I bring news’). Intransitive verbs do not require an object to complete the meaning of the sentence e.g. ‘exist’ (‘I exist’).

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Answer

An adverb is a word that gives more information about a verb, adjective, another adverb, or a full clause.

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Question

What are the 3 ways we can use adverbs?

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Answer

We can use adverbs to modify a word (modifying adverbs), to intensify a word (intensifying adverbs), or to connect two clauses (connecting adverbs).

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Question

What are modifying adverbs?

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Answer

Modifying adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They add further information about the word.

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Question

‘Additionally’, ‘likewise’, and ‘consequently’ are examples of connecting adverbs. True or false?

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Answer

True! Connecting adverbs are words used to connect two independent clauses.

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Question

What are intensifying adverbs?

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Answer

Intensifying adverbs are words used to strengthen the meaning of an adjective, another adverb, or a verb. In other words, they ‘intensify’ another word.

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Question

Which of the following are intensifying adverbs?

Calmly
Incredibly
Enough
Greatly

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Answer

The intensifying adverbs are ‘incredibly’ and ‘greatly’. These strengthen the meaning of a word.

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Question

Name the main types of adverbs

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Answer

The main adverbs are; adverbs of place, adverbs of time, adverbs of manner, adverbs of frequency, adverbs of degree, adverbs of probability, and adverbs of purpose.

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Question

What are adverbs of time?

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Answer

Adverbs of time are the ‘when?’ adverbs. They answer the question ‘when is the action done?’ e.g. ‘I’ll do it tomorrow’

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Question

Which of the following are adverbs of frequency?

Usually
Patiently
Occasionally
Nowhere

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Answer

The adverbs of frequency are ‘usually’ and ‘occasionally’. They are the ‘how often?’ adverbs. They answer the question ‘how often is the action done?’.

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Question

What are adverbs of place?

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Answer

Adverbs of place are the ‘where?’ adverbs. They answer the question ‘where is the action done?’. For example, ‘outside’ or ‘elsewhere’.

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Question

Which of the following are adverbs of manner?

Never
Carelessly
Kindly
Inside

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Answer

The words ‘carelessly’ and ‘kindly’ are adverbs of manner. They are the ‘how?’ adverbs that answer the question ‘how is the action done?’.

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Источник

In English grammar, a word class is a set of words that display the same formal properties, especially their inflections and distribution. The term «word class» is similar to the more traditional term, part of speech. It is also variously called grammatical category, lexical category, and syntactic category (although these terms are not wholly or universally synonymous).

The two major families of word classes are lexical (or open or form) classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) and function (or closed or structure) classes (determiners, particles, prepositions, and others).

Examples and Observations

«When linguists began to look closely at English grammatical structure in the 1940s and 1950s, they encountered so many problems of identification and definition that the term part of speech soon fell out of favor, word class being introduced instead. Word classes are equivalent to parts of speech, but defined according to strict linguistic criteria.» (David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2003)
«There is no single correct way of analyzing words into word classes…Grammarians disagree about the boundaries between the word classes (see gradience), and it is not always clear whether to lump subcategories together or to split them. For example, in some grammars…pronouns are classed as nouns, whereas in other frameworks…they are treated as a separate word class.» (Bas Aarts, Sylvia Chalker, Edmund Weiner, The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, 2014)

Form Classes and Structure Classes

«[The] distinction between lexical and grammatical meaning determines the first division in our classification: form-class words and structure-class words. In general, the form classes provide the primary lexical content; the structure classes explain the grammatical or structural relationship. Think of the form-class words as the bricks of the language and the structure words as the mortar that holds them together.»

The form classes also known as content words or open classes include:

Nouns
Verbs
Adjectives
Adverbs

The structure classes, also known as function words or closed classes, include:

Determiners
Pronouns
Auxiliaries
Conjunctions
Qualifiers
Interrogatives
Prepositions
Expletives
Particles

«Probably the most striking difference between the form classes and the structure classes is characterized by their numbers. Of the half million or more words in our language, the structure words—with some notable exceptions—can be counted in the hundreds. The form classes, however, are large, open classes; new nouns and verbs and adjectives and adverbs regularly enter the language as new technology and new ideas require them.» (Martha Kolln and Robert Funk, Understanding English Grammar. Allyn and Bacon, 1998)

One Word, Multiple Classes

«Items may belong to more than one class. In most instances, we can only assign a word to a word class when we encounter it in context. Looks is a verb in ‘It looks good,’ but a noun in ‘She has good looks‘; that is a conjunction in ‘I know that they are abroad,’ but a pronoun in ‘I know that‘ and a determiner in ‘I know that man’; one is a generic pronoun in ‘One must be careful not to offend them,’ but a numeral in ‘Give me one good reason.'» (Sidney Greenbaum, Oxford English Grammar. Oxford University Press, 1996)

