Word-building
is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary. There are four main
ways of word-building in modern English: affixation, composition,
conversion, abbreviation. There are also secondary ways of
word-building: sound interchange, stress interchange, sound
imitation, blends, back formation.
Affixation
Affixation
is one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout the
history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a
definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and
prefixation.
Suffixation.
The
main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of
speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical
meaning of the same part of speech. ( e.g. «educate» is a verb,
«educatee» is a noun, and « music» is a noun, «musicdom» is
also a noun) .
There
are different classifications of suffixes :
1.
Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes which can form different
parts of speech are given here :
a)
noun-forming suffixes, such as : -er (criticizer), -dom
(officialdom), -ism (ageism),
b)
adjective-forming suffixes, such as : -able (breathable), less
(symptomless), -ous (prestigious),
c)
verb-forming suffixes, such as -ize (computerize) , -ify (micrify),
d)
adverb-forming suffixes , such as : -ly (singly), -ward (tableward),
e)
numeral-forming suffixes, such as -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy).
2.
Semantic classification . Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of
the stem can be subdivided into groups, e.g. noun-forming suffixes
can denote:
a)
the agent of the action, e.g. -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent
(student),
b)
nationality, e.g. -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), -ish (English),
c)
collectivity, e.g. -dom (moviedom), -ry (peasantry, -ship
(readership), -ati ( literati),
d)
diminutiveness, e.g. -ie (horsie), -let (booklet), -ling (gooseling),
-ette (kitchenette),
e)
quality, e.g. -ness (copelessness), -ity (answerability).
3.
Lexico-grammatical character of the stem. Suffixes which can be added
to certain groups of stems are subdivided into:
a)
suffixes added to verbal stems, such as : -er (commuter), -ing
(suffering), — able (flyable), -ment (involvement), -ation
(computerization),
b)
suffixes added to noun stems, such as : -less (smogless), ful
(roomful), -ism (adventurism), -ster (pollster), -nik (filmnik), -ish
(childish),
c)
suffixes added to adjective stems, such as : -en (weaken), -ly
(pinkly), -ish (longish), -ness (clannishness).
4.
Origin of suffixes. Here we can point out the following groups:
a)
native (Germanic), such as -er,-ful, -less, -ly.
b)
Romanic, such as : -tion, -ment, -able, -eer.
c)
Greek, such as : -ist, -ism, -ize.
d)
Russian, such as -nik.
5.
Productivity. Here we can point out the following groups:
a)
productive, such as : -er, -ize, —ly, -ness.
b)
semi-productive, such as : -eer, -ette, -ward.
c)
non-productive , such as : -ard (drunkard), -th (length).
Suffixes
can be polysemantic, such as : -er can form nouns with the following
meanings : agent,doer of the action expressed by the stem (speaker),
profession, occupation (teacher), a device, a tool (transmitter).
While speaking about suffixes we should also mention compound
suffixes which are added to the stem at the same time, such as -ably,
-ibly, (terribly, reasonably), -ation (adaptation from adapt).
There
are also disputable cases whether we have a suffix or a root morpheme
in the structure of a word, in such cases we call such morphemes
semi-suffixes, and words with such suffixes can be classified either
as derived words or as compound words, e.g. -gate (Irangate), -burger
(cheeseburger), -aholic (workaholic) etc.
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Lecture №3. Productive and Non-productive Ways of Word-formation in Modern English
Productivity is the ability to form new words after existing patterns which are readily understood by the speakers of language. The most important and the most productive ways of word-formation are affixation, conversion, word-composition and abbreviation (contraction). In the course of time the productivity of this or that way of word-formation may change. Sound interchange or gradation (blood-to bleed, to abide-abode, to strike-stroke) was a productive way of word building in old English and is important for a diachronic study of the English language. It has lost its productivity in Modern English and no new word can be coined by means of sound gradation. Affixation on the contrary was productive in Old English and is still one of the most productive ways of word building in Modern English.
WORDBUILDING
Word-building is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary. There are four main ways of word-building in modern English: affixation, composition, conversion, abbreviation. There are also secondary ways of word-building: sound interchange, stress interchange, sound imitation, blends, back formation.
AFFIXATION
Affixation is one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout the history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and prefixation.
Suffixation
The main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. (e.g. «educate» is a verb, «educator» is a noun, and music» is a noun, «musical» is also a noun or an adjective). There are different classifications of suffixes :
1. Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes which can form different parts of speech are given here :
a) noun-forming suffixes, such as: —er (criticizer), —dom (officialdom), —ism (ageism),
b) adjective-forming suffixes, such as: —able (breathable), less (symptomless), —ous (prestigious),
c) verb-forming suffixes, such as —ize (computerize) , —ify (minify),
d) adverb-forming suffixes , such as : —ly (singly), —ward (tableward),
e) numeral-forming suffixes, such as —teen (sixteen), —ty (seventy).
2. Semantic classification. Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of the stem can be subdivided into groups, e.g. noun-forming suffixes can denote:
a) the agent of the action, e.g. —er (experimenter), —ist (taxist), -ent (student),
b) nationality, e.g. —ian (Russian), —ese (Japanese), —ish (English),
c) collectivity, e.g. —dom (moviedom), —ry (peasantry, —ship (readership), —ati (literati),
d) diminutiveness, e.g. —ie (horsie), —let (booklet), —ling (gooseling), —ette (kitchenette),
e) quality, e.g. —ness (copelessness), —ity (answerability).
3. Lexico—grammatical character of the stem. Suffixes which can be added to certain groups of stems are subdivided into:
a) suffixes added to verbal stems, such as: —er (commuter), —ing (suffering), — able (flyable), —ment (involvement), —ation (computerization),
b) suffixes added to noun stems, such as: —less (smogless), —ful (roomful), —ism (adventurism), —ster (pollster), —nik (filmnik), —ish (childish),
c) suffixes added to adjective stems, such as: —en (weaken), —ly (pinkly), —ish (longish), —ness (clannishness).
4. Origin of suffixes. Here we can point out the following groups:
a) native (Germanic), such as —er,-ful, —less, —ly.
b) Romanic, such as : —tion, —ment, —able, —eer.
c) Greek, such as : —ist, —ism, -ize.
d) Russian, such as —nik.
5. Productivity. Here we can point out the following groups:
a) productive, such as: —er, —ize, —ly, —ness.
b) semi-productive, such as: —eer, —ette, —ward.
c) non-productive , such as: —ard (drunkard), —th (length).
Suffixes can be polysemantic, such as: —er can form nouns with the following meanings: agent, doer of the action expressed by the stem (speaker), profession, occupation (teacher), a device, a tool (transmitter). While speaking about suffixes we should also mention compound suffixes which are added to the stem at the same time, such as —ably, —ibly, (terribly, reasonably), —ation (adaptation from adapt). There are also disputable cases whether we have a suffix or a root morpheme in the structure of a word, in such cases we call such morphemes semi-suffixes, and words with such suffixes can be classified either as derived words or as compound words, e.g. —gate (Irangate), —burger (cheeseburger), —aholic (workaholic) etc.
Prefixation
Prefixation is the formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English it is characteristic for forming verbs. Prefixes are more independent than suffixes. Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they are used: prefixes used in notional words and prefixes used in functional words. Prefixes used in notional words are proper prefixes which are bound morphemes, e.g. un— (unhappy). Prefixes used in functional words are semi-bound morphemes because they are met in the language as words, e.g. over— (overhead) (cf. over the table). The main function of prefixes in English is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. But the recent research showed that about twenty-five prefixes in Modern English form one part of speech from another (bebutton, interfamily, postcollege etc).
Prefixes can be classified according to different principles:
1. Semantic classification:
a) prefixes of negative meaning, such as: in— (invaluable), non— (nonformals), un— (unfree) etc,
b) prefixes denoting repetition or reversal actions, such as: de— (decolonize), re— (revegetation), dis— (disconnect),
c) prefixes denoting time, space, degree relations, such as: inter— (interplanetary) , hyper— (hypertension), ex— (ex-student), pre— (pre-election), over— (overdrugging) etc.
2. Origin of prefixes:
a) native (Germanic), such as: un-, over-, under— etc.
b) Romanic, such as: in-, de-, ex-, re— etc.
c) Greek, such as: sym-, hyper— etc.
When we analyze such words as adverb, accompany where we can find the root of the word (verb, company) we may treat ad-, ac— as prefixes though they were never used as prefixes to form new words in English and were borrowed from Romanic languages together with words. In such cases we can treat them as derived words. But some scientists treat them as simple words. Another group of words with a disputable structure are such as: contain, retain, detain and conceive, receive, deceive where we can see that re-, de-, con— act as prefixes and —tain, —ceive can be understood as roots. But in English these combinations of sounds have no lexical meaning and are called pseudo-morphemes. Some scientists treat such words as simple words, others as derived ones. There are some prefixes which can be treated as root morphemes by some scientists, e.g. after— in the word afternoon. American lexicographers working on Webster dictionaries treat such words as compound words. British lexicographers treat such words as derived ones.
COMPOSITION
Composition is the way of word building when a word is formed by joining two or more stems to form one word. The structural unity of a compound word depends upon: a) the unity of stress, b) solid or hyphеnated spelling, c) semantic unity, d) unity of morphological and syntactical functioning. These are characteristic features of compound words in all languages. For English compounds some of these factors are not very reliable. As a rule English compounds have one uniting stress (usually on the first component), e.g. hard-cover, best—seller. We can also have a double stress in an English compound, with the main stress on the first component and with a secondary stress on the second component, e.g. blood—vessel. The third pattern of stresses is two level stresses, e.g. snow—white, sky—blue. The third pattern is easily mixed up with word-groups unless they have solid or hyphеnated spelling.
