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Words don’t only mean something; they also do something. In the English language, words are grouped into word classes based on their function, i.e. what they do in a phrase or sentence. In total, there are nine word classes in English.

Word class meaning and example

All words can be categorised into classes within a language based on their function and purpose.

An example of various word classes is ‘The cat ate a cupcake quickly.’

The = a determiner
cat = a noun
ate = a verb
a = determiner
cupcake = noun
quickly = an adverb

Word class function

The function of a word class, also known as a part of speech, is to classify words according to their grammatical properties and the roles they play in sentences. By assigning words to different word classes, we can understand how they should be used in context and how they relate to other words in a sentence.

Each word class has its own unique set of characteristics and rules for usage, and understanding the function of word classes is essential for effective communication in English. Knowing our word classes allows us to create clear and grammatically correct sentences that convey our intended meaning.

Word classes in English

In English, there are four main word classes; nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. These are considered lexical words, and they provide the main meaning of a phrase or sentence.

The other five word classes are; prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, and interjections. These are considered functional words, and they provide structural and relational information in a sentence or phrase.

Don’t worry if it sounds a bit confusing right now. Read ahead and you’ll be a master of the different types of word classes in no time!

All word classes	Definition	Examples of word classification
Noun	A word that represents a person, place, thing, or idea.	cat, house, plant
Pronoun	A word that is used in place of a noun to avoid repetition.	he, she, they, it
Verb	A word that expresses action, occurrence, or state of being.	run, sing, grow
Adjective	A word that describes or modifies a noun or pronoun.	blue, tall, happy
Adverb	A word that describes or modifies a verb, adjective, or other adverb.	quickly, very
Preposition	A word that shows the relationship between a noun or pronoun and other words in a sentence.	in, on, at
Conjunction	A word that connects words, phrases, or clauses.	and, or, but
Interjection	A word that expresses strong emotions or feelings.	wow, oh, ouch
Determiners	A word that clarifies information about the quantity, location, or ownership of the noun	Articles like ‘the’ and ‘an’, and quantifiers like ‘some’ and ‘all’.

The four main word classes

In the English language, there are four main word classes: nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Let’s look at all the word classes in detail.

Nouns

Nouns are the words we use to describe people, places, objects, feelings, concepts, etc. Usually, nouns are tangible (touchable) things, such as a table, a person, or a building.

However, we also have abstract nouns, which are things we can feel and describe but can’t necessarily see or touch, such as love, honour, or excitement. Proper nouns are the names we give to specific and official people, places, or things, such as England, Claire, or Hoover.

Cat

House

School

Britain

Harry

Book

Hatred

‘My sister went to school.‘

Verbs

Verbs are words that show action, event, feeling, or state of being. This can be a physical action or event, or it can be a feeling that is experienced.

Lexical verbs are considered one of the four main word classes, and auxiliary verbs are not. Lexical verbs are the main verb in a sentence that shows action, event, feeling, or state of being, such as walk, ran, felt, and want, whereas an auxiliary verb helps the main verb and expresses grammatical meaning, such as has, is, and do.

Run

Walk

Swim

Curse

Wish

Help

Leave

‘She wished for a sunny day.’

Adjectives

Adjectives are words used to modify nouns, usually by describing them. Adjectives describe an attribute, quality, or state of being of the noun.

Long

Short

Friendly

Broken

Loud

Embarrassed

Dull

Boring

‘The friendly woman wore a beautiful dress.’

Fig 1. Adjectives can describe the woman and the dress

Adverbs

Adverbs are words that work alongside verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. They provide further descriptions of how, where, when, and how often something is done.

Quickly

Softly

Very

Too

Loudly

‘The music was too loud.’

All of the above examples are lexical word classes and carry most of the meaning in a sentence. They make up the majority of the words in the English language.

The other five word classes

The other five remaining word classes are; prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, and interjections. These words are considered functional words and are used to explain grammatical and structural relationships between words.

For example, prepositions can be used to explain where one object is in relation to another.

Prepositions

Prepositions are used to show the relationship between words in terms of place, time, direction, and agency.

Towards

Through

Into

With

‘They went through the tunnel.’

Pronouns

Pronouns take the place of a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence. They often refer to a noun that has already been mentioned and are commonly used to avoid repetition.

Chloe (noun) → she (pronoun)

Chloe’s dog → her dog (possessive pronoun)

There are several different types of pronouns; let’s look at some examples of each.

He, she, it, they — personal pronouns

His, hers, its, theirs, mine, ours — possessive pronouns

Himself, herself, myself, ourselves, themselves — reflexive pronouns

This, that, those, these — demonstrative pronouns

Anyone, somebody, everyone, anything, something — Indefinite pronouns

Which, what, that, who, who — Relative pronouns

‘She sat on the chair which was broken.’

Determiners

Determiners work alongside nouns to clarify information about the quantity, location, or ownership of the noun. It ‘determines’ exactly what is being referred to. Much like pronouns, there are also several different types of determiners.

The, a, an — articles

This, that, those — you might recognise these for demonstrative pronouns are also determiners

One, two, three etc. — cardinal numbers

First, second, third etc. — ordinal numbers

Some, most, all — quantifiers

Other, another — difference words

‘The first restaurant is better than the other.’

Conjunctions

Conjunctions are words that connect other words, phrases, and clauses together within a sentence. There are three main types of conjunctions;

Coordinating conjunctions — these link independent clauses together.
Subordinating conjunctions — these link dependent clauses to independent clauses.
Correlative conjunctions — words that work in pairs to join two parts of a sentence of equal importance.

For, and, nor, but, or, yet, so — coordinating conjunctions

After, as, because, when, while, before, if, even though — subordinating conjunctions

Either/or, neither/nor, both/and — correlative conjunctions

‘If it rains, I’m not going out.’

Interjections

Interjections are exclamatory words used to express an emotion or a reaction. They often stand alone from the rest of the sentence and are accompanied by an exclamation mark.

Oops!

Phew!

Ahh!

‘Oh, what a surprise!’

Word class: lexical classes and function classes

A helpful way to understand lexical word classes is to see them as the building blocks of sentences. If the lexical word classes are the blocks themselves, then the function word classes are the cement holding the words together and giving structure to the sentence.

Fig 2. Lexical and functional word classes

In this diagram, the lexical classes are in blue and the function classes are in yellow. We can see that the words in blue provide the key information, and the words in yellow bring this information together in a structured way.

Word class examples

Sometimes it can be tricky to know exactly which word class a word belongs to. Some words can function as more than one word class depending on how they are used in a sentence. For this reason, we must look at words in context, i.e. how a word works within the sentence. Take a look at the following examples of word classes to see the importance of word class categorisation.

The dog will bark if you open the door.

The tree bark was dark and rugged.

Here we can see that the same word (bark) has a different meaning and different word class in each sentence. In the first example, ‘bark’ is used as a verb, and in the second as a noun (an object in this case).

I left my sunglasses on the beach.

The horse stood on Sarah’s left foot.

In the first sentence, the word ‘left’ is used as a verb (an action), and in the second, it is used to modify the noun (foot). In this case, it is an adjective.

I run every day

I went for a run

In this example, ‘run’ can be a verb or a noun.

Word Class — Key takeaways

We group words into word classes based on the function they perform in a sentence.
The four main word classes are nouns, adjectives, verbs, and adverbs. These are lexical classes that give meaning to a sentence.
The other five word classes are prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, and interjections. These are function classes that are used to explain grammatical and structural relationships between words.
It is important to look at the context of a sentence in order to work out which word class a word belongs to.

Frequently Asked Questions about Word Class

A word class is a group of words that have similar properties and play a similar role in a sentence.

Some examples of how some words can function as more than one word class include the way ‘run’ can be a verb (‘I run every day’) or a noun (‘I went for a run’). Similarly, ‘well’ can be an adverb (‘He plays the guitar well’) or an adjective (‘She’s feeling well today’).

The nine word classes are; Nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, interjections.

Categorising words into word classes helps us to understand the function the word is playing within a sentence.

Parts of speech is another term for word classes.