Suffixes as Signals

«We recognize the class of a word by its use in context. Some words have suffixes (endings added to words to form new words) that help to signal the class they belong to. These suffixes are not necessarily sufficient in themselves to identify the class of a word. For example, -ly is a typical suffix for adverbs (slowly, proudly), but we also find this suffix in adjectives: cowardly, homely, manly. And we can sometimes convert words from one class to another even though they have suffixes that are typical of their original class: an engineer, to engineer; a negative response, a negative.» (Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson, An Introduction to English Grammar, 3rd ed. Pearson, 2009)

A Matter of Degree

«[N]ot all the members of a class will necessarily have all the identifying properties. Membership in a particular class is really a matter of degree. In this regard, grammar is not so different from the real world. There are prototypical sports like ‘football’ and not so sporty sports like ‘darts.’ There are exemplary mammals like ‘dogs’ and freakish ones like the ‘platypus.’ Similarly, there are good examples of verbs like watch and lousy examples like beware; exemplary nouns like chair that display all the features of a typical noun and some not so good ones like Kenny.» (Kersti Börjars and Kate Burridge, Introducing English Grammar, 2nd ed. Hodder, 2010)

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From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

In linguistics, function words (also called functors)^[1] are words that have little lexical meaning or have ambiguous meaning and express grammatical relationships among other words within a sentence, or specify the attitude or mood of the speaker. They signal the structural relationships that words have to one another and are the glue that holds sentences together. Thus they form important elements in the structures of sentences.^[2]

Words that are not function words are called content words (or open class words, lexical words, or autosemantic words) and include nouns, most verbs, adjectives, and most adverbs although some adverbs are function words (like then and why). Dictionaries define the specific meanings of content words but can describe only the general usages of function words. By contrast, grammars describe the use of function words in detail but treat lexical words only in general terms.

Since it was first proposed in 1952 by C. C. Fries, the distinguishing of function/structure words from content/lexical words has been highly influential in the grammar used in second-language acquisition and English-language teaching.^[3]

Overview[edit]

Function words might be prepositions, pronouns, auxiliary verbs, conjunctions, grammatical articles or particles, all of which belong to the group of closed-class words. Interjections are sometimes considered function words but they belong to the group of open-class words. Function words might or might not be inflected or might have affixes.

Function words belong to the closed class of words in grammar because it is very uncommon to have new function words created in the course of speech. In the open class of words, i.e., nouns, verbs, adjectives, or adverbs, new words may be added readily, such as slang words, technical terms, and adoptions and adaptations of foreign words.

Each function word either: gives grammatical information about other words in a sentence or clause, and cannot be isolated from other words; or gives information about the speaker’s mental model as to what is being said.

Grammatical words, as a class, can have distinct phonological properties from content words. Grammatical words sometimes do not make full use of all the sounds in a language. For example, in some of the Khoisan languages, most content words begin with clicks, but very few function words do.^[4] In English, very few words other than function words begin with the voiced th [ð]^{[citation needed]}. English function words may have fewer than three letters; e.g., ‘I’, ‘an’, ‘in’, while non-function words usually have three or more (e.g., ‘eye’, ‘Ann’, ‘inn’).

The following is a list of the kind of words considered to be function words with English examples. They are all uninflected in English unless marked otherwise:

articles — the and a. In some inflected languages, the articles may take on the case of the declension of the following noun.
pronouns — he :: him, she :: her, etc. — inflected in English
adpositions — in, under, towards, before, of, for, etc.
conjunctions — and and but
subordinating conjunctions — if, then, well, however, thus, etc.
auxiliary verbs — would, could, should, etc. — inflected in English
particles — up, on, down
interjections — oh, ah, eh, sometimes called «filled pauses»
expletives — take the place of sentences, among other functions.
pro-sentences — yes, no, okay, etc.