Spelling in English compounds is not very reliable as well because they can have different spelling even in the same text, e.g. war—ship, blood—vessel can be spelt through a hyphen and also with a break, insofar, underfoot can be spelt solidly and with a break. All the more so that there has appeared in Modern English a special type of compound words which are called block compounds, they have one uniting stress but are spelt with a break, e.g. air piracy, cargo module, coin change, penguin suit etc. The semantic unity of a compound word is often very strong. In such cases we have idiomatic compounds where the meaning of the whole is not a sum of meanings of its components, e.g. to ghostwrite, skinhead, brain—drain etc. In nonidiomatic compounds semantic unity is not strong, e. g., airbus, to bloodtransfuse, astrodynamics etc.
English compounds have the unity of morphological and syntactical functioning. They are used in a sentence as one part of it and only one component changes grammatically, e.g. These girls are chatter-boxes. «Chatter-boxes» is a predicative in the sentence and only the second component changes grammatically. There are two characteristic features of English compounds:
a) Both components in an English compound are free stems, that is they can be used as words with a distinctive meaning of their own. The sound pattern will be the same except for the stresses, e.g. «a green-house» and «a green house». Whereas for example in Russian compounds the stems are bound morphemes, as a rule.
b) English compounds have a two-stem pattern, with the exception of compound words which have form-word stems in their structure, e.g. middle-of-the-road, off—the—record, up—and—doing etc. The two-stem pattern distinguishes English compounds from German ones.
WAYS OF FORMING COMPOUND WORDS
Compound words in English can be formed not only by means of composition but also by means of:
a) reduplication, e.g. too—too, and also by means of reduplication combined with sound interchange , e.g. rope-ripe,
b) conversion from word-groups, e.g. to micky—mouse, can—do, makeup etc,
c) back formation from compound nouns or word-groups, e.g. to bloodtransfuse, to fingerprint etc ,
d) analogy, e.g. lie—in (on the analogy with sit-in) and also phone—in, brawn—drain (on the analogy with brain—drain) etc.
CLASSIFICATIONS OF ENGLISH COMPOUNDS
1. According to the parts of speech compounds are subdivided into:
a) nouns, such as: baby-moon, globe-trotter,
b) adjectives, such as : free-for-all, power-happy,
c) verbs, such as : to honey-moon, to baby-sit, to henpeck,
d) adverbs, such as: downdeep, headfirst,
e) prepositions, such as: into, within,
f) numerals, such as : fifty—five.
2. According to the way components are joined together compounds are divided into: a) neutral, which are formed by joining together two stems without any joining morpheme, e.g. ball—point, to windowshop,
b) morphological where components are joined by a linking element: vowels «o» or «i» or the consonant «s», e.g. («astrospace», «handicraft», «sportsman»),
c) syntactical where the components are joined by means of form-word stems, e.g. here-and-now, free-for-all, do-or-die.
3. According to their structure compounds are subdivided into:
a) compound words proper which consist of two stems, e.g. to job-hunt, train-sick, go-go, tip-top,
b) derivational compounds, where besides the stems we have affixes, e.g. ear—minded, hydro-skimmer,
c) compound words consisting of three or more stems, e.g. cornflower—blue, eggshell—thin, singer—songwriter,
d) compound-shortened words, e.g. boatel, VJ—day, motocross, intervision, Eurodollar, Camford.
4. According to the relations between the components compound words are subdivided into:
a) subordinative compounds where one of the components is the semantic and the structural centre and the second component is subordinate; these subordinative relations can be different: with comparative relations, e.g. honey—sweet, eggshell—thin, with limiting relations, e.g. breast—high, knee—deep, with emphatic relations, e.g. dog—cheap, with objective relations, e.g. gold—rich, with cause relations, e.g. love—sick, with space relations, e.g. top—heavy, with time relations, e.g. spring—fresh, with subjective relations, e.g. foot—sore etc
b) coordinative compounds where both components are semantically independent. Here belong such compounds when one person (object) has two functions, e.g. secretary-stenographer, woman-doctor, Oxbridge etc. Such compounds are called additive. This group includes also compounds formed by means of reduplication, e.g. fifty-fifty, no-no, and also compounds formed with the help of rhythmic stems (reduplication combined with sound interchange) e.g. criss-cross, walkie-talkie.
5. According to the order of the components compounds are divided into compounds with direct order, e.g. kill—joy, and compounds with indirect order, e.g. nuclear—free, rope—ripe.
CONVERSION
Conversion is a characteristic feature of the English word-building system. It is also called affixless derivation or zero-suffixation. The term «conversion» first appeared in the book by Henry Sweet «New English Grammar» in 1891. Conversion is treated differently by different scientists, e.g. prof. A.I. Smirntitsky treats conversion as a morphological way of forming words when one part of speech is formed from another part of speech by changing its paradigm, e.g. to form the verb «to dial» from the noun «dial» we change the paradigm of the noun (a dial, dials) for the paradigm of a regular verb (I dial, he dials, dialed, dialing). A. Marchand in his book «The Categories and Types of Present-day English» treats conversion as a morphological-syntactical word-building because we have not only the change of the paradigm, but also the change of the syntactic function, e.g. I need some good paper for my room. (The noun «paper» is an object in the sentence). I paper my room every year. (The verb «paper» is the predicate in the sentence). Conversion is the main way of forming verbs in Modern English. Verbs can be formed from nouns of different semantic groups and have different meanings because of that, e.g.:
a) verbs have instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns denoting parts of a human body e.g. to eye, to finger, to elbow, to shoulder etc. They have instrumental meaning if they are formed from nouns denoting tools, machines, instruments, weapons, e.g. to hammer, to machine-gun, to rifle, to nail,
b) verbs can denote an action characteristic of the living being denoted by the noun from which they have been converted, e.g. to crowd, to wolf, to ape,
c) verbs can denote acquisition, addition or deprivation if they are formed from nouns denoting an object, e.g. to fish, to dust, to peel, to paper,
d) verbs can denote an action performed at the place denoted by the noun from which they have been converted, e.g. to park, to garage, to bottle, to corner, to pocket,
e) verbs can denote an action performed at the time denoted by the noun from which they have been converted e.g. to winter, to week-end.
Verbs can be also converted from adjectives, in such cases they denote the change of the state, e.g. to tame (to become or make tame), to clean, to slim etc.
Nouns can also be formed by means of conversion from verbs. Converted nouns can denote: a) instant of an action e.g. a jump, a move,
b) process or state e.g. sleep, walk,
c) agent of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a help, a flirt, a scold,
d) object or result of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a burn, a find, a purchase,
e) place of the action expressed by the verb from which the noun has been converted, e.g. a drive, a stop, a walk.
Many nouns converted from verbs can be used only in the Singular form and denote momentaneous actions. In such cases we have partial conversion. Such deverbal nouns are often used with such verbs as: to have, to get, to take etc., e.g. to have a try, to give a push, to take a swim.
CRITERIA OF SEMANTIC DERIVATION
In cases of conversion the problem of criteria of semantic derivation arises: which of the converted pair is primary and which is converted from it. The problem was first analized by prof. A.I. Smirnitsky. Later on P.A. Soboleva developed his idea and worked out the following criteria:
1. If the lexical meaning of the root morpheme and the lexico-grammatical meaning of the stem coincide the word is primary, e.g. in cases pen — to pen, father — to father the nouns are names of an object and a living being. Therefore in the nouns «pen» and «father» the lexical meaning of the root and the lexico-grammatical meaning of the stem coincide. The verbs «to pen» and «to father» denote an action, a process therefore the lexico-grammatical meanings of the stems do not coincide with the lexical meanings of the roots. The verbs have a complex semantic structure and they were converted from nouns.
2. If we compare a converted pair with a synonymic word pair which was formed by means of suffixation we can find out which of the pair is primary. This criterion can be applied only to nouns converted from verbs, e.g. «chat» n. and «chat» v. can be compared with «conversation» – «converse».
3. The criterion based on derivational relations is of more universal character. In this case we must take a word-cluster of relative words to which the converted pair belongs. If the root stem of the word-cluster has suffixes added to a noun stem the noun is primary in the converted pair and vica versa, e.g. in the word-cluster: hand n., hand v., handy, handful the derived words have suffixes added to a noun stem, that is why the noun is primary and the verb is converted from it. In the word-cluster: dance n., dance v., dancer, dancing we see that the primary word is a verb and the noun is converted from it.
SUBSTANTIVIZATION OF ADJECTIVES
Some scientists (Yespersen, Kruisinga) refer substantivization of adjectives to conversion. But most scientists disagree with them because in cases of substantivization of adjectives we have quite different changes in the language. Substantivization is the result of ellipsis (syntactical shortening) when a word combination with a semantically strong attribute loses its semantically weak noun (man, person etc), e.g. «a grown-up person» is shortened to «a grown-up». In cases of perfect substantivization the attribute takes the paradigm of a countable noun, e.g. a criminal, criminals, a criminal’s (mistake), criminals’ (mistakes). Such words are used in a sentence in the same function as nouns, e.g. I am fond of musicals. (musical comedies). There are also two types of partly substantivized adjectives: 1) those which have only the plural form and have the meaning of collective nouns, such as: sweets, news, finals, greens; 2) those which have only the singular form and are used with the definite article. They also have the meaning of collective nouns and denote a class, a nationality, a group of people, e.g. the rich, the English, the dead.