The different groups of word classes include lexical classes that act as the building blocks of a sentence e.g. nouns. The other word classes are function classes that act as the ‘glue’ and give grammatical information in a sentence e.g. prepositions.

The word classes for all, that, and the is:
‘All’ = determiner (quantifier)
‘That’ = pronoun and/or determiner (demonstrative pronoun)
‘The’ = determiner (article)

Final Word Class Quiz

Word Class Quiz — Teste dein Wissen

Question

A word can only belong to one type of noun. True or false?

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Answer

This is false. A word can belong to multiple categories of nouns and this may change according to the context of the word.

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Question

Name the two principal categories of nouns.

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Answer

The two principal types of nouns are ‘common nouns’ and ‘proper nouns’.

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Question

Which of the following is an example of a proper noun?

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Question

Name the 6 types of common nouns discussed in the text.

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Answer

Concrete nouns, abstract nouns, countable nouns, uncountable nouns, collective nouns, and compound nouns.

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Question

What is the difference between a concrete noun and an abstract noun?

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Answer

A concrete noun is a thing that physically exists. We can usually touch this thing and measure its proportions. An abstract noun, however, does not physically exist. It is a concept, idea, or feeling that only exists within the mind.

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Question

Pick out the concrete noun from the following:

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Question

Pick out the abstract noun from the following:

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Question

What is the difference between a countable and an uncountable noun? Can you think of an example for each?

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Answer

A countable noun is a thing that can be ‘counted’, i.e. it can exist in the plural. Some examples include ‘bottle’, ‘dog’ and ‘boy’. These are often concrete nouns.

An uncountable noun is something that can not be counted, so you often cannot place a number in front of it. Examples include ‘love’, ‘joy’, and ‘milk’.

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Question

Pick out the collective noun from the following:

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Question

What is the collective noun for a group of sheep?

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Answer

The collective noun is a ‘flock’, as in ‘flock of sheep’.

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Question

The word ‘greenhouse’ is a compound noun. True or false?

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Answer

This is true. The word ‘greenhouse’ is a compound noun as it is made up of two separate words ‘green’ and ‘house’. These come together to form a new word.

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Question

What are the adjectives in this sentence?: ‘The little boy climbed up the big, green tree’

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Answer

The adjectives are ‘little’ and ‘big’, and ‘green’ as they describe features about the nouns.

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Question

Place the adjectives in this sentence into the correct order: the wooden blue big ship sailed across the Indian vast scary ocean.

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Answer

The big, blue, wooden ship sailed across the vast, scary, Indian ocean.

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Question

What are the 3 different positions in which an adjective can be placed?

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Answer

An adjective can be placed before a noun (pre-modification), after a noun (post-modification), or following a verb as a complement.

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Question

In this sentence, does the adjective pre-modify or post-modify the noun? ‘The unicorn is angry’.

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Answer

The adjective ‘angry’ post-modifies the noun ‘unicorn’.

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Question

In this sentence, does the adjective pre-modify or post-modify the noun? ‘It is a scary unicorn’.

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Answer

The adjective ‘scary’ pre-modifies the noun ‘unicorn’.

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Question

What kind of adjectives are ‘purple’ and ‘shiny’?

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Answer

‘Purple’ and ‘Shiny’ are qualitative adjectives as they describe a quality or feature of a noun

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Question

What kind of adjectives are ‘ugly’ and ‘easy’?

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Answer

The words ‘ugly’ and ‘easy’ are evaluative adjectives as they give a subjective opinion on the noun.

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Question

Which of the following adjectives is an absolute adjective?

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Question

Which of these adjectives is a classifying adjective?

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Question

Convert the noun ‘quick’ to its comparative form.

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Answer

The comparative form of ‘quick’ is ‘quicker’.

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Question

Convert the noun ‘slow’ to its superlative form.

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Answer

The comparative form of ‘slow’ is ‘slowest’.

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Question

What is an adjective phrase?

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Answer

An adjective phrase is a group of words that is ‘built’ around the adjective (it takes centre stage in the sentence). For example, in the phrase ‘the dog is big’ the word ‘big’ is the most important information.

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Question

Give 2 examples of suffixes that are typical of adjectives.

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Answer

Suffixes typical of adjectives include -able, -ible, -ful, -y, -less, -ous, -some, -ive, -ish, -al.

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Question

What is the difference between a main verb and an auxiliary verb?

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Answer

A main verb is a verb that can stand on its own and carries most of the meaning in a verb phrase. For example, ‘run’, ‘find’. Auxiliary verbs cannot stand alone, instead, they work alongside a main verb and ‘help’ the verb to express more grammatical information e.g. tense, mood, possibility.

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Question

What is the difference between a primary auxiliary verb and a modal auxiliary verb?

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Answer

Primary auxiliary verbs consist of the various forms of ‘to have’, ‘to be’, and ‘to do’ e.g. ‘had’, ‘was’, ‘done’. They help to express a verb’s tense, voice, or mood. Modal auxiliary verbs show possibility, ability, permission, or obligation. There are 9 auxiliary verbs including ‘could’, ‘will’, might’.

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Question

Which of the following are primary auxiliary verbs?

Is
Play
Have
Run
Does
Could

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Answer

The primary auxiliary verbs in this list are ‘is’, ‘have’, and ‘does’. They are all forms of the main primary auxiliary verbs ‘to have’, ‘to be’, and ‘to do’. ‘Play’ and ‘run’ are main verbs and ‘could’ is a modal auxiliary verb.

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Question

Name 6 out of the 9 modal auxiliary verbs.

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Answer

Answers include: Could, would, should, may, might, can, will, must, shall

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Question

‘The fairies were asleep’. In this sentence, is the verb ‘were’ a linking verb or an auxiliary verb?

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Answer

The word ‘were’ is used as a linking verb as it stands alone in the sentence. It is used to link the subject (fairies) and the adjective (asleep).

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Question

What is the difference between dynamic verbs and stative verbs?

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Answer

A dynamic verb describes an action or process done by a noun or subject. They are thought of as ‘action verbs’ e.g. ‘kick’, ‘run’, ‘eat’. Stative verbs describe the state of being of a person or thing. These are states that are not necessarily physical action e.g. ‘know’, ‘love’, ‘suppose’.

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Question

Which of the following are dynamic verbs and which are stative verbs?

Drink
Prefer
Talk
Seem
Understand
Write

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Answer

The dynamic verbs are ‘drink’, ‘talk’, and ‘write’ as they all describe an action. The stative verbs are ‘prefer’, ‘seem’, and ‘understand’ as they all describe a state of being.

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Question

What is an imperative verb?

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Answer

Imperative verbs are verbs used to give orders, give instructions, make a request or give warning. They tell someone to do something. For example, ‘clean your room!’.

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Question

Inflections give information about tense, person, number, mood, or voice. True or false?

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Question

What information does the inflection ‘-ing’ give for a verb?

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Answer

The inflection ‘-ing’ is often used to show that an action or state is continuous and ongoing.

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Question

How do you know if a verb is irregular?

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Answer

An irregular verb does not take the regular inflections, instead the whole word is spelt a different way. For example, begin becomes ‘began’ or ‘begun’. We can’t add the regular past tense inflection -ed as this would become ‘beginned’ which doesn’t make sense.

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Question

Suffixes can never signal what word class a word belongs to. True or false?

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Answer

False. Suffixes can signal what word class a word belongs to. For example, ‘-ify’ is a common suffix for verbs (‘identity’, ‘simplify’)

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Question

A verb phrase is built around a noun. True or false?

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Answer

False. A verb phrase is a group of words that has a main verb along with any other auxiliary verbs that ‘help’ the main verb. For example, ‘could eat’ is a verb phrase as it contains a main verb (‘could’) and an auxiliary verb (‘could’).

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Question

Which of the following are multi-word verbs?

Shake
Rely on
Dancing
Look up to

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Answer

The verbs ‘rely on’ and ‘look up to’ are multi-word verbs as they consist of a verb that has one or more prepositions or particles linked to it.

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Question

What is the difference between a transition verb and an intransitive verb?