References[edit]

^ Rudolf Carnap, The Logical Syntax of Language, Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1937, pp. 13–14.
^ Klammer, Thomas, Muriel R. Schulz and Angela Della Volpe. (2009). Analyzing English Grammar (6th ed).Longman.
^ Fries, Charles Carpenter (1952). The Structure of English. New York: Harcourt Brace.
^ Westphal, E.O.J. (1971), «The click languages of Southern and Eastern Africa», in Sebeok, T.A. (ed.), Current trends in Linguistics, Vol. 7: Linguistics in Sub-Saharan Africa, Berlin: Mouton

External links[edit]

Short list of 225 English function words

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Описание презентации по отдельным слайдам:

1 слайд

Word Classes in Grammar
Lecture 3
2 слайд

Outline:
Traditional parts of speech
Criteria for their distinguishing.
The system of parts of speech in English.
Notional and formal words.
Other classifications
4 слайд

Tradional and conventional term

part

speech

language

?
5 слайд

Origin of the term
Ancient Greece — 2nd century B.C.
6 слайд

Parts of
speech
N
Adj
Adv
V
Pron
Num
7 слайд

A word class is a group of words, which, from a grammatical point of view, behave in the same way.
(D. Crystal, 1995)
8 слайд

A part of speech is a type of word differing from other types in some grammatical point. (B.A.Ilyish, 1971)

V vs. N => tense is a distinctive feature
*What is the past tense of the word ‘city’ ?
9 слайд

Three Criteria for Distinguishing Parts of Speech
semantics
syntax
morphology
form
meaning
function,
position
10 слайд

Part of speech criteria
O. Jespersen (1933, 2007).
Three criteria from Russian linguistics:
V.V. Vinogradov,
L.V. Scherba
A.I. Smirnitsky
B.A. Ilyish
Interrelated criteria (E.Kubryakova 1979)
11 слайд

Part of Speech Criteria
Semantic – conceptual categorial aspect, generalized abstract meaning common to a class of words:
noun — substance
adjective – property, quality
verb– process /action / state
adverb – aspect of quality, action or state

Generalized grammatical meaning is based on lexical meanings of words.
12 слайд

Part of speech criteria
2. Morphological – every part of speech has its own system of grammar forms:
noun – common and possessive case, singular and plural number
verb – mood (indicative, imperative, subjunctive), tense and aspect, voice (active-passive), person, number
adjective – degrees of comparison
adverb — indeclinable

Formal criterion provides for the exposition of the paradigmatic inflectional and specific derivational features of the class.
13 слайд

Part of speech criteria
3. Syntactical — function as part of a sentence and position in the sentence :
noun — subject (SV)
— object (VO)
verb – predicate (primarily)
adjective – attribute (Adj + N)
adverb – adverbial modifier
The functional criterion concerns the syntactic role of words in the sentence typical of a part of speech and word combinability.
14 слайд

e.g., noun
Semantic criterion:
Morphological criterion:

Syntactical criterion:
Substance, thingness
Singular –plural
common – possessive case
Suffixes: -ness, -tion, -er…
Functions: Subject, object, predicative
Modification by an adj
15 слайд

adjective
1. Semantic criterion:

2. Morphological criterion:

3. Syntactical criterion:

Property (qualitative and relative)
Degrees of comparison (for qualitative adj)
Suffixes: -al, -y, -ish
Function: attribute, predicative
Adj + N
16 слайд

verb
Semantic criterion:
Morphological criterion:

Syntactical criterion:

Process
Mood, tense, aspect, voice, person, number
Finite- non-finite forms
Suffixes: -ize, -ate
Predicate for finite forms; mixed (V + N/Adj) for verbals
V + Adv
17 слайд

adverb
1. Semantic criterion:

2. Morphological criterion:

3. Syntactical criterion:

Secondary property (property of a process or another property)degrees of comparison for qualitative adv
Suffix: -ly
Adverbial modifier
Adv+V; Adv+Adj
18 слайд

interjection
1. Semantic criterion:

2. Morphological criterion:

3. Syntactical criterion:

Express feelings

Invariable

Parenthesis
19 слайд

pronoun
Semantic criterion:

Morphological criterion:

Syntactical criterion:

Indication (deixis) (pointing to things or properties without naming them)
Some – number, case, person
Substantival and adjectival functions
20 слайд

Linguistics abroad:
pronoun
noun
adj
21 слайд

numeral
1. Semantic criterion:

2. Morphological criterion:

3. Syntactical criterion:

Number (cardinal) or place in a series (ordinal)
Invariable
-teen, -ty; -th
Numerical attribute or numerical substantive
Num+N
22 слайд

Criticism of parts of speech
Unevenness of the classificatory criteria
Transition of parts of speech
Homophony
No universal categories within a class
23 слайд

Unevenness of the classificatory criteria
The criteria are partially contradictory and overlapping
E.g., numeral: meaning = quantity

thousands of people => noun
many people => pronoun
24 слайд

Adjective is a word modifying a noun.
N
Here is a toy car. ?
Adj
25 слайд

Adverb — indeclinable
well – better – best
a catch-all class that includes words with many different functions
-ly is an adverb marker, but early, friendly, ugly are adjectives;
tomorrow, fast, crosswise = adv
26 слайд

Not all three criteria are applicable to all parts of speech. Some of them may fail.