«STONE WALL» COMBINATIONS
The problem whether adjectives can be formed by means of conversion from nouns is the subject of many discussions. In Modern English there are a lot of word combinations of the type, e.g. price rise, wage freeze, steel helmet, sand castle etc. If the first component of such units is an adjective converted from a noun, combinations of this type are free word-groups typical of English (adjective + noun). This point of view is proved by O. Yespersen by the following facts:
1. «Stone» denotes some quality of the noun «wall».
2. «Stone» stands before the word it modifies, as adjectives in the function of an attribute do in English.
3. «Stone» is used in the Singular though its meaning in most cases is plural, and adjectives in English have no plural form.
4. There are some cases when the first component is used in the Comparative or the Superlative degree, e.g. the bottomest end of the scale.
5. The first component can have an adverb which characterizes it, and adjectives are characterized by adverbs, e.g. a purely family gathering.
6. The first component can be used in the same syntactical function with a proper adjective to characterize the same noun, e.g. lonely bare stone houses.
7. After the first component the pronoun «one» can be used instead of a noun, e.g. I shall not put on a silk dress, I shall put on a cotton one.
However Henry Sweet and some other scientists say that these criteria are not characteristic of the majority of such units. They consider the first component of such units to be a noun in the function of an attribute because in Modern English almost all parts of speech and even word-groups and sentences can be used in the function of an attribute, e.g. the then president (an adverb), out-of-the-way villages (a word-group), a devil-may-care speed (a sentence). There are different semantic relations between the components of «stone wall» combinations. E.I. Chapnik classified them into the following groups:
1. time relations, e.g. evening paper,
2. space relations, e.g. top floor,
3. relations between the object and the material of which it is made, e.g. steel helmet,
4. cause relations, e.g. war orphan,
5. relations between a part and the whole, e.g. a crew member,
6. relations between the object and an action, e.g. arms production,
7. relations between the agent and an action e.g. government threat, price rise,
8. relations between the object and its designation, e.g. reception hall,
9. the first component denotes the head, organizer of the characterized object, e.g. Clinton government, Forsyte family,
10. the first component denotes the field of activity of the second component, e.g. language teacher, psychiatry doctor,
11. comparative relations, e.g. moon face,
12. qualitative relations, e.g. winter apples.
ABBREVIATION
In the process of communication words and word-groups can be shortened. The causes of shortening can be linguistic and extra-linguistic. By extra-linguistic causes changes in the life of people are meant. In Modern English many new abbreviations, acronyms, initials, blends are formed because the tempo of life is increasing and it becomes necessary to give more and more information in the shortest possible time. There are also linguistic causes of abbreviating words and word-groups, such as the demand of rhythm, which is satisfied in English by monosyllabic words. When borrowings from other languages are assimilated in English they are shortened. Here we have modification of form on the basis of analogy, e.g. the Latin borrowing «fanaticus» is shortened to «fan» on the analogy with native words: man, pan, tan etc. There are two main types of shortenings: graphical and lexical.
Graphical abbreviations
Graphical abbreviations are the result of shortening of words and word-groups only in written speech while orally the corresponding full forms are used. They are used for the economy of space and effort in writing. The oldest group of graphical abbreviations in English is of Latin origin. In Russian this type of abbreviation is not typical. In these abbreviations in the spelling Latin words are shortened, while orally the corresponding English equivalents are pronounced in the full form, e.g. for example (Latin exampli gratia), a.m. – in the morning (ante meridiem), No – number (numero), p.a. – a year (per annum), d – penny (dinarius), lb – pound (libra), i. e. – that is (id est) etc.
Some graphical abbreviations of Latin origin have different English equivalents in different contexts, e.g. p.m. can be pronounced «in the afternoon» (post meridiem) and «after death» (post mortem). There are also graphical abbreviations of native origin, where in the spelling we have abbreviations of words and word-groups of the corresponding English equivalents in the full form. We have several semantic groups of them: a) days of the week, e.g. Mon – Monday, Tue – Tuesday etc
b) names of months, e.g. Apr – April, Aug – August etc.
c) names of counties in UK, e.g. Yorks – Yorkshire, Berks – Berkshire etc
d) names of states in USA, e.g. Ala – Alabama, Alas – Alaska etc.
e) names of address, e.g. Mr., Mrs., Ms., Dr. etc.
f) military ranks, e.g. capt. – captain, col. – colonel, sgt – sergeant etc.
g) scientific degrees, e.g. B.A. – Bachelor of Arts, D.M. – Doctor of Medicine. (Sometimes in scientific degrees we have abbreviations of Latin origin, e.g., M.B. – Medicinae Baccalaurus).
h) units of time, length, weight, e.g. f./ft – foot/feet, sec. – second, in. – inch, mg. – milligram etc.
The reading of some graphical abbreviations depends on the context, e.g. «m» can be read as: male, married, masculine, metre, mile, million, minute, «l.p.» can be read as long-playing, low pressure.
Initial abbreviations
Initialisms are the bordering case between graphical and lexical abbreviations. When they appear in the language, as a rule, to denote some new offices they are closer to graphical abbreviations because orally full forms are used, e.g. J.V. – joint venture. When they are used for some duration of time they acquire the shortened form of pronouncing and become closer to lexical abbreviations, e.g. BBC is as a rule pronounced in the shortened form. In some cases the translation of initialisms is next to impossible without using special dictionaries. Initialisms are denoted in different ways. Very often they are expressed in the way they are pronounced in the language of their origin, e.g. ANZUS (Australia, New Zealand, United States) is given in Russian as АНЗУС, SALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) was for a long time used in Russian as СОЛТ, now a translation variant is used (ОСВ – Договор об ограничении стратегических вооружений). This type of initialisms borrowed into other languages is preferable, e.g. UFO – НЛО, CП – JV etc. There are three types of initialisms in English:
a) initialisms with alphabetical reading, such as UK, BUP, CND etc
b) initialisms which are read as if they are words, e.g. UNESCO, UNO, NATO etc.
c) initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound form, such initialisms are called acronyms, e.g. CLASS (Computor-based Laboratory for Automated School System). Some scientists unite groups b) and c) into one group which they call acronyms. Some initialisms can form new words in which they act as root morphemes by different ways of wordbuilding:
a) affixation, e.g. AVALism, ex- POW, AIDSophobia etc.
b) conversion, e.g. to raff, to fly IFR (Instrument Flight Rules),
c) composition, e.g. STOLport, USAFman etc.
d) there are also compound-shortened words where the first component is an initial abbreviation with the alphabetical reading and the second one is a complete word, e.g. A-bomb, U-pronunciation, V -day etc. In some cases the first component is a complete word and the second component is an initial abbreviation with the alphabetical pronunciation, e.g. Three -Ds (Three dimensions) – стереофильм.
Abbreviations of words
Abbreviation of words consists in clipping a part of a word. As a result we get a new lexical unit where either the lexical meaning or the style is different form the full form of the word. In such cases as «fantasy» and «fancy», «fence» and «defence» we have different lexical meanings. In such cases as «laboratory» and «lab», we have different styles. Abbreviation does not change the part-of-speech meaning, as we have it in the case of conversion or affixation, it produces words belonging to the same part of speech as the primary word, e.g. prof. is a noun and professor is also a noun. Mostly nouns undergo abbreviation, but we can also meet abbreviation of verbs, such as to rev. from to revolve, to tab from to tabulate etc. But mostly abbreviated forms of verbs are formed by means of conversion from abbreviated nouns, e.g. to taxi, to vac etc. Adjectives can be abbreviated but they are mostly used in school slang and are combined with suffixation, e.g. comfy, dilly etc. As a rule pronouns, numerals, interjections. conjunctions are not abbreviated. The exceptions are: fif (fifteen), teen-ager, in one’s teens (apheresis from numerals from 13 to 19). Lexical abbreviations are classified according to the part of the word which is clipped. Mostly the end of the word is clipped, because the beginning of the word in most cases is the root and expresses the lexical meaning of the word. This type of abbreviation is called apocope. Here we can mention a group of words ending in «o», such as disco (dicotheque), expo (exposition), intro (introduction) and many others. On the analogy with these words there developed in Modern English a number of words where «o» is added as a kind of a suffix to the shortened form of the word, e.g. combo (combination) – небольшой эстрадный ансамбль, Afro (African) – прическа под африканца etc. In other cases the beginning of the word is clipped. In such cases we have apheresis, e.g. chute (parachute), varsity (university), copter (helicopter), thuse (enthuse) etc. Sometimes the middle of the word is clipped, e.g. mart (market), fanzine (fan magazine) maths (mathematics). Such abbreviations are called syncope. Sometimes we have a combination of apocope with apheresis, when the beginning and the end of the word are clipped, e.g. tec (detective), van (vanguard) etc. Sometimes shortening influences the spelling of the word, e.g. «c» can be substituted by «k» before «e» to preserve pronunciation, e.g. mike (microphone), Coke (coca-cola) etc. The same rule is observed in the following cases: fax (facsimile), teck (technical college), trank (tranquilizer) etc. The final consonants in the shortened forms are substituded by letters characteristic of native English words.