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Answer

Transitive verbs are verbs that require an object in order to make sense. For example, the word ‘bring’ requires an object that is brought (‘I bring news’). Intransitive verbs do not require an object to complete the meaning of the sentence e.g. ‘exist’ (‘I exist’).

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Answer

An adverb is a word that gives more information about a verb, adjective, another adverb, or a full clause.

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Question

What are the 3 ways we can use adverbs?

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Answer

We can use adverbs to modify a word (modifying adverbs), to intensify a word (intensifying adverbs), or to connect two clauses (connecting adverbs).

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Question

What are modifying adverbs?

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Answer

Modifying adverbs are words that modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. They add further information about the word.

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Question

‘Additionally’, ‘likewise’, and ‘consequently’ are examples of connecting adverbs. True or false?

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Answer

True! Connecting adverbs are words used to connect two independent clauses.

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Question

What are intensifying adverbs?

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Answer

Intensifying adverbs are words used to strengthen the meaning of an adjective, another adverb, or a verb. In other words, they ‘intensify’ another word.

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Question

Which of the following are intensifying adverbs?

Calmly
Incredibly
Enough
Greatly

Show answer

Answer

The intensifying adverbs are ‘incredibly’ and ‘greatly’. These strengthen the meaning of a word.

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Question

Name the main types of adverbs

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Answer

The main adverbs are; adverbs of place, adverbs of time, adverbs of manner, adverbs of frequency, adverbs of degree, adverbs of probability, and adverbs of purpose.

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Question

What are adverbs of time?

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Answer

Adverbs of time are the ‘when?’ adverbs. They answer the question ‘when is the action done?’ e.g. ‘I’ll do it tomorrow’

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Question

Which of the following are adverbs of frequency?

Usually
Patiently
Occasionally
Nowhere

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Answer

The adverbs of frequency are ‘usually’ and ‘occasionally’. They are the ‘how often?’ adverbs. They answer the question ‘how often is the action done?’.

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Question

What are adverbs of place?

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Answer

Adverbs of place are the ‘where?’ adverbs. They answer the question ‘where is the action done?’. For example, ‘outside’ or ‘elsewhere’.

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Question

Which of the following are adverbs of manner?

Never
Carelessly
Kindly
Inside

Show answer

Answer

The words ‘carelessly’ and ‘kindly’ are adverbs of manner. They are the ‘how?’ adverbs that answer the question ‘how is the action done?’.

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Описание презентации по отдельным слайдам:

1 слайд

Word Classes in Grammar
Lecture 3
2 слайд

Outline:
Traditional parts of speech
Criteria for their distinguishing.
The system of parts of speech in English.
Notional and formal words.
Other classifications
4 слайд

Tradional and conventional term

part

speech

language

?
5 слайд

Origin of the term
Ancient Greece — 2nd century B.C.
6 слайд

Parts of
speech
N
Adj
Adv
V
Pron
Num
7 слайд

A word class is a group of words, which, from a grammatical point of view, behave in the same way.
(D. Crystal, 1995)
8 слайд

A part of speech is a type of word differing from other types in some grammatical point. (B.A.Ilyish, 1971)

V vs. N => tense is a distinctive feature
*What is the past tense of the word ‘city’ ?
9 слайд

Three Criteria for Distinguishing Parts of Speech
semantics
syntax
morphology
form
meaning
function,
position
10 слайд

Part of speech criteria
O. Jespersen (1933, 2007).
Three criteria from Russian linguistics:
V.V. Vinogradov,
L.V. Scherba
A.I. Smirnitsky
B.A. Ilyish
Interrelated criteria (E.Kubryakova 1979)
11 слайд

Part of Speech Criteria
Semantic – conceptual categorial aspect, generalized abstract meaning common to a class of words:
noun — substance
adjective – property, quality
verb– process /action / state
adverb – aspect of quality, action or state

Generalized grammatical meaning is based on lexical meanings of words.
12 слайд

Part of speech criteria
2. Morphological – every part of speech has its own system of grammar forms:
noun – common and possessive case, singular and plural number
verb – mood (indicative, imperative, subjunctive), tense and aspect, voice (active-passive), person, number
adjective – degrees of comparison
adverb — indeclinable

Formal criterion provides for the exposition of the paradigmatic inflectional and specific derivational features of the class.
13 слайд

Part of speech criteria
3. Syntactical — function as part of a sentence and position in the sentence :
noun — subject (SV)
— object (VO)
verb – predicate (primarily)
adjective – attribute (Adj + N)
adverb – adverbial modifier
The functional criterion concerns the syntactic role of words in the sentence typical of a part of speech and word combinability.
14 слайд

e.g., noun
Semantic criterion:
Morphological criterion:

Syntactical criterion:
Substance, thingness
Singular –plural
common – possessive case
Suffixes: -ness, -tion, -er…
Functions: Subject, object, predicative
Modification by an adj
15 слайд

adjective
1. Semantic criterion:

2. Morphological criterion:

3. Syntactical criterion:

Property (qualitative and relative)
Degrees of comparison (for qualitative adj)
Suffixes: -al, -y, -ish
Function: attribute, predicative
Adj + N
16 слайд

verb
Semantic criterion:
Morphological criterion:

Syntactical criterion:

Process
Mood, tense, aspect, voice, person, number
Finite- non-finite forms
Suffixes: -ize, -ate
Predicate for finite forms; mixed (V + N/Adj) for verbals
V + Adv
17 слайд

adverb
1. Semantic criterion:

2. Morphological criterion:

3. Syntactical criterion:

Secondary property (property of a process or another property)degrees of comparison for qualitative adv
Suffix: -ly
Adverbial modifier
Adv+V; Adv+Adj
18 слайд

interjection
1. Semantic criterion:

2. Morphological criterion:

3. Syntactical criterion:

Express feelings

Invariable

Parenthesis
19 слайд

pronoun
Semantic criterion:

Morphological criterion:

Syntactical criterion:

Indication (deixis) (pointing to things or properties without naming them)
Some – number, case, person
Substantival and adjectival functions
20 слайд

Linguistics abroad:
pronoun
noun
adj
21 слайд

numeral
1. Semantic criterion:

2. Morphological criterion:

3. Syntactical criterion:

Number (cardinal) or place in a series (ordinal)
Invariable
-teen, -ty; -th
Numerical attribute or numerical substantive
Num+N
22 слайд

Criticism of parts of speech
Unevenness of the classificatory criteria
Transition of parts of speech
Homophony
No universal categories within a class
23 слайд

Unevenness of the classificatory criteria
The criteria are partially contradictory and overlapping
E.g., numeral: meaning = quantity

thousands of people => noun
many people => pronoun
24 слайд

Adjective is a word modifying a noun.
N
Here is a toy car. ?
Adj
25 слайд

Adverb — indeclinable
well – better – best
a catch-all class that includes words with many different functions
-ly is an adverb marker, but early, friendly, ugly are adjectives;
tomorrow, fast, crosswise = adv
26 слайд

Not all three criteria are applicable to all parts of speech. Some of them may fail.

E.g. , semantic:
N vs. V = substance : process
We had a walk.
27 слайд

Transition of parts of speech
Conversion:
Water, break, outlaw, laser, microwave and telephone

N or V ?
We must look to the hows and not just the whys.
28 слайд

Homophony
I hear a loud sound.
They sound like bells.
I have a sound reason.
29 слайд

No universality within a class
Not all nouns have possessive case
Not all verbs have a passive voice form
Not all adjectives have comparison forms
30 слайд

Are there English words that are not included in any part of speech?