E.g. , semantic:
N vs. V = substance : process
We had a walk.
27 слайд

Transition of parts of speech
Conversion:
Water, break, outlaw, laser, microwave and telephone

N or V ?
We must look to the hows and not just the whys.
28 слайд

Homophony
I hear a loud sound.
They sound like bells.
I have a sound reason.
29 слайд

No universality within a class
Not all nouns have possessive case
Not all verbs have a passive voice form
Not all adjectives have comparison forms
30 слайд

Are there English words that are not included in any part of speech?

Yes. No.
31 слайд

Classifications of parts of speech
32 слайд

traditional
Parts of speech are lexico-grammatical (A.Smirnitsky) classes that differ by their general semantic features, morphological forms, and syntactical functions.
33 слайд

Traditional classification
Eight major classes of words (Plato & Aristotle, Dionysius Thrax; 18th century):
noun
verb
adjective
adverb
interjection
preposition
conjunction
pronoun
34 слайд

Russian linguists (B.A. Ilyish, V. Zhigadlo, I. Ivanova, L. Iofik) add:
numerals,
statives,
modal words, and
particles.

not distinguished
internationally
35 слайд

Stative: asleep, afire, afraid or Adj?
1. Semantic criterion:

2. Morphological criterion:

3. Syntactical criterion:

State (not property)

Invariable
Prefix a-

Predicative, attrib.
Be+Stative; N+S (a man asleep in his chair)
36 слайд

Particles: only, even, just (or Adv?)
1. Semantic criterion:

2. Morphological criterion:

3. Syntactical criterion:

Subjective emphasis or limitation

Invariable

Combine with any part of speech
No syntactic function
37 слайд

Modal words: perhaps, possibly (or Adv?)
1. Semantic criterion:

2. Morphological criterion:

3. Syntactical criterion:

The speker’s evaluation of the relation btw an action & reality
Invariable

Parenthesis
38 слайд

Notional and functional
parts of speech
39 слайд

Parts of speech

notional

= part of a sentence.
Less frequent

She turned round.
functional

≠ part of a sentence
= analytical form of a part of the sentence.
More frequent

She turned round the house.
40 слайд

Parts of speech

notional

= part of a sentence
She turned round.
functional

≠ part of a sentence
= analytical form of a part of the sentence

She turned round the house.
deictic
41 слайд

Notional parts of speech are words with lexical meaning; they have nominative function.
notional
noun
adjective
verb
adverb

pronoun
numeral
42 слайд

Functional (formal, structural) parts of speech serve to show relations between notional words.
functional
preposition
conjunction
article
particle

interjection
Modal word
43 слайд

Functional (formal, structural) parts of speech
Syntactic
functions
Prepositions
Conjuctions

Morphological
functions
Articles
Auxiliary verbs
44 слайд

Functional parts of speech (form)
Invariable
Phonetically weak
45 слайд

Functional parts of speech (meaning)
The book is on the desk.
The book is under the desk.

She did not speak because she was tired.
She did not speak though she was tired.

E. Kubryakova (1979): function words also have a nominative function = relating to an extra-linguistic element. They reveal place of objects and actions in time and space.
46 слайд

Functional parts of speech
Article
Preposition
Conjunction
Particle

Modal words
Interjections

Expresses specific limitation of the substantive function
Expresses (inter)dependencies of substantive referents
Expresses connections of phenomena
Unites functional words of specifying or limiting meaning
Expresses the attitude of the speaker
Signal emotions

Part of speech
Role (meaning) in the sentence
47 слайд

Disputable: notional or functional?
Modal verbs
Auxiliary verbs

I.P. Ivanova (1981):
Functional parts of speech vs. functional words
48 слайд

Disputable: notional or functional?
Modal verbs
Auxiliary verbs

I.P. Ivanova (1981):
Functonal parts of speech vs. functional words
49 слайд

I.P. Ivanova:

Functional words are notional words that have lost, under certain conditions, their lexical meaning and have maintained only grammatical function.