NON-PRODUCTIVE WAYS OF WORDBUILDING
SOUND INTERCHANGE
Sound interchange is the way of word-building when some sounds are changed to form a new word. It is non-productive in Modern English, it was productive in Old English and can be met in other Indo-European languages. The causes of sound interchange can be different. It can be the result of Ancient Ablaut which cannot be explained by the phonetic laws during the period of the language development known to scientists, e.g. to strike – stroke, to sing – song etc. It can be also the result of Ancient Umlaut or vowel mutation which is the result of palatalizing the root vowel because of the front vowel in the syllable coming after the root (regressive assimilation), e.g. hot — to heat (hotian), blood — to bleed (blodian) etc. In many cases we have vowel and consonant interchange. In nouns we have voiceless consonants and in verbs we have corresponding voiced consonants because in Old English these consonants in nouns were at the end of the word and in verbs in the intervocalic position, e.g. bath – to bathe, life – to live, breath – to breathe etc.
STRESS INTERCHANGE
Stress interchange can be mostly met in verbs and nouns of Romanic origin: nouns have the stress on the first syllable and verbs on the last syllable, e.g. `accent — to ac`cent. This phenomenon is explained in the following way: French verbs and nouns had different structure when they were borrowed into English, verbs had one syllable more than the corresponding nouns. When these borrowings were assimilated in English the stress in them was shifted to the previous syllable (the second from the end). Later on the last unstressed syllable in verbs borrowed from French was dropped (the same as in native verbs) and after that the stress in verbs was on the last syllable while in nouns it was on the first syllable. As a result of it we have such pairs in English as: to af«fix -`affix, to con`flict- `conflict, to ex`port -`export, to ex`tract — `extract etc. As a result of stress interchange we have also vowel interchange in such words because vowels are pronounced differently in stressed and unstressed positions.
SOUND IMITATION
It is the way of word-building when a word is formed by imitating different sounds. There are some semantic groups of words formed by means of sound imitation:
a) sounds produced by human beings, such as : to whisper, to giggle, to mumble, to sneeze, to whistle etc.
b) sounds produced by animals, birds, insects, such as: to hiss, to buzz, to bark, to moo, to twitter etc.
c) sounds produced by nature and objects, such as: to splash, to rustle, to clatter, to bubble, to ding-dong, to tinkle etc.
The corresponding nouns are formed by means of conversion, e.g. clang (of a bell), chatter (of children) etc.
BLENDS
Blends are words formed from a word-group or two synonyms. In blends two ways of word-building are combined: abbreviation and composition. To form a blend we clip the end of the first component (apocope) and the beginning of the second component (apheresis) . As a result we have a compound- shortened word. One of the first blends in English was the word «smog» from two synonyms: smoke and fog which means smoke mixed with fog. From the first component the beginning is taken, from the second one the end, «o» is common for both of them. Blends formed from two synonyms are: slanguage, to hustle, gasohol etc. Mostly blends are formed from a word-group, such as: acromania (acronym mania), cinemaddict (cinema adict), chunnel (channel, canal), dramedy (drama comedy), detectifiction (detective fiction), faction (fact fiction) (fiction based on real facts), informecial (information commercial), Medicare (medical care), magalog (magazine catalogue) slimnastics (slimming gymnastics), sociolite (social elite), slanguist (slang linguist) etc.
BACK FORMATION
It is the way of word-building when a word is formed by dropping the final morpheme to form a new word. It is opposite to suffixation, that is why it is called back formation. At first it appeared in the language as a result of misunderstanding the structure of a borrowed word. Prof. Yartseva explains this mistake by the influence of the whole system of the language on separate words. E.g. it is typical of English to form nouns denoting the agent of the action by adding the suffix -er to a verb stem (speak- speaker). So when the French word «beggar» was borrowed into English the final syllable «ar» was pronounced in the same way as the English —er and Englishmen formed the verb «to beg» by dropping the end of the noun. Other examples of back formation are: to accreditate (from accreditation), to bach (from bachelor), to collocate (from collocation), to enthuse (from enthusiasm), to compute (from computer), to emote (from emotion), to televise (from television) etc.
As we can notice in cases of back formation the part-of-speech meaning of the primary word is changed, verbs are formed from nouns.
23
INTRODUCTION
Many linguists agree over
the fact that the subject of word-formation has not until recently received
very much attention from descriptive grammarians of English, or from scholars
working in the field of general linguistics. As a collection of different
processes (compounding, affixation, conversion, backformation, etc.) about
which, as a group, it is difficult to make general statements, word-formation
usually makes a brief appearance in one or two chapters of a grammar. Valerie
Adams emphasizes two main reasons why the subject has not been attractive to
linguists: its connections with the non-linguistic world of things and ideas,
for which words provide the names and its equivocal position as between
descriptive and historical studies. A few brief remarks, which necessarily
present a much over-simplified picture, on the course which linguistics has
taken in the last hundred years will make this easier.
The choice of a theme of
this paper is caused by the small studying of this question by way of teaching
it at school. Word-formation, as one of branches of lexicon, is a difficult and
volumetric question, therefore requires the careful studying. It determines the
actuality of our scientific work.
The aim of our work
is to define the main types of forming new words in the novel of Jean Webster
«Daddy-Long-Legs»
To achieve this aim it was
necessary to solve the following tasks:
1) to compile the theory of
word-formation;
2) to study the problem of the
definition of word-formation;
3) to define the basic ways of forming
words;
4) to collect literary examples of the
novel of Jean Webster;
5) to analyze all the current word-formations
in «Daddy-Long-Legs»;
6) to compare the results of the
analysis.
The methods used in
this paper include the method of critical analysis of the sources, the
descriptive method, the contextual-semantic method, the method of comparative
analysis and the method of text interpretation.
The theoretical value of
this research work is to show the riches of the material connected with the basic
ways of forming words in the novel of Lean Webster “Daddy-Long-Legs”.
The practical value lies in the fact that it can
serve as source information for teachers and pupils by lexicon-grammatical
analysis of some literary work on a base of word-formation and as additional
material for studying English grammar at the lessons.
The structure of the work: the paper consists of two basic
parts: theoretical and practical ones, which examine one problem, but from the
different corners of sight. It includes also Introduction, Conclusion, Appendixes
and Literature.
The problem of word-formation
was researched by a variety of scientists: Karatshuk P., Varina V.G., Meshkov
O., Silnitsky G., Arnold I.V. and others.
1. WORD-FORMATION IN MODERN ENGLISH
1.1. Definition, basic peculiarities of
word-formation
Word-formation is the system of derivative types of words and the process of creating new words from the
material available in the
language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns.
What exactly is a word? To
help the reader decide what constitutes a word, A. Karatshuk P. suggests a
ranking of words in decreasing order of admissibility. A logical way to rank a
word is by the number of English-speaking people who can recognize it in speech
or writing, but this is obviously impossible to ascertain. Alternatively, one
can rank a word by its number of occurrences in a selected sample of printed
material. Computational Analysis of Present-day English is based on one million
words from sources in print in 1961. Unfortunately, the majority of the words
in Webster’s Unabridged do not appear even once in this compilation – and the
words which do not appear are the ones for which a philosophy of ranking is
most urgently needed. Furthermore, the written ranking will differ from the
recognition ranking; vulgarities and obscenities will rank much higher in the
latter than in the former [7, pp.14-18].
A detailed, word-by-word
ranking is an impossible dream, but a ranking based on classes of words may be
within our grasp. Silnitsky G. proposes the following classes:
1) words appearing in one more
standard English-language dictionaries;
2) non-dictionary words appearing in
print in several different contexts;
3) words invented to fill a specific
need and appearing but once in print [9, p.43].
1) Most people are willing
to admit as words all uncapitalized, unlabeled entries in one recognizes that words
become less admissible as they move in any or all of three directions: as they
become more frequently capitalized, as they become the jargon of smaller groups
(dialect, technical, scientific), and as they become archaic or obsolete. These
classes have no definite boundaries – is a word last used in 1499 significantly
more obsolete than a word last used in 1501? Is a word known to 100,000
chemists more admissible than a word known to 90,000 Mexican-Americans? Each
linguist will set his own boundaries.
2) The second class
consists of non-dictionary words appearing in print in a number of sources.
There are many non-dictionary words in common use; some topologists would like
to draw a wider circle to include these. Such words can be broadly classified
into:
1) neologisms and common words overlooked
by dictionary-makers;
2) geographical place names;
3) given names and surnames.
Large treasure-troves of
geographic place names can be found in The Times Atlas of the World (200,000
names), and the Rand McNally Commercial Atlas and Marketing Guide (100,000
names). These are not all different, and some place names are already
dictionary words. All these can be easily verified by other readers; however,
some will feel uneasy about admitting as a word the name, say, of a small
Albanian town which possibly has never appeared in any English-language text
outside of atlases.
Given names appear in the
appendix of many dictionaries. Common given names such as Edward or Cornelia
ought to be admitted as readily as common geographical place names such as Guatemala, but this set does not add much to the logological stockpile.
Family surnames at first
blush appear to be on the same footing as geographical place names. However,
one must be careful about sources.
Biographical dictionaries and Who’s
Who are adequate references, but one should be cautious citing surnames
appearing only in telephone directories.