Yes. No.
31 слайд

Classifications of parts of speech
32 слайд

traditional
Parts of speech are lexico-grammatical (A.Smirnitsky) classes that differ by their general semantic features, morphological forms, and syntactical functions.
33 слайд

Traditional classification
Eight major classes of words (Plato & Aristotle, Dionysius Thrax; 18th century):
noun
verb
adjective
adverb
interjection
preposition
conjunction
pronoun
34 слайд

Russian linguists (B.A. Ilyish, V. Zhigadlo, I. Ivanova, L. Iofik) add:
numerals,
statives,
modal words, and
particles.

not distinguished
internationally
35 слайд

Stative: asleep, afire, afraid or Adj?
1. Semantic criterion:

2. Morphological criterion:

3. Syntactical criterion:

State (not property)

Invariable
Prefix a-

Predicative, attrib.
Be+Stative; N+S (a man asleep in his chair)
36 слайд

Particles: only, even, just (or Adv?)
1. Semantic criterion:

2. Morphological criterion:

3. Syntactical criterion:

Subjective emphasis or limitation

Invariable

Combine with any part of speech
No syntactic function
37 слайд

Modal words: perhaps, possibly (or Adv?)
1. Semantic criterion:

2. Morphological criterion:

3. Syntactical criterion:

The speker’s evaluation of the relation btw an action & reality
Invariable

Parenthesis
38 слайд

Notional and functional
parts of speech
39 слайд

Parts of speech

notional

= part of a sentence.
Less frequent

She turned round.
functional

≠ part of a sentence
= analytical form of a part of the sentence.
More frequent

She turned round the house.
40 слайд

Parts of speech

notional

= part of a sentence
She turned round.
functional

≠ part of a sentence
= analytical form of a part of the sentence

She turned round the house.
deictic
41 слайд

Notional parts of speech are words with lexical meaning; they have nominative function.
notional
noun
adjective
verb
adverb

pronoun
numeral
42 слайд

Functional (formal, structural) parts of speech serve to show relations between notional words.
functional
preposition
conjunction
article
particle

interjection
Modal word
43 слайд

Functional (formal, structural) parts of speech
Syntactic
functions
Prepositions
Conjuctions

Morphological
functions
Articles
Auxiliary verbs
44 слайд

Functional parts of speech (form)
Invariable
Phonetically weak
45 слайд

Functional parts of speech (meaning)
The book is on the desk.
The book is under the desk.

She did not speak because she was tired.
She did not speak though she was tired.

E. Kubryakova (1979): function words also have a nominative function = relating to an extra-linguistic element. They reveal place of objects and actions in time and space.
46 слайд

Functional parts of speech
Article
Preposition
Conjunction
Particle

Modal words
Interjections

Expresses specific limitation of the substantive function
Expresses (inter)dependencies of substantive referents
Expresses connections of phenomena
Unites functional words of specifying or limiting meaning
Expresses the attitude of the speaker
Signal emotions

Part of speech
Role (meaning) in the sentence
47 слайд

Disputable: notional or functional?
Modal verbs
Auxiliary verbs

I.P. Ivanova (1981):
Functional parts of speech vs. functional words
48 слайд

Disputable: notional or functional?
Modal verbs
Auxiliary verbs

I.P. Ivanova (1981):
Functonal parts of speech vs. functional words
49 слайд

I.P. Ivanova:

Functional words are notional words that have lost, under certain conditions, their lexical meaning and have maintained only grammatical function.

Cf. I have a new TV set.
I have lost my gloves.
50 слайд

Deictic function of pronouns
Take it away!
Where is the sales assistant who sold me these shoes?
Deictic
(situational)
Anaphoric
(contextual)
51 слайд

Deictic words
Deictic words (Grk. deixis “indicate”) refer to the personal, temporal, or spacial aspect of an utterance act. Their designation is, therefore, dependent on the context of the speech situation.–
pronouns
adverbs
52 слайд

Other classifications
53 слайд

Morphological classification
H.Sweet:
declinables (nouns, adj, verbs)
Indeclinables (adverbs, prepositions, conjuncts, interjections)
54 слайд

Enlarging classes
Connectors (W. Plotkin) / connectives (L.Barkhudarov & D. Shteling) / conjuncts (D.Crystal):
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Determinatives (L.Barkhudarov & D. Shteling), determiners (D.Crystal, CGE)
Adjectives
Articles
Pronouns
55 слайд

Open and closed classes
(R. Quirk, S. Greenbaum, G. Leech, J. Svartvik, 1972, 1982)
N
Adj
Adv
V
Article
Pronouns
Prepositions
Conjunctions
Interjections

Open classes
Closed classes (ab. 150)
56 слайд

Narrower principle of identification
Syntactico-distributional classification (L. Bloomfield, Z. Harris, Ch. Fries)
No criterion of meaning (Woggles ugged diggles.)
Study of word combinability by means of substitution testing
4 main positional (notional) classes (frames): N, V, A(dj), D (adv)
Words outside the “positions” are functional – 15 groups:
Specifiers of nouns, verbs, adj, adv.
Relation determiners (prep, conj)
Referring to the sentence as a whole (how, which; lets, please; attention-getters; yes, no; introductory it & there)
57 слайд

Field theory
(V. Admoni, 1968; G.Schur, 1974, 2007)
Nuclear (words possessing all the properties of a certain part of speech) and periphery
E.g., nouns with the meaning of process (walk, run) are in the margin of the noun field, in the overlapping sector with the verb field.
There is no strict borderline between parts of speech, they are able to converge.
58 слайд

Three little words you often see
Are ARTICLES: a, an, and the.

A NOUN’s the name of anything,
As: school or garden, toy, or swing.

ADJECTIVES tell the kind of noun,
As: great, small, pretty, white, or brown.

VERBS tell of something being done:
To read, write, count, sing, jump, or run.

How things are done the ADVERBS tell,
As: slowly, quickly, badly, well.

CONJUNCTIONS join the words together,
As: men and women, wind or weather.

The PREPOSITION stands before
A noun as: in or through a door.

The INTERJECTION shows surprise
As: Oh, how pretty! Ah! how wise!

The whole are called the PARTS of SPEECH,
Which reading, writing, speaking teach.
59 слайд

Адмони В.Г. Полевая структура частей речи // Вопросы теории частей речи. Л., 1968, с. 98-106
Бархударов Л.С., Штелинг Д.А. Грамматика АЯ. — М.: ВШ, 1973
Блох М.Я. Теоретическая грамматика АЯ. – М.,1983.
Есперсен О. Философия грамматики. — М.: УРСС, 2002.
Иванова И.П., Бурлакова В.В., Почепцов Г.Г. Теоретическая грамматика современного АЯ. – М., 1981.
Иофик Л.Л., Чахоян Л.П. Хрестоматия по теоретической грамматике АЯ. – Л.: Просвещение, 1972
Ильиш Б.А. Строй современного английского языка. – Л., 1971.
Кубрякова Е.С. Части речи в ономасиологическом освещении. – М.: Наука. 1978
Плоткин В.Я. Строй английского языка. – М.: ВШ, 1989
Смирницкий А.И. Морфология АЯ. – М., 1959.
Щерба Л.В. Языковая система и речевая деятельность. – Л.: Наука, 1974
Щур Г.С. Теории поля в лигвистике. Изд. 2-е. –М.: Изд-во ЛКИ, 2007

Literature
60 слайд

Literature
CGE = Carter R., McCarthy M. Cambridge Grammar of English. – CUP, 2006
Crystal D. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. – CUP, 1995
Fries Ch. The structure of English. New York, 1952.
Quirk R., Greenbaum S., Leech G., Svartvik J. A University Grammar of English. – Moscow: Vyssaja Skola, Longman, 1982..
Sweet H. A New English grammar. Logical and historical. Oxford, 1940. Part 1 & 2.

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Источник

In English grammar, a word class is a set of words that display the same formal properties, especially their inflections and distribution. The term «word class» is similar to the more traditional term, part of speech. It is also variously called grammatical category, lexical category, and syntactic category (although these terms are not wholly or universally synonymous).

The two major families of word classes are lexical (or open or form) classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) and function (or closed or structure) classes (determiners, particles, prepositions, and others).

Examples and Observations

«When linguists began to look closely at English grammatical structure in the 1940s and 1950s, they encountered so many problems of identification and definition that the term part of speech soon fell out of favor, word class being introduced instead. Word classes are equivalent to parts of speech, but defined according to strict linguistic criteria.» (David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press, 2003)
«There is no single correct way of analyzing words into word classes…Grammarians disagree about the boundaries between the word classes (see gradience), and it is not always clear whether to lump subcategories together or to split them. For example, in some grammars…pronouns are classed as nouns, whereas in other frameworks…they are treated as a separate word class.» (Bas Aarts, Sylvia Chalker, Edmund Weiner, The Oxford Dictionary of English Grammar, 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, 2014)

Form Classes and Structure Classes

«[The] distinction between lexical and grammatical meaning determines the first division in our classification: form-class words and structure-class words. In general, the form classes provide the primary lexical content; the structure classes explain the grammatical or structural relationship. Think of the form-class words as the bricks of the language and the structure words as the mortar that holds them together.»