Cf. I have a new TV set.
I have lost my gloves.
50 слайд

Deictic function of pronouns
Take it away!
Where is the sales assistant who sold me these shoes?
Deictic
(situational)
Anaphoric
(contextual)
51 слайд

Deictic words
Deictic words (Grk. deixis “indicate”) refer to the personal, temporal, or spacial aspect of an utterance act. Their designation is, therefore, dependent on the context of the speech situation.–
pronouns
adverbs
52 слайд

Other classifications
53 слайд

Morphological classification
H.Sweet:
declinables (nouns, adj, verbs)
Indeclinables (adverbs, prepositions, conjuncts, interjections)
54 слайд

Enlarging classes
Connectors (W. Plotkin) / connectives (L.Barkhudarov & D. Shteling) / conjuncts (D.Crystal):
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Determinatives (L.Barkhudarov & D. Shteling), determiners (D.Crystal, CGE)
Adjectives
Articles
Pronouns
55 слайд

Open and closed classes
(R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, J. Svartvik, 1972, 1982)
N
Adj
Adv
V
Article
Pronouns
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Interjections

Open classes
Closed classes (ab. 150)
56 слайд

Narrower principle of identification
Syntactico-distributional classification (L. Bloomfield, Z. Harris, Ch. Fries)
No criterion of meaning (Woggles ugged diggles.)
Study of word combinability by means of substitution testing
4 main positional (notional) classes (frames): N, V, A(dj), D (adv)
Words outside the “positions” are functional – 15 groups:
Specifiers of nouns, verbs, adj, adv.
Relation determiners (prep, conj)
Referring to the sentence as a whole (how, which; lets, please; attention-getters; yes, no; introductory it & there)
57 слайд

Field theory
(V. Admoni, 1968; G.Schur, 1974, 2007)
Nuclear (words possessing all the properties of a certain part of speech) and periphery
E.g., nouns with the meaning of process (walk, run) are in the margin of the noun field, in the overlapping sector with the verb field.
There is no strict borderline between parts of speech, they are able to converge.
58 слайд

Three little words you often see
Are ARTICLES: a, an, and the.

A NOUN’s the name of anything,
As: school or garden, toy, or swing.

ADJECTIVES tell the kind of noun,
As: great, small, pretty, white, or brown.

VERBS tell of something being done:
To read, write, count, sing, jump, or run.

How things are done the ADVERBS tell,
As: slowly, quickly, badly, well.

CONJUNCTIONS join the words together,
As: men and women, wind or weather.

The PREPOSITION stands before
A noun as: in or through a door.

The INTERJECTION shows surprise
As: Oh, how pretty! Ah! how wise!

The whole are called the PARTS of SPEECH,
Which reading, writing, speaking teach.
59 слайд

Адмони В.Г. Полевая структура частей речи // Вопросы теории частей речи. Л., 1968, с. 98-106
Бархударов Л.С., Штелинг Д.А. Грамматика АЯ. — М.: ВШ, 1973
Блох М.Я. Теоретическая грамматика АЯ. – М.,1983.
Есперсен О. Философия грамматики. — М.: УРСС, 2002.
Иванова И.П., Бурлакова В.В., Почепцов Г.Г. Теоретическая грамматика современного АЯ. – М., 1981.
Иофик Л.Л., Чахоян Л.П. Хрестоматия по теоретической грамматике АЯ. – Л.: Просвещение, 1972
Ильиш Б.А. Строй современного английского языка. – Л., 1971.
Кубрякова Е.С. Части речи в ономасиологическом освещении. – М.: Наука. 1978
Плоткин В.Я. Строй английского языка. – М.: ВШ, 1989
Смирницкий А.И. Морфология АЯ. – М., 1959.
Щерба Л.В. Языковая система и речевая деятельность. – Л.: Наука, 1974
Щур Г.С. Теории поля в лигвистике. Изд. 2-е. –М.: Изд-во ЛКИ, 2007

Literature
60 слайд

Literature
CGE = Carter R., McCarthy M. Cambridge Grammar of English. – CUP, 2006
Crystal D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. – CUP, 1995
Fries Ch. The structure of English. New York, 1952.
Quirk R., Greenbaum S., Leech G., Svartvik J. A University Grammar of English. – Moscow: Vyssaja Skola, Longman, 1982..
Sweet H. A New English grammar. Logical and historical. Oxford, 1940. Part 1 & 2.

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7.The noun. The category of number

Select your language

Word class meaning and example

Word class function

Word classes in English

The four main word classes

Nouns

Verbs

Adjectives

Adverbs

The other five word classes

Prepositions

Pronouns

Determiners

Conjunctions

Interjections

Word class: lexical classes and function classes

Word class examples

Word Class — Key takeaways

Frequently Asked Questions about Word Class

Final Word Class Quiz

Word Class Quiz — Teste dein Wissen

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Smart Reminders

Rewards

Magic Marker

Smart Formatting

Examples and Observations

Form Classes and Structure Classes

One Word, Multiple Classes

Suffixes as Signals

A Matter of Degree

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See also[edit]

References[edit]

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