3) The third and final class of words
consists of nonce words, those invented to fill a specific need, and appearing
only once (or perhaps only in the work of the author favoring the word).
The application of the term word-formation to the process of semantic change and to the appearance of
homonyms due to the development of polysemy seems to be debatable for the following reasons: as semantic change does not, as a rule,
lead to the introduction of a new word into the vocabulary, it can scarcely be
regarded as a word-building
means. Actually, the
appearance of homonyms is
not a means of creating new words, but it is the final result of a long and labourious process
of sense-development. Futhermore, there are no patterns after which homonyms can be made in the language. Finally, diverging sense-development
results in a semantic isolation of two or more meanings of a word, whereas the process of word-formation proper is characterized by a certain
semantic connection between the new word and the source lexical unit [9, pp.44-52].
1.2. The basic ways of forming words in English
Most linguists in special
chapters and manuals devoted to English word- formation consider as the chief
processes of English word-formation affixation, conversion and compounding.
Apart from these, there is a
number of minor ways of forming words such as back-formation, sound
interchange, distinctive stress, onomatopoeia, blending, clipping, acronymy.
Some of the ways of forming
words in present-day English can be restored to for the creation of new words
whenever the occasion demands – these are called productive ways of forming
words, other ways of forming words cannot now produce new words, and these are
commonly termed non-productive or unproductive. Meshkov O. gives the example of
affixation having been a productive way of forming new words ever since the Old
English period; on the other hand, sound-interchange must have been at one time
a word- building means but in Modern English (as we have mentioned above) its
function is actually only to distinguish between different classes and forms of
words [8, p.15].
The delimitation between
productive and non-productive ways and means of word-formation as stated above
is not, however, accepted by all linguists without reserve. Some linguists
consider it necessary to define the term productivity of a word-building means
more accurately. They hold the view that productive ways and means of
word-formation are only those that can be used for the formation of an
unlimited number of new words in the modern language, i.e. such means that
“know no bounds” and easily form occasional words. This divergence of opinion
is responsible for the difference in the lists of derivational affixes
considered productive in various books on.
Word-building is one of the
main ways of enriching vocabulary. There are four main ways of word-building in
modern English: affixation, composition, conversion, abbreviation. There are
also secondary ways of word-building: sound interchange, stress interchange,
sound imitation, blends, and back formation.
In word-formation of the
English language derivation and compounding are known to occupy a very
important place [9, p.11].
There are 2 major groups
of word-formation in English too:
1) words formed as
grammatical syntagmas, combinations of full linguistic signs (types:
compounding (словосложение), prefixation, suffixation,
conversion, and back derivation);
2) words, which are not
grammatical syntagmas, which are not made up of full linguistic signs.
Ex.: expressive symbolism,
blending, clipping, rhyme and some others.
Common for both groups is
that a new word is based on synchronic relationship between morphemes [8, p.31].
The main classification of
word-formation:
Affixation is generally defined as the
formation of words by adding derivational affixes to different types of bases.
Derived words formed by affixation may be the result of one or several
applications of word-formation rule and thus the stems of words making up a
word-cluster enter into derivational relations of different degrees. The zero
degree of derivation is ascribed to simple words, i.e. words whose stem is
homonymous with a word-form and often with a root-morpheme (e.g. atom, haste,
devote, anxious, horror, etc.). Derived words whose bases are built on simple
stems and thus are formed by the application of one derivational affix are
described as having the first degree of derivation (e.g. atomic, hasty,
devotion, etc.). Derived words formed by two consecutive stages of coining
possess the second degree of derivation (e.g. atomical, hastily, devotional,
etc.), and so forth.
In conformity with the
division of derivational affixes into suffixes and prefixes affixation is
subdivided into suffixation and prefixation.
Affixation is one of the most
productive ways of word-building throughout the history of English. It consists
in adding an affix to the stem of a definite part of speech. Affixation is
divided into suffixation and prefixation [1, p.57].
Suffixation is
the formation of words with the help of suffixes. Suffixes usually modify the
lexical meaning of the base and transfer words to a different part of speech.
There are suffixes however, which do not shift words from one part of speech
into another; a suffix of this kind usually transfers a word into a different
semantic group, e. g. a concrete noun becomes an abstract one, as is the case
with child—childhood, friend—friendship, etc.
Suffixes may be classified
proceeding from different criteria. According to the part of speech
classification they fall into:
a) suffixes forming nouns;
b) suffixes forming
adjectives;
c) suffixes forming verbs;
d) and adverb-suffixes [8,
pp.33-34].
There are 6 ways of
suffixing in English:
1) derivation by native suffixes without changes in stress,
vowels, consonants: Godlike;
2) derivation by borrowed suffix
without changes in stress, vowels, consonants:
Loveable;
3) derivation by imported suffixes,
which involves the change in:
Japan Japanese;
4) the suffix is added to a Latin
stem which closely related to an English word:
science – scientist;
5) the suffix is added to a Latin
stem, which has no English equivalent:
lingua – lingual;
6) words borrowed separately but have
the same patterns of word building:
candidate – candidacy,
president – presidency;
This is called correlative derivation
[3, pp.95-96].
Prefixation is the
formation of words by means of adding a prefix to the stem. In English it is
characteristic for forming verbs. Prefixes are more independent than suffixes.
Prefixes can be classified according to the nature of words in which they are
used: prefixes used in notional words and prefixes used in functional words.
Prefixes may be classified
on different principles. Diachronically distinction is made between prefixes of
native and foreign origin.
Synchronically prefixes may be
classified:
1) According to the class of
words they preferably form. Recent investigations allow one to classify
prefixes according to this principle. It must be noted that most of the 51 prefixes
of Modern English function in more than one part of speech forming different
structural and structural-semantic patterns. A small group of 5 prefixes may be
referred to exclusively verb-forming (en–, be–, un–, etc.).
2) As to the type of
lexical-grammatical character of the base they are added to into: (a) deverbal,
e.g. rewrite, outstay, overdo, etc.; (b) denominal, e.g. unbutton, detrain,
ex-president, etc. and (c) deadjectival, e.g. uneasy, biannual, etc. It is
interesting that the most productive prefixal pattern for adjectives is the one
made up of the prefix un– and the base built either on adjectival stems or
present and past participle, e.g. unknown, unsmiling, untold, etc.
3) Semantically prefixes
fall into mono– and polysemantic.
4) As to the generic
denotational meaning there are different groups that are distinguished in
linguistic literature: (a) negative prefixes such as un–, non–, in–, dis–, a–,
im–/in–/ir– (e.g. employment ( unemployment, politician ( non-politician,
correct ( incorrect, advantage ( disadvantage, moral ( amoral, legal ( illegal,
etc.); (b) reversative of privative prefixes, such as un–, de–, dis–, dis–
(e.g. tie ( untie, centralize ( decentralize, connect ( disconnect, etc.); (c)
pejorative prefixes, such as mis–, mal–, pseudo– (e.g. calculate (
miscalculate, function ( malfunction, scientific ( pseudo-scientific, etc.);
(d) prefixes of time and order, such as fore–, pre–, post–, ex– (e.g. see (
foresee, war ( pre-war, Soviet ( post-Soviet, wife ( ex- wife, etc.); (e)
prefix of repetition re– (e.g. do ( redo, type ( retype, etc.); (f) locative
prefixes such as super–, sub–, inter–, trans– (e.g. market ( supermarket,
culture ( subculture, national ( international, Atlantic ( trans-Atlantic, etc.).
5) When viewed from the
angle of their stylistic reference, English prefixes fall into those
characterized by neutral stylistic reference and those possessing quite a
definite stylistic value. As no exhaustive lexicon-stylistic classification of
English prefixes has yet been suggested, a few examples can only be adduced
here. There is no doubt, for instance, that prefixes like un–, out–, over–,
re–, under– and some others can be qualified as neutral (e. g. unnatural,
unlace, outgrow, override, redo, underestimate, etc.). On the other hand, one
can hardly fail to perceive the literary-bookish character of such prefixes as
pseudo–, super–, ultra–, uni–, bi– and some others (e. g. pseudo-classical,
superstructure, ultra-violence, unilateral, bifocal, etc.). Sometimes one comes
across pairs of prefixes one of which is neutral, the other is stylistically
coloured. One example will suffice here: the prefix over– occurs in all
functional styles, the prefix super– is peculiar to the style of scientific
prose.
6) Prefixes may be also
classified as to the degree of productivity into highly-productive, productive
and non-productive [9, pp.60-62].
Conversion is a characteristic feature of the
English word-building system. It is also called affixless derivation or
zero-suffixation.
Silnitsky G. thinks that
derivative and compound words, as lexemes, have naturally the properties
revealed in their paradigmatic and syntagmatic relations. But there are cased
when some semantic elements of such words do not find their formal expression
and remain in «deep sense word-structure» [9, p.6].
Meshkov O. defines that in
English words can be simple, derivative and compound. A simple word consists of
a root to which morphological flexions can join: for example “table”, “book”
are simple words. A derivative is a word which is formed by adding some
affixes: for example, “speaker”, “government”, “to bed” is derivatives. Thus a
verb “to bed” on a morphological structure is a simple word, and in this sense
does not differ, from a noun, “a bed”, however, a verb is the product of the
word-formation act (conversion) and, therefore, “to bed” is a derivative word [8,
pp.4-8].