The form classes also known as content words or open classes include:

Nouns
Verbs
Adjectives
Adverbs

The structure classes, also known as function words or closed classes, include:

Determiners
Pronouns
Auxiliaries
Conjunctions
Qualifiers
Interrogatives
Prepositions
Expletives
Particles

«Probably the most striking difference between the form classes and the structure classes is characterized by their numbers. Of the half million or more words in our language, the structure words—with some notable exceptions—can be counted in the hundreds. The form classes, however, are large, open classes; new nouns and verbs and adjectives and adverbs regularly enter the language as new technology and new ideas require them.» (Martha Kolln and Robert Funk, Understanding English Grammar. Allyn and Bacon, 1998)

One Word, Multiple Classes

«Items may belong to more than one class. In most instances, we can only assign a word to a word class when we encounter it in context. Looks is a verb in ‘It looks good,’ but a noun in ‘She has good looks‘; that is a conjunction in ‘I know that they are abroad,’ but a pronoun in ‘I know that‘ and a determiner in ‘I know that man’; one is a generic pronoun in ‘One must be careful not to offend them,’ but a numeral in ‘Give me one good reason.'» (Sidney Greenbaum, Oxford English Grammar. Oxford University Press, 1996)

Suffixes as Signals

«We recognize the class of a word by its use in context. Some words have suffixes (endings added to words to form new words) that help to signal the class they belong to. These suffixes are not necessarily sufficient in themselves to identify the class of a word. For example, -ly is a typical suffix for adverbs (slowly, proudly), but we also find this suffix in adjectives: cowardly, homely, manly. And we can sometimes convert words from one class to another even though they have suffixes that are typical of their original class: an engineer, to engineer; a negative response, a negative.» (Sidney Greenbaum and Gerald Nelson, An Introduction to English Grammar, 3rd ed. Pearson, 2009)

A Matter of Degree

«[N]ot all the members of a class will necessarily have all the identifying properties. Membership in a particular class is really a matter of degree. In this regard, grammar is not so different from the real world. There are prototypical sports like ‘football’ and not so sporty sports like ‘darts.’ There are exemplary mammals like ‘dogs’ and freakish ones like the ‘platypus.’ Similarly, there are good examples of verbs like watch and lousy examples like beware; exemplary nouns like chair that display all the features of a typical noun and some not so good ones like Kenny.» (Kersti Börjars and Kate Burridge, Introducing English Grammar, 2nd ed. Hodder, 2010)

Источник

Words are the building blocks in any sentence. They just don’t ‘mean’ something, they ‘do’ something in every sentence. Hence words are grouped into word classes based on what they do. A word class is a group of words that have certain common features. The term “word class” is analogous to the more conventional term, “part of speech.” It is also variously named grammatical category, lexical category, and syntactic category.

Types of Word Classes
Open and Closed Word Classes
Open Word Classes
Closed Word Classes
How to identify the word classes in a sentence?
How to classify a word class?
What is the difference between a word class and part of speech?

Word classes can be divided into two families:

Lexical Classes: Also known as open classes and form classes. The lexical classes include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs.
Function Classes: Also known as closed classes and structure classes. Includes: pronouns, determiners, conjunctions, prepositions, and interjections.

Open and Closed Word Classes

As previously mentioned some word classes are open, that is, the class can be expanded with the addition of new words. Take the example of the class of nouns, it is potentially infinite as the number of words in the class is increasing as new scientific and technological discoveries are made.

The latter half of the twentieth century witnessed developments in computer technology which have in turn given rise to many new nouns like the Internet, URL website, bitmap, email, etc.

On the other hand, the word classes of prepositions, determiners, or conjunctions are known as closed word classes. Words like of, the, and but come under these. They are named closed word classes because they consist of a definite set of words. These classes never expand even though the words included in the class may change their spelling.

Open Word Classes

1) Nouns

This class includes words that you frequently use in everyday life. Nouns are most commonly understood as “naming” words, that is, it performs the function of naming “people, places or things”.

A person – Boy, Girl, John, etc
A thing- House, Dog, etc
A place- China, America, etc

However, the use of nouns is not restricted to just names of people, places, or things. Nouns also denote abstract and intangible concepts such as an idea, quality, or state. Example: Danger, Happiness, Love, etc.

2) Verbs

The words that you use to describe an action are known as verbs. Hence verbs are generally known as “action” words. Have a look at the given example: Rahul rides a scooter. The verb in the above sentence denotes an action that Rahul performs which is the action of riding a scooter.

However, the idea of verbs as “action” words is somewhat restricted. Many verbs don’t stand for action at all as in the given instance: Rahul seems desperate. We cannot say that the verb ‘seems ‘ refer to an action.

3) Adverbs

In English, an adverb describes a word that alters the meaning of a verb, adjective, or another adverb. Adverbs in a sentence give you more information about the sentence. They are used to express how an action is fulfilled. Adverbs can broadly be categorized into Simple Adverbs, IInterrogative adverbs, and Relative Adverbs.

Remember:

Most adverbs end with the common ending – ly.
An adverb that modifies an adjective or another adverb usually goes before it.

4) Adjectives

Adjectives describe the quality of a noun. For example They stay in a beautiful house

The word beautiful indicates or refers to one of the attributes of the house that is described. Hence beautiful becomes the adjective in the above sentence.

A point to keep in mind: Some adjectives can be identified by their ending. Typical adjective endings include: able, al, ful, ic, etc.

You can even try out our other articles on How to Improve Your Vocabulary as well to expand your knowledge base.

Closed Word Classes

1) Determiners

You might have often noticed that nouns are preceded by words like the, a, or an. These words are known as Determiners. They suggest the type of reference that the noun has.

The determiner ‘the’ is called a Definite Article. It can be placed both before singular and plural nouns. For example The Taxi, The taxis
The determiner a or an is known as the Indefinite Article. It is used along with a singular noun. Example: A taxi

Apart from these, many other determiners express quantity. These include ‘al’, ‘both’, ‘many’ etc.

2) Conjunctions

These are used to express connections between different words.

Example: John and David are friends. And is used as a conjunction in the given sentence.
The most familiar conjunctions in English are: and, but, and or.

Conjunctions are further divided into two:

Coordinating Conjunctions: These conjunctions connect elements of equal syntactic structure. Example: Paul and David study together.
Subordinating Conjunctions: Connects elements of unequal syntactic structure. Example: I left early because I had an interview the next day.

3) Prepositions

Prepositions indicate the relation between different words. They occur before a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase and indicate a direction, time, place, location, and spatial relationship. Common prepositions include across, after, at, before, by, during, from, in, into, of, on, to, under, with, without, etc.

4) Pronouns

If we did not have the pronoun word families we would have to repeat a whole lot of nouns. A word that takes the position of a noun is named as a pronoun. Pronouns can be employed as a substitute for a noun.

Pronouns are divided into 5 categories:
Personal Pronouns: I, you, she, etc
Demonstrative Pronouns: This, these, etc
Possessive Pronouns: Yours, His, etc
Interrogative Pronouns: Which, What, etc
Reflexive Pronouns: Herself, Himself, etc.
Reciprocal Pronouns: Each other
Indefinite Pronouns: Few, Nobody, etc.
Relative Pronouns: Which, Whom, etc.

5) Interjections

Short exclamations like Oh!, Ah! etc are known as Interjections. Even though they have no grammatical value, we often use them in daily speech. Interjections are primarily used to express emotions such as anger, surprise, etc. Given below are a few examples.

Well! That hurts
Hey! Don’t be so clumsy

Remember, an interjection is always followed by an exclamation mark.

