Word building for music

СЛОВООБРАЗОВАНИЕ (WORD-BUILDING)

В английском языке имеется несколько способов словообразования:

1) конверсия (