A compound word is a word which appeared as a result
of addition two or more bases: for example: “blackboard”, “handcraft”,
“weekend”. Also in linguistic literature it is accepted to determine derivative
compound words, these are compound words which have one or more derivative
affixes.
Compounding is joining
together 2 or more stems.
The main types:
1) without a connecting element:
headache, heartbreak;
2) with a vowel or consonant as a
linking element:
speedometer, craftsman;
3) with a preposition or conjunction
as a linking element:
down-and-out (в ужасном
положении, опустошенный);
son-in-law.
Compounds can be classified
according to their structure:
1) consisting of simple stem:
heartbreak;
2) compounds where at least one stem
is a derived one:
football player;
3) where one stem is clipped:
Xmas, H-bag (handbag);
4) where one of the elements is also
a compound:
wastepaper basket, compound
nouns, adjectives, verbs;
5) there are also the so-called
reduplicative compounds:
tick-tick, chow-chow [7,
pp.26-28].
Some linguists say about
such 3 types of compounding:
1) the first part is left (the
commonest type):
advertisement – ad;
2) the second part is left:
telephone – phone,
airplane – plane;
3) a middle part is left:
influenza – flu,
refrigerator – fridge.
Accepted by the speakers of
the language clipping can acquire grammatical categories (used in plural forms)
[3, p.71].
2. VOCABULARY ANALYSIS OF WORD-FORMATION
IN THE NOVEL BY JEAN WEBSTER “DADDY-LONG-LEGS”
2.1. The enrichment of the
novel’s language with the help of prefixation and suffixation
A careful study of a great
many suffixal and prefixal derivatives in the novel has revealed an essential
difference between them. In novel, suffixation is mostly characteristic of noun
and adjective formation, while prefixation is mostly typical of verb formation.
Especially there are very many such words in language of the novel by Jean
Webster “Daddy-Long-Legs”.
We are going to analyze the
current words. We see that in the speech of main character there are a lot of
words ranking with affixation and compounding.
Unlike suffixation, which
is usually more closely bound up with the paradigm of a certain part of speech;
prefixation is considered to be more neutral in this respect. It is significant
that in linguistic literature derivational suffixes are always divided into
noun-forming, adjective-forming and so on; prefixes, however, are treated
differently. They are described either in alphabetical order or sub-divided
into several classes in accordance with their origin. Meaning or function and
never according to the part of speech [7, p.26].
In the novel we can see
that prefixes are classified on different principles.
Here some examples of word-formations usage referring to
prefixation are represented.
Prefixation [8, pp.56-58 (classification)]
Negative Prefixes
“un-” – undisturbed,
unknown, unusual, unusually, unbreakable, unpacked,
unapproachable,
uneventful
“dis-” – disposition, disappointed,
distressing
Reversible Prefixes
“un-” — unemotional,
unsuitable
“de-” – deserving, departure,
desirable
Pejorative Prefixes
“mis-” – miserably, miserable
“mal-” – malfunction
Prefixes of degree and size
“out-” – outrun
“over-” – overlook
“hyper-/ultra-” – hypersensitive
Prefixes of time and order
“fore-” – foretell
“re-” – respectably, to reply,
responsible, remembrance, reexaminations
Number Prefixes
“ bi-/di-” – bi-coloured
“ multi-/poly-/pluri” – multifarious,
multiform
Conversion prefixes
“ en-/em-” – empower
“ a-” – afloat [5, pp.3-88
(examples)]
Having analyzed the usage of word-formations
referring to different prefixes’ groups in the novel the following results have
been obtained (Appendix 1):
In the novel word-formations
referring to negative prefixes appears more frequently than word-formations
referring to other analyzed groups (25%). According to the present novel we can
conclude that word-formations with reversible prefixes happen to be the
major contributor than the other prefixes’ groups (24%). In other words with
pejorative prefixes, prefixes of degree and size, prefixes of time and order
and number prefixes word-formations appear together 51%.
Suffixation [8, pp.64-65 (classification)]
Noun suffixes Occupational
“-ster”/“-er”/”-or” – bookkeeper,
undertaker, instructor
“-ance”/”-ence” – convenience,
remembrance, difference, coincidence, performance
Noun suffixes Diminutive and feminine
“-y” – opportunity, infirmary,
sympathy, sunshiny, charity
Noun Suffixes (Abstract) Status,
domain, etc.
“-hood” – childhood, neighborhood
“-ship” – scholarship
Noun suffixes Quantity
“-ful” – handful
Noun/adjective suffixes
“-ate” – appreciate “-(i)an”
– politican
De-verbal suffixes
“-er”/”-or” – laughter, inferior,
behavior
“-ation”/”-tion”/”-sion”/”-ition”–
imagination, education, sensation, examination,
hesitation,
reexaminations, impression, expression, mention, exception,
description, conversation,
illustration, disposition, introduction, composition,
election, procession,
confusion, instruction, permission
“-ment” – payment, acknowledgement,
excitement, engagement, commencement
“-ing” – distressing, throbbing,
bidding, something, deserving, training, confusing,
foundling, amusing, everything,
anything, dizzying, housekeeping,
asylumkeeping, meeting,
bewildering, thanksgiving, entertaining, showing
De-adjectival suffixes
“-ness” – wistfulness, tallness,
breathlessness, homesickness, bitterness, happiness
“-ity”/”-able”/”-ible”/”-al” –
probability, curiosity, possible, comprehensible
“-y” – pantry, curiosity, sunny, funny,
originality, obligatory, necessary, personality,
infirmary, breezy,
sunshiny, gossipy
Verb suffixes
“-ify” – identify
“-ize” – organize “-en” – typewritten
Adjective Suffixes
“-able”/”-ible” – noticeably,
unbreakable, respectable, companionable, adorable,
desirable, responsible, amiable,
unapproachable, irreproachable, unsuitable
“-al” – unusual, special, social,
conversational (college), unemotional
“-ful” – cheerful , respectful, beautiful,
awful, houseful, uneventful, wistfulness
“-ed” – scolded, hurried,
undisturbed, disappointed, unpacked, displeased
“-ent” – intelligent
“-ish” – accomplish
“-less” – breathlessness,
thoughtlessly
“-like” – homelike, business-like
“-ous” – nervous, adventurous,
generous, serious, famous, frivolous, joyous, nervous,
monotonous
Adverb suffixes
“-ly” – perfectly, finally, orderly,
successfully, daily, grotesquely, friendly, liberty,
slightly, thoroughly, absolutely,
longingly, honestly, probably, truthfully,
heavenly, merely,
conveniently, unusually, especially, truly, exactly,
satisfactorily, hardly,
awfully, miserably, Monthly, respectably,
shortly, uncommonly,
thoughtlessly, deadly, gently, generously
“-wards” – backwards
“-wise” – otherwise
“-out” – without [5, pp.3-88
(examples)]
According to the statistic
results suffixes’ word-formations referring to de-verbal suffixes (23%)
are used more often than word-formations referring to other groups (Appendix 2).
The most words are used with suffixes “-ation”/”-tion”/”-sion”/”-ition” forming
nouns. They are used to name derivation by native and borrowed suffixes without
changes in stress, vowels and consonants.
Adjective Suffixes help
to describe the main qualities of character and appearance of the heroes of the
novel “Daddy-Long-Legs” (22%). The word-formations with adverb suffixes (18%) give
the sufficient information about the main events in novel. This is one of the
main reasons of using word-formations in literature. But if we now consider the frequency value of this type of
word-formation in the
novel’s speech, we cannot fail to see that words with suffixes occupy a predominant place by Jean Webster (45%)
(Appendix 4).
There are also word-formations built
with help of both prefixes and suffixes, i.e. unbreakable, unapproachable, unsuitable, displeased, unbreakable, unpacked, unapproachable, uneventful, acknowledgment.
2.2. Basic peculiarities
of compounding and conversion in “Daddy-Long-Legs”
Compounding or
word-composition is
one of the productive types of word- formation that was used in novel.
Composition like all other ways of deriving words has its own peculiarities as
to the means used, the nature of bases and their distribution, as to the range
of application, the scope of semantic classes and the factors conducive to
productivity.
Compound words are found
in all parts of speech, but the bulk of compounds are nouns and adjectives.
Each part of speech is characterized by its set of derivational patterns and
their semantic variants. Compound adverbs, pronouns and connectives are
represented by an insignificant number of words, e. g. somewhere, somebody,
inside, upright, otherwise moreover, elsewhere, by means of, etc. No new
compounds are coined on this pattern. Compound pronouns and adverbs built on
the repeating first and second IC like body, ever, thing make closed sets of
words [9, p.73].
Compound nouns
present a problem. Sometimes these are hyphenated (truth-value), sometimes
written as separate words (noun phrase), and sometimes written together as a
single word (motorway). The only general rule is that items which are felt to
go closely together in sense so as to form a lexical item with its own specialized
meaning are likely to be either hyphenated or written as a single word. Where
this is not the case, the words should be written separately and unhyphenated.
But this general rule is not in fact very helpful in practice. For guidance on
individual cases, you must simply consult a modern dictionary and note the
practice of good writers. Of course, where the two nouns are joined to form a
compound adjective, they fall under case above and should be hyphenated (a
noun-phrase analysis) [8, p.67].
Compound nouns come from:
Verb + Noun; Verb + Verb; Adjective +
Noun; Particle + Noun; Adverb + Noun; Verb + Particle; Phrase compounds.