English Idioms
Literary Devices

FAQs on Word Classes

1. How to identify the word classes in a sentence?

A word class is a group of words that have certain common features. To find out the word classes within a sentence it is important that you familiarise yourself with the most common word classes in English. These include nouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, etc.

2. How to classify a word class?

Word classes in English belong to two major categories. These are Open word classes that include nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. The second category is closed word classes that include: pronouns, determiners, interjections, etc.

3. What is the difference between a word class and part of speech?

The term “word class” is analogous to the more conventional term, “part of speech”. Both these terms refer to a group of words that have certain common features.

Conclusion

To understand the grammatical structures of sentences in a better way it’s best if you begin with word classes. Even though comprehending the different word classes may initially be a hectic task, once you master word classes, you will reach the exact meaning or message conveyed by a sentence.

Источник

I [gəu]
1.

;

прош. вр.

went,

прич. прош. вр.

gone

а) идти, ехать, двигаться

We are going too fast. — Мы идём слишком быстро.

Who goes? Stand, or I fire. — Стой, кто идёт? Стрелять буду.

The baby went behind his mother to play a hiding game. — Малыш решил поиграть в прятки и спрятался за маму.

Go ahead, what are you waiting for? — Идите вперёд, чего вы ждёте?

I’ll go ahead and warn the others to expect you later. — Я пойду вперёд и предупрежу остальных, что вы подойдёте позже.

My brother quickly passing him, went ahead, and won the match easily. — Мой брат быстро обогнал его, вышел вперёд и легко выиграл матч.

As the roads were so icy, the cars were going along very slowly and carefully. — Так как дороги были покрыты льдом, машины продвигались очень медленно и осторожно.

The deer has gone beyond the trees; I can’t shoot at it from this distance. — Олень зашёл за деревья; я не могу попасть в него с этого расстояния.

You’ve missed the bus, it just went by. — Ты опоздал на автобус, он только что проехал.

Let’s go forward to the front of the hall. — Давай продвинемся к началу зала.

I have to go in now, my mother’s calling me for tea. — Мне надо идти, мама зовёт меня пить чай.

The car went into a tree and was severely damaged. — Машина влетела в дерево и была сильно повреждена.

The police examined the cars and then allowed them to go on. — Полицейские осмотрели машины, а потом пропустили их.

I don’t think you should go out with that bad cold. — Я думаю, с такой простудой тебе лучше сидеть дома.

It’s dangerous here, with bullets going over our heads all the time. — Здесь опасно, пули так и свистят над головами.

I fear that you cannot go over to the cottage. — Боюсь, что ты не сможешь сходить в этот коттедж.

I spent a day or two on going round and seeing the other colleges. — Я провёл день или два, обходя другие колледжи.

This material is so stiff that even my thickest needle won’t go through. — Этот материал настолько плотный, что даже моя самая большая игла не может проткнуть его.

Don’t leave me alone, let me go with you! — Не бросай меня, позволь мне пойти с тобой!

The piano won’t go through this narrow entrance. — Фортепиано не пройдёт сквозь этот узкий вход.

There is no such thing as a level street in the city: those which do not go up, go down. — В городе нет такого понятия как ровная улица: те, которые не идут вверх, спускаются вниз.

to go on travels, to go on a journey, to go on a voyage — отправиться в путешествие

He wants me to go on a cruise with him. — Он хочет, чтобы я отправился с ним в круиз.

в) уходить, уезжать

Please go now, I’m getting tired. — Теперь, пожалуйста, уходи, я устал.

I have to go at 5.30. — Я должен уйти в 5.30.

There was no answer to my knock, so I went away. — На мой стук никто не ответил, так что я ушёл.

Why did the painter leave his family and go off to live on a tropical island? — Почему художник бросил свою семью и уехал жить на остров в тропиках?

At the end of this scene, the murderer goes off, hearing the police arrive. — В конце сцены убийца уходит, заслышав приближение полиции.

Syn:

г) пойти , уехать с определённой целью

to go to bed — идти, отправляться, ложиться спать

You’d better go for the police. — Ты лучше сбегай за полицией.

д) заниматься ; двигаться определённым образом

The bus goes right to the centre of town. — Автобус ходит прямо до центра города.

The ship goes between the two islands. — Корабль курсирует между двумя островами.

ж)

разг.

двигаться определённым образом, идти определённым шагом

а) следовать определённым курсом, идти прям. и перен.

She will never go my way, nor, I fear, shall I ever go hers. — Она никогда не будет действовать так, как я, и, боюсь, я никогда не буду действовать так, как она.

б) прибегать , обращаться

3) ходить регулярно, с какой-л. целью

When I was young, we went to church every Sunday. — Когда я был маленьким, мы каждое воскресенье ходили в церковь.

а) идти , вести

The boundary here goes parallel with the river. — Граница идёт здесь вдоль реки.

This door goes outside. — Эта дверь выходит наружу.

5) происходить, случаться, развиваться, проистекать

The annual dinner never goes better than when he is in the chair. — Ежегодный обед проходит лучше всего, когда он председательствует.

The game went so strangely that I couldn’t possibly tell. — Игра шла так странно, что и не рассказать.

The election went against him. — Выборы кончились для него неудачно.

What has gone of…? — Что стало, что произошло с…?

Nobody in Porlock ever knew what has gone with him. — Никто в Порлоке так и не узнал, что с ним стало.

The battery in this watch is going. — Батарейка в часах садится.

Sometimes the eyesight goes forever. — Иногда зрение теряют навсегда.

I could feel my brain going. — Я чувствовал, что мой ум перестаёт работать.

You see that your father is going very fast. — Вы видите, что ваш отец очень быстро сдаёт.

б) ломаться; изнашиваться

The platform went. — Трибуна обрушилась.

About half past three the foremast went in three places. — Около половины четвёртого фок-мачта треснула в трёх местах.

The dike might go any minute. — Дамбу может прорвать в любую минуту.

My old sweater had started to go at the elbows. — Мой старый свитер начал протираться на локтях.

Syn:

в) быть поражённым болезнью, гнить

The crop is good, but the potato is going everywhere. — Урожай зерновых хорош, а картофель начинает повсюду гнить.

разг.

умирать, уходить из жизни

to go aloft / off the hooks / off the stocks / to (the) pot разг. — отправиться на небеса, протянуть ноги, сыграть в ящик

Your brother’s gone — died half-an-hour ago. — Ваш брат покинул этот мир — скончался полчаса назад.

Hope he hasn’t gone down; he deserved to live. — Надеюсь, что он не умер; он заслужил того, чтобы жить.

The doctors told me that he might go off any day. — Доктора сказали мне, что он может скончаться со дня на день.

I hope that when I go out I shall leave a better world behind me. — Надеюсь, что мир станет лучше, когда меня не будет.

а) вмещаться, подходить

The space is too small, the bookcase won’t go in. — Здесь слишком мало места, книжный шкаф сюда не войдёт.

Elzevirs go readily into the pocket. — Средневековые книги-эльзевиры легко входят в карман.

The thread is too thick to go into the needle. — Эта нитка слишком толста, чтобы пролезть в игольное ушко.

Three goes into fifteen five times. — Три содержится в пятнадцати пять раз.

All the good we can find about him will go into a very few words. — Всё хорошее, что мы в нём можем найти, можно выразить в нескольких словах.

б) соответствовать, подходить

This furniture would go well in any room. — Эта мебель подойдёт для любой комнаты.

I don’t think these colours really go, do you? — Я не думаю, что эти цвета подходят, а ты как думаешь?

Oranges go surprisingly well with duck. — Апельсины отлично подходят к утке.

That green hat doesn’t go with the blue dress. — Эта зелёная шляпа не идёт к синему платью.

в) помещаться , постоянно храниться

This box goes on the third shelf from the top. — Эта коробка стоит на третьей полке сверху.

This book goes here. — Эта книга стоит здесь (здесь её место).

He’s short, as jockeys go. — Он довольно низкого роста, даже для жокея.

«How goes it, Joe?» — «Pretty well, as times go.» — «Как дела, Джо?» — «По нынешним временам вполне сносно».