Groups of compound nouns [8, pp.69-71 (classification)]
Compound nouns can be
countable, uncountable, singular or plural and grouped like that.
Common countable compound nouns
heart attack postmark
book-case
high school oceanscape
rosebud
human being
landscape tea-kettle
fireside suitcase
jelly-cake
hill-side
looking-glass churchyard
headlight rainy-day
short-story
Freshman work-room
blackberry
room-mate playroom
playwright
text-book torchlight
Common uncountable compound nouns
old age one-half
ice-cream
homesick wander
thirst “Vanity
Fair”
homesickness moonlight
corn-meal
asylum sick basket-ball
pop-corn
Common singular compound nouns
cost of living dog-in-the-manger
sackcloth
waste-basket leave-of-absence
pole-vaulting
poor-box dress
Common plural compound nouns
luxury goods lilies-of-the-valley
eyebrows
road works footlights
downstairs
social services
Compound adjectives
They are made up of two or
more words, usually written with hyphens between them. They may be qualitative
classifying or colour adjectives.
Common patterns to make compound
adjectives
Adjective or number + noun + “-ed”:
dark-haired
Adjective or adverb + past participle:
low-paid
Adjective, adverb or noun +present
participle: good-looking
A few compound adjectives
are made up of more than two words and they are often written with hyphens when
they are used in front of nouns and without hyphens when they are used as the
complement of a link verb.
Groups of compound adjectives [8, pp.71-72]
Compound qualitative adjectives
easy-going flesh-and-blood
cross legged
nice looking five-pound
well-behaved
old fashioned three-year-old
well-dressed
starry-eyed long-legged
well-known
tender-hearted
Compound classifying adjectives
built-up beforehand
one-way
deep-sea grown-up
made-up
duty-free carefree
long-distance
Compound colour adjectives
blood-red
snow-white
bottle-green sky-blue
nut-brown royal-blue
[5, pp.3-88 (examples)]
Verbs are of special
interest. There is a small group of compound verbs made up of the combination
of verbal and adverbial stems that language retains from earlier stages, e. g.
to bypass, to inlay, to offset. This type according to some authors, is no
longer productive and is rarely found in new compounds [10, p.27].
Compound Verbs [8, pp.73-75]
They are usually written with a
hyphen.
Pattern formation:
noun + verb “sky-dive”; adjective
+ verb “double-book”;
verb + noun “shun-pike”; particle
+ verb “overbook”
verb + verb “freeze-dry”;
Groups of compound verbs
Intransitive compound verbs:
hitch-hike window-shop
ice-skate
roller-skate
Transitive compound verbs:
ill-treat drawback
dry-clean
Compound verbs used in transitive or
intransitive clauses:
bottle-feed
spring-clean [5, pp.3-88]
sight-read
According
to their derivational structure compound nouns make about
55%, adjectives 28,5% and verbs only about 16,5% (Appendix 3). Countable compound nouns come to 23%, i.e. more than the number of common uncountable
compound nouns (16%), common singular (8%) and plural (8%) compound nouns. In adjectives compound
qualitative word-formations come
to approximately 16%.
In every group of compound
there are met word-formations without a connecting element: beforehand,
moonlight, churchyard; with a vowel or consonant as a linking element: landscape,
rainy-day; with a preposition or conjunction as a linking element: dog-in-the-manger,
lilies-of-the-valley, flesh-and-blood, leave-of-absence. There are many
compounds consisting of simple stem in common countable compound nouns: i.e.
postmark, landscape, fireside, suitcase, headlight, Freshman, playroom, rosebud.
Compounds where at least one
stem is a derived one are more used in common singular and plural
compound nouns: i.e. cost of living, waste-basket, poor-box dress, luxury goods,
road works, social services, Freshman year. They are also
met in groups of compound verbs (Intransitive, Transitive verbs): i.e.
window-shop, roller-skate, bottle-feed, spring-clean. In every group of
compounds are met word-formations where one of the elements has suffix or
prefix: i.e. easy-going, nice looking, old fashioned, long-legged,
homesickness, rainy-day etc.
Conversion, one of the principal ways of
forming words in Modern English is highly productive in replenishing the
English word-stock with new words. The term conversion, which some linguists
find inadequate, refers to the numerous cases of phonetic identity of
word-forms, primarily the so-called initial forms, of two words belonging to
different parts of speech. This may be illustrated by the following cases [7,
p.85]:
work — to work; show
–to show;
love — to love; gesture
– to gesture;
behave – to behave; feel
– to feel;
wish – to wish; smile
– to smile;
room – to room; to
accomplish – accomplish
reply – to reply;
As a rule we deal with
simple words, although there are a few exceptions, e.g. wireless — to wireless.
The conversion is one of the
most productive ways of word-formation because the formation of new words on
conversion is possible practically from any part of speech, including
prepositions and proper names.
English language prefers a word
combination. Also the formation of derivative verbs on conversion is typical
for the English language.
From the Appendix 4 it is clearly
seen that in the novel the conversion group is only 9%. It happens because the
writer Jean Webster offers to use more prefixation, suffixation and compounding
for describing the main characters and events in her novel.
2.3. Word-formation as the
main way of describing of the novel’s heroes and main events
The object of the present research is to analyze the
frequency of word-formations usage in the novel by Jean Webster
“Daddy-Long-Legs”. To achieve the set object we analyzed the frequency of word-formations
usage in Jerusha’s letters (the main heroin). Here we try to compare the
results that are presented in the table 4.
“Daddy-Long-Legs” is a 1912 novel by an American writer
Jean Webster, written in the form of letters. It follows the protagonist, a
young girl named Jerusha “Judy” Abbott, through her college years. She writes
the letters to her benefactor, a rich man whom she has never seen.
In the beginning, it is a
series of letters, written by an American orphan girl, really just on the brink
of womanhood. When we first meet Judy Abbott she is seventeen years old and
still living in the john Grier Home for Orphans. She has done well at the local
high school and one of the Trustees of the orphanage offers to pay for her to
go to college. But he insists on anonymity. All he asks is that she writes a
letter to him once a month to let him know of her progress through college. She
is to address him as John Smith, and she is to expect no reply. We see that the
vocabulary of the novel is emotionally branched by the description of main
characters Judy, Mr. Pendleton: i.e. when Judy writes her impression about
Daddy-Long-Legs.
Jerusha caught only a
slight of the man – and the impression consisted entirely of tallness.
He was waving his arm toward an automobile waiting in the curved drive. As it
sprang into motion and approached, the glaring headlights threw his
shadow sharply against the wall inside. The shadows pictured grotesquely
elongated legs and arms that ran along the floor and up the wall of the
corridor. It looked, for all the world, like a big, wavering daddy-long-legs…
That is his wish. Whether anything will come of it, the future will show. He is
giving you a very generous allowance, almost, for a girl who has never
had any experience in taking care of money, too generous. But he planned
the matter in detail, and you will be paid directly to the college, and you
will receive in addition during the four years you are there, an allowance
of thirty-five dollars a month…
Blue Wednesday [5, p.5]
J. Webster uses variety
adjectives when she says about Jerusha’s first meeting with Mr. Pendleton
(Daddy).
I don’t consider that
you really belong among them… The Trustee, as such, is fat and pompous
and benevolent… I have been walking and talking and having tea with a
man. And with a very superior man – with Mr. Jervis Pendleton of the
House of Julia… He’s her father’s youngest brother, but she doesn’t know him
very intimately… I said I would, obligingly but
unenthusiastically, because I don’t care much for Pendleton.
May 30th [5, pp.28-29]
He is an awfully
companionable sort of man, though you would never believe it to see him casually;
he looks at first glance like a true Pendleton, but he isn’t in the least. He
is just a simple and unaffected and sweet as he can be – that seems a funny
way to describe a man, but it’s true. It’s awfully funny to think of
that great, big, long-legged man… (he’s nearly as long-legged
as you, Daddy)…
August 25th [5, p.51]
Judy has lived all her life without
any family of her own and without anyone showing the slightest interest in her,
and suddenly, quite out of the blue, someone started to shower you with
kindness. We can know more about mysterious benefactor with help of used of
adverb and adjective suffixes negative prefixes and compounds.
Are you still referring to
that scholarship? I never knew a man so obstinate and stubborn
and unreasonable, and bull-doggish, and unable-to-see-other-people’s-points-of-view
as you. You prefer that I should not be accepting favors from strangers…
Now, you see, if you had been a sensible person and had written nice, cheering,
fatherly letters to your little Judy… You are awfully dog-in-the-mangerish….
September 30th [5, p.55,
66]
Although my feelings
are still hurt, for me it is very humiliating to be ordered by an arbitrary,
peremptory, unreasonable, omnipotent, invisible Providence, still, when a
man has been as kind and generous and thoughtful, as you have so
far been toward me, I suppose he has a right to be an arbitrary, peremptory,
unreasonable, invisible Providence if he chooses, and so – I’ll forgive you
and be cheerful again… I have a work-room fixed in a corner of
the attic where Master Jervie used to have his rainy-day playroom.
Lock Willow Farm. August Third. [5,
p.48]
Of course, over the years of
her study at college Judy grows into a lively and attractive young woman who
takes enormous delight in the little pleasures of ordinary life. It’s easy to
see why Jervis Pendleton, her rich room-mate’s uncle finds her company so enjoyable.
But the author used here prefixes and suffixes with negative colouring.
But Master Jervie and I
got into a dreadful state of misunderstanding, and we both hurt
each other’s feelings… I was feeling hurt because he had just disappeared
into blankness without a word. I think he’s pretty unhappy, and I
know I am…!
Lock Willow, October 3rd.
[5, p.73]
Judy has a wonderful time at college.
She makes knew friends and studies many subjects that are entirely new to her.
To begin with though she feels very strange and isolated because she has so
little in common with other girls.
It’s an intoxicating,
exhilarating, calling noise. You want to close your books and be off over
the hills to race with the wind. I never told you about examinations. I
passed everything with the utmost ease – I know the secret now, and am never
going to flunk again. I shan’t be able to graduate with honors though, because
of that beastly Latin prose and Geometry Freshman year.
March 5th [5, p.39]
Jerusha meets with McBride’s
family. Many word-formations with positive colouring are devoted to the
description of McBride’s house, Sallie’s mother.
I’ve been having the most
beautiful vacation visiting Sallie. She lives in a big old-fashioned
brick house – exactly the kind of house that I used to look at so curiously
when I was in the John Grier Home… Sallie has a father and mother and grandmother
and the sweetest three-year-old baby sister all over curls, and a medium-sized
brother who always forgets to wipe his feet, and a big, good-looking
brother named Jimmie… We have the jolliest times at the table – everybody laughs
and jokes and talks at once, and we don’t have to say grace beforehand.
Stone Gate Worcester, Mass., December
31st [5, pp.36-37]
Just to live in the same
house with Sallie’s mother is an education. She’s the most interesting
entertaining, companionable, charming woman in the world; she knows
everything.
June 5th [5, p.46]
For describing Jerusha’s
dramatic feelings J. Webster uses negative suffixes and prefixes.
It is, really. I’m so
awfully lonely. You are the only person I have to care for, and you are
so shadowy. You are just an imaginary man that I’ve made up – and
probably the real you isn’t a bit like my imaginary you.
Lock Willow Farm. August Third. [5, p.47]
Please forget about that dreadful
letter I sent you last week – I was feeling terribly lonely and
miserable and sore-throaty the night I wrote. I didn’t know it, but
I was just coming down with tonsillitis and grippe and lots of things
mixed… Please forgive me for being impertinent and ungrateful. I
was badly brought up.
April 2nd [5, pp.25-26]
A big role for
Judy plays her education. The author of this novel often uses the word “education”
in different word-formations.
I am depriving some one
else of an education, I know a way out. You can apply the money that you
would have spent for me, toward educating some other little girl from
the John Grier Home. Only, Daddy, educate the new girl as much as you
choose, but please don’t like her any better than me.
September 30th [5, p.56]
During the whole novel Judy shows
growing independence, including increasing disobedience to her benefactor and
his wishes, and indeed succeeds in education Daddy-Long-Legs that he cannot
control her.
It was very interesting to
compare and analyze the usage of word-formations referring to the different
groups of forming words (Appendix 4). In the novel the group of conversion appears very rarely (9%). In emotive speech
of main heroine the usage of group of word-formation with suffixes is on the first
place (45%). But it is necessary to mention that group of word-formation with
prefixes is mostly used for negative feelings and impressions of Jerusha Abbott.
The main role for describing the main characters and events the author uses
group of compounding
(24%).
CONCLUSION
Word-formation is that branch of the
science of language which studies the patterns on which a language forms new
lexical units, i.e. words. Word-formation can only treat of composites which
are analyzable both formally and semantically. A composite rests on a
relationship between morphemes though which it is motivated.
Many authors agreed that
the most productive ways of a word-formation are lexical category, though many
of them show it as a grammatical category too. Then the word changes the form
class of a form with some corresponding changes of form, it accepts all
grammatical attributes of this class. The significant productivity of
word-formation is shown also in ability of formation the new words practically
from any part of speech. Examining the opportunities of formation the new words
from adjectives of a colourmarking, it is possible to note, that they
participate in suffix, word-formation, and also form new words by word adding
of prefix, compounding and conversion.
The purpose of the put
experiments of a practical part of this paper was achieved. To achieve the
mentioned object we studied the main aspects of word-formation: the definition
the basic ways of forming words; the analysis all the current word formations
and literary examples in the novel «Daddy-Long-Legs» of Jean Webster. It was
shown the enrichment of the novel’s language “Daddy-Long-Legs” with the help of
the basic ways of forming words. Word-formation plays a main role as the main
way of describing of the heroes in the novel “Daddy-Long-Legs”.
In our research we studied
the frequency of appearance of word-formations referring to different groups. For
this reason we selected word-formations according to the grammar groups with
prefixes and suffixes, groups of compounding and conversion. Having analyzed
the obtained results we came to the conclusion that word-formations referring
to the group with suffixes appear more frequently (45%) than the words
referring to the other word-formation’s groups. The second place is taken with
the group of compounding (24%). The high frequency of appearance these two
groups of word-formation in the novel proves the idea of writer Jean Webster
that the language of the book chronicles Jerusha’s educational, personal, and
social growth. Word-formations with prefixes and suffixes help to describe the
main characters of the novel. The group of conversion (9%) contributes the
least amount of word-formations. But the group of word-formation with prefixes (22%) is in wide use.
In the present work
different reasons of word-formation usage in the novel “Daddy-Long-Legs” are
presented. They are used in all the letters. The majority word-formations are
used just to enrich the language, to make the speech of the novel’s letters
more colourful. Word-formation is one of the main parts in the novel
“Daddy-Long-Legs” by Jean Webster using by author for the enrichment language and
the rise its quality’s level.
Having analyzed some courses
of studying the foreign language it was interesting to find out that the most
productive ways of a word-formation could be a good way of updating the child’s
active and passive vocabulary. Taking into account the opportunities, which are
given by the knowledge of this way of formation the new words, it is easy to
estimate a role of studying this material at school.
The present material can
be used at the lessons and advanced English classes at schools. This paper can
help to create the teaching aids, textbooks, etc. Teachers and pupils might use
the results of the present work for the further investigations.
LITERATURE
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2. Арнольд И. В.
Лексикология современного английского языка. – М.: Высшая школа, 2006. – 295с.
3. Блох М. Я. Теоретическая
грамматика английского языка. – М.: Высшая школа, 1994. – 381с.
4. Варина В. Г. Лексическая семантика и
внутренняя форма языковых единиц // Принципы и методы семантических
исследований: [сб. ст.] / Редкол.: В. Н. – Киев, 2006. – с. 4-8.
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Джин Вебстер). На английском языке, адаптировано. Предназначается для студентов
I—II курсов языковых вузов. Изд. 2-е. Сост. Саркисова Т. Р. – М.: Высшая
школа, 2002. – 88с.
6. Иванова И. П., Чахоян Л. П. История
английского языка. – М.: Наука, 1998. – 192с.
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Словообразование английского языка. – М.: Высшая школа, 1977. – 136с.
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Словообразование в современном английском языке. – М.: Высшая школа, 1999. –
261с.
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английского словообразования. – Смоленск, 2005. – 184с.
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APPENDIXES
Appendix 1
Frequency of word-formation usage with prefixes in the novel
“Daddy-Long-Legs”
|
№ |
Group of word-formation with prefixes |
Absolute number |
Relative number % |
|
1 |
Negative |
47 |
25 |
|
2 |
Reversible |
46 |
24 |
|
3 |
Pejorative |
23 |
12 |
|
4 |
Prefixes |
23 |
12 |
|
5 |
Prefixes |
26 |
14 |
|
6 |
Number |
13 |
7 |
|
7 |
Conversion |
12 |
6 |
|
Total |
190 |
100 |
Appendix 2
Frequency of word-formation usage with suffixes in the
novel
|
№ |
Group of word-formation with suffixes |
Absolute number |
Relative number % |
|
1 |
Noun |
19 |
5 |
|
2 |
Noun |
17 |
4 |
|
3 |
Noun |
13 |
3 |
|
4 |
Noun |
7 |
2 |
|
5 |
Noun/adjective |
22 |
6 |
|
6 |
De-verbal |
89 |
23 |
|
7 |
De-adjectival |
53 |
14 |
|
8 |
Verb |
13 |
3 |
|
9 |
Adjective |
85 |
22 |
|
10 |
Adverb |
69 |
18 |
|
Total |
387 |
100 |
Appendix 3
Frequency of compounding in “Daddy-Long-Legs”
|
№ |
Group of compounding |
Absolute number |
Relative number % |
|
1 |
Groups of compound Common countable compound |
46 |
23 |
|
2 |
Common |
32 |
16 |
|
3 |
Common |
17 |
8 |
|
4 |
Common |
17 |
8 |
|
5 |
Groups of compound adjectives Compound |
33 |
16 |
|
6 |
Compound |
19 |
9 |
|
7 |
Compound |
7 |
3,5 |
|
8 |
Groups of compound verbs Intransitive compound |
14 |
7 |
|
9 |
Transitive |
13 |
6 |
|
10 |
Compound |
7 |
3,5 |
|
Total |
205 |
100 |
Appendix 4
The comparison of the usage of the
basic types of forming words in the novel “Daddy-Long-Legs”
|
№ |
The type of word-formation |
Absolute number |
Relative number % |
|
1 |
Group |
190 |
22 |
|
2 |
Group |
387 |
45 |
|
3 |
Group |
205 |
24 |
|
4 |
Group |
83 |
9 |
|
Total |
865 |
100 |