10) быть посланным, отправленным

I’d like this letter to go first class. — Я хотел бы отправить это письмо первым классом.

11) проходить, пролетать

This week’s gone so fast — I can’t believe it’s Friday already. — Эта неделя прошла так быстро, не могу поверить, что уже пятница.

Time goes so fast when you’re having fun. — Когда нам весело, время бежит.

Summer is going. — Лето проходит.

One week and half of another is already gone. — Уже прошло полторы недели.

12)

а) пойти , быть потраченным

Whatever money he got it all went on paying his debt. — Сколько бы денег он ни получил, всё уходило на выплату долга.

Your money went towards a new computer for the school. — Ваши деньги пошли на новый компьютер для школы.

Not more than a quarter of your income should go in rent. — На арендную плату должно уходить не более четверти дохода.

б) уменьшаться, кончаться

We were worried because the food was completely gone and the water was going fast. — Мы беспокоились, так как еда уже кончилась, а вода подходила к концу.

The cake went fast. — Пирог был тут же съеден.

All its independence was gone. — Вся его независимость исчезла.

One of the results of using those drugs is that the will entirely goes. — Одно из последствий приёма этих лекарств — полная потеря воли.

This feeling gradually goes off. — Это чувство постепенно исчезает.

They can fire me, but I won’t go quietly. — Они могут меня уволить, но я не уйду тихо.

14)

to go crash / smash — грохнуть, треснуть

Clatter, clatter, went the horses’ hoofs. — Цок, цок, цокали лошадиные копыта.

Something seemed to go snap within me. — Что-то внутри меня щёлкнуло.

Crack went the mast. — Раздался треск мачты.

Patter, patter, goes the rain. — Кап, кап, стучит дождь.

The clock on the mantelpiece went eight. — Часы на камине пробили восемь.

15)

а) иметь хождение, быть в обращении

б) циркулировать, передаваться, переходить из уст в уста

Now the story goes that the young Smith is in London. — Говорят, что юный Смит сейчас в Лондоне.

16)

My only order was, «Clear the road — and be damn quick about it.» What I said went. — Я отдал приказ: «Очистить дорогу — и, чёрт возьми, немедленно!» Это тут же было выполнено.

He makes so much money that whatever he says, goes. — У него столько денег, что всё, что он ни скажет, тут же выполняется.

— from the word Go

anything goes, everything goes разг. — всё дозволено, всё сойдёт

Around here, anything goes. — Здесь всё разрешено.

Anything goes if it’s done by someone you’re fond of. — Всё сойдёт, если это всё сделано тем, кого ты любишь.

в) начинать , приступать к

She went about her work in a cold, impassive way. — Холодно, бесстрастно она приступила к своей работе.

The church clock has not gone for twenty years. — Часы на церкви не ходили двадцать лет.

All systems go. — Всё работает нормально.

She felt her heart go in a most unusual manner. — Она почувствовала, что сердце у неё очень странно бьётся.

Syn:

18) продаваться, расходиться

There were perfectly good coats going at $23! —Там продавали вполне приличные куртки всего за 23 доллара.

Going at four pounds fifteen, if there is no advance. — Если больше нет предложений, то продаётся за четыре фунта пятнадцать шиллингов.

This goes for 1 shilling. — Это стоит 1 шиллинг.

The house went for very little. — Дом был продан за бесценок.

19) позволить себе, согласиться

Lewis consented to go as high as twenty-five thousand crowns. — Льюис согласился на такую большую сумму как двадцать пять тысяч крон.

I’ll go fifty dollars for a ticket. — Я позволю себе купить билет за пятьдесят долларов.

21)

эвф.

сходить, сбегать

He’s in the men’s room. He’s been wanting to go all evening, but as long as you were playing he didn’t want to miss a note. (J. Wain) — Он в туалете. Ему туда нужно было весь вечер, но пока вы играли, он не хотел пропустить ни одной нотки.

Half the guards went after the escaped prisoners, but they got away free. — На поиски беглецов отправилась половина гарнизона, но они всё равно сумели скрыться.

б) преследовать цель; стремиться, стараться

Jim intends to go after the big prize. — Джим намерен выиграть большой приз.

I think we should go after increased production this year. — Думаю, в этом году нам надо стремиться увеличить производство.

в) посещать в качестве поклонника, ученика или последователя

а) противоречить, быть против ; идти вразрез с

to go against the grain, go against the hair — вызывать внутренний протест, быть не по нутру

I wouldn’t advise you to go against the director. — Не советую тебе перечить директору.

It goes against my nature to get up early in the morning. — Рано вставать по утрам противно моей натуре.

The run of luck went against Mr. Nickleby. (Ch. Dickens) — Удача отвернулась от мистера Никльби.

Syn:

б) быть не в пользу , закончиться неблагоприятно для

One of his many law-suits seemed likely to go against him. — Он, судя по всему, проигрывал один из своих многочисленных судебных процессов.

If the election goes against the government, who will lead the country? — Если на выборах проголосуют против правительства, кто же возглавит страну?

Our dog went at the postman again this morning. — Наша собака опять сегодня набросилась на почтальона.

Selina went at her again for further information. — Селина снова набросилась на неё, требуя дополнительной информации.

The students are really going at their studies now that the examinations are near. — Экзамены близко, так что студенты в самом деле взялись за учёбу.

When you go before the judge, you must speak the exact truth. — Когда ты выступаешь в суде, ты должен говорить чистую правду.

Your suggestion goes before the board of directors next week. — Совет директоров рассмотрит ваше предложение на следующей неделе.

Syn:

26) не ограничиваться

27) быть посредником между

The little girl was given a bar of chocolate as her payment for going between her sister and her sister’s boyfriend. — Младшая сестра получила шоколадку за то, что была посыльной между своей старшей сестрой и её парнем.

а) превышать, превосходить

The money that I won went beyond my fondest hopes. — Сумма, которую я выиграл, превосходила все мои ожидания.

Be careful not to go beyond your rights. — Будь осторожен, не превышай своих прав.

б) оказаться трудным, непостижимым

I was interested to hear the speaker, but his speech went beyond me. — Мне было интересно послушать докладчика, но его речь была выше моего понимания.

I don’t think this class will be able to go beyond lesson six. — Не думаю, что этот класс сможет продвинуться дальше шестого урока.

•

— go beyond caring

— go beyond endurance
— go beyond a joke

29) называться

to go by / under the name of — быть известным под именем

Our friend William often goes by Billy. — Нашего друга Вильяма часто называют Билли.

He went under the name of Baker, to avoid discovery by the police. — Скрываясь от полиции, он жил под именем Бейкера.

30) судить по ; руководствоваться , действовать в соответствии с

to go by the book разг. — действовать в соответствии с правилами, педантично выполнять правила

You can’t go by what he says, he’s very untrustworthy. — Не стоит судить о ситуации по его словам, ему нельзя верить.

You make a mistake if you go by appearances. — Ты ошибаешься, если судишь о людях по внешнему виду.

I go by the barometer. — Я пользуюсь барометром.

Our chairman always goes by the rules. — Наш председатель всегда действует по правилам.

I think we should go for increased production this year. — Думаю, в этом году нам надо стремиться увеличить производительность.

б) выбирать; любить, нравиться

The people will never go for that guff. — Людям не понравится эта пустая болтовня.

She doesn’t go for whiskers. — Ей не нравятся бакенбарды.

в)

разг.

наброситься, обрушиться на

The black cow immediately went for him. — Чёрная корова немедленно кинулась на него.

The speaker went for the profiteers. — Оратор обрушился на спекулянтов.

г) становиться , действовать в качестве

I’m well made all right. I could go for a model if I wanted. — У меня отличная фигура. Я могла бы стать манекенщицей, если бы захотела.

д) быть принятым за , считаться , сходить за

He goes for a lawyer, but I don’t think he ever studied or practised law. — Говорят, он адвокат, но мне кажется, что он никогда не изучал юриспруденцию и не работал в этой области.

I don’t care if Pittsburgh chokes. And that goes for Cincinnati, too. (P. G. Wodehouse) — Мне всё равно, если Питсбург задохнётся. То же самое касается Цинциннати.

•

— go for broke

— go for a burton

а) входить, вступать; принимать участие

He wanted to go into Parliament. — Он хотел стать членом парламента.

He went eagerly into the compact. — Он охотно принял участие в сделке.

The Times has gone into open opposition to the Government on all points except foreign policy. — “Таймс” встал в открытую оппозицию к правительству по всем вопросам, кроме внешней политики.

Syn:

the man who went into ecstasies at discovering that Cape Breton was an island — человек, который впал в экстаз, обнаружив, что мыс Бретон является островом

I nearly went into hysterics. — Я был на грани истерики.

He went keenly into dairying. — Он активно занялся производством молочных продуктов.

He went into practice for himself. — Он самостоятельно занялся практикой.

Hicks naturally went into law. — Хикс, естественно, занялся правом.

г) носить

to go into long dresses, trousers, etc. — носить длинные платья, брюки

She shocked Mrs. Spark by refusing to go into full mourning. — Она шокировала миссис Спарк, отказываясь носить полный траур.

д) расследовать, тщательно рассматривать, изучать

We cannot of course go into the history of these wars. — Естественно, мы не можем во всех подробностях рассмотреть историю этих войн.

•

— go into details

— go into detail
— go into abeyance
— go into action

33) разлюбить , потерять интерес к

I simply don’t feel anything for him any more. In fact, I’ve gone off him. — Я просто не испытываю больше к нему никаких чувств. По существу, я его разлюбила.

а) перечитывать; повторять

The schoolboy goes over his lesson, before going up before the master. — Ученик повторяет свой урок, прежде чем отвечать учителю.

He went over the explanation two or three times. — Он повторил объяснение два или три раза.

Syn:

б) внимательно изучать, тщательно рассматривать; проводить осмотр

We went over the house thoroughly before buying it. — Мы тщательно осмотрели дом, прежде чем купить его.

I’ve asked the garage people to go over my car thoroughly. — Я попросил людей в сервисе тщательно осмотреть машину.

Harry and I have been going over old letters. — Гарри и я просматривали старые письма.

We must go over the account books together. — Нам надо вместе проглядеть бухгалтерские книги.

It would take far too long to go through all the propositions. — Изучение всех предложений займёт слишком много времени.

б) пережить, перенести

All that men go through may be absolutely the best for them. — Все испытания, которым подвергается человек, могут оказаться для него благом.

Syn:

The disease went through the whole city. — Болезнь распространилась по всему городу.

д) осматривать, обыскивать

The girls were «going through» a drunken sailor. — Девицы обшаривали пьяного моряка.

ж) поглощать, расходовать

She need not go to others for her bons mots. — Ей нет нужды искать у других остроумные словечки.

б) переходить к в собственность, доставаться

The house went to the elder son. — Дом достался старшему сыну.

The money I had saved went to the doctors. — Деньги, которые я скопил, пошли на докторов.

The dukedom went to his brother. — Титул герцога перешёл к его брату.

And the Oscar goes to… — Итак, «Оскар» достаётся…

These are the bones which go to form the head and trunk. — Это кости, которые формируют череп и скелет.

Whole gardens of roses go to one drop of the attar. — Для того, чтобы получить одну каплю розового масла, нужны целые сады роз.

This only goes to prove the point. — Это только доказывает утверждение.

г) составлять, равняться

Sixteen ounces go to the pound. — Шестнадцать унций составляют один фунт.

How many go to a crew with you, captain? — Из скольких человек состоит ваша команда, капитан?

Don’t go to any trouble. — Не беспокойтесь.

Few publishers go to the trouble of giving the number of copies for an edition. — Немногие издатели берут на себя труд указать количество экземпляров издания.

The tenant went to very needless expense. — Арендатор пошёл на абсолютно ненужные расходы.

37) относиться

This word goes under G. — Это слово помещено под G.

My sympathies went strongly with the lady. — Все мои симпатии были полностью на стороне леди.

б) сопутствовать , идти, происходить вместе с

Criminality habitually went with dirtiness. — Преступность и грязь обычно шли бок о бок.

Syn:

в) понимать, следить с пониманием за

The Court declared the deed a nullity on the ground that the mind of the mortgagee did not go with the deed she signed. — Суд признал документ недействительным на том основании, что кредитор по закладной не понимала содержания документа, который она подписала.

г)

разг.

встречаться с , проводить время с

The «young ladies» he had «gone with» and «had feelin’s about» were now staid matrons. — «Молодые леди», с которыми он «дружил» и к которым он «питал чувства», стали солидными матронами.

а)

разг.

использовать в качестве свидетельства или отправного пункта

You see, this gave me something to go upon. — Видишь ли, это дало мне хоть что-то, с чего я могу начать.

б) брать в свои руки; брать на себя ответственность

I cannot bear to see things botched or gone upon with ignorance. — Я не могу видеть, как берутся за дела либо халтурно, либо ничего в них не понимая.

40)

He went dead about three months ago. — Он умер около трех месяцев назад.

She went pale. — Она побледнела.

He went bankrupt. — Он обанкротился.

Syn:

б) продолжать действие, продолжать пребывать в состоянии

We both love going barefoot on the beach. — Мы оба любим ходить босиком по пляжу.

Most of their work seems to have gone unnoticed. — Кажется, большая часть их работы осталась незамеченной.

The powers could not allow such an act of terrorism to go unpunished. — Власти не могут допустить, чтобы террористический акт прошёл безнаказанно.

It seems as if it were going to rain. — Такое впечатление, что сейчас пойдёт дождь.

Lambs are to be sold to those who are going to keep them. — Ягнята должны быть проданы тем, кто собирается их выращивать.

42) разг. пойти и сделать что-л.

The fool has gone and got married. — Этот дурак взял и женился.

He might go and hang himself for all they cared. — Он может повеситься, им на это абсолютно наплевать.

Oh, go and pick up pizza, for heaven’s sake! — Ради бога, пойди купи, наконец, пиццу.

•

— go across
— go ahead
— go along
— go away
— go back
— go before
— go by
— go down
— go forth
— go forward

— go together

••

to go short — испытывать недостаток в чём-л.; находиться в стеснённых обстоятельствах

to go the way of nature / all the earth / all flesh / all living — скончаться, разделить участь всех смертных

Go to Jericho / Bath / Hong Kong / Putney / Halifax! — Иди к чёрту! Убирайся!

— go far

— go bush
— go ape
— go amiss
— go dry
— go astray
— go on instruments
— go a long way

— go postal

— Go to!
— Go to it!
— let it go at that
— go like blazes
— go with the tide
— go with the times
— go along with you!
— go easy
— go up King Street
— go figure
— go it
— go the extra mile
— go to the wall
2.

;

разг.

1) движение, хождение, ходьба; уст. походка

He has been on the go since morning. — Он с утра на ногах.

а) ретивость, горячность ; напористость, энергичность; бодрость, живость; рвение

The job requires a man with a lot of go. — Для этой работы требуется очень энергичный человек.

Physically, he is a wonderful man — very wiry, and full of energy and go. — Физически он превосходен — крепкий, полный энергии и напористости.

Syn:

б) энергичная деятельность; тяжелая, требующая напряжения работа

Believe me, it’s all go with these tycoons, mate. — Поверь мне, приятель, это все деятельность этих заправил.

разг.

происшествие; неожиданный поворот событий

queer go, rum go — странное дело, странный поворот событий

Let me have a go at fixing it. — Дай я попробую починить это.

— have a go

Syn:

б) соревнование, борьба; состязание на приз

Cost me five dollars the other day to see the tamest kind of a go. There wasn’t a knockdown in ten rounds. — На днях я потратил пять долларов, чтобы увидеть самое мирное состязание. За десять раундов не было ни одного нокдауна.

а)

«The score!» he burst out. «Three goes o’ rum!» (R. L. Stevenson, Treasure Island) — А деньги? — крикнул он. — За три кружки!

а) успех, успешное дело

б) соглашение, сделка

••

all the go, quite the go — последний крик моды

first go — первым делом, сразу же

II [gɔ]

;

япон.

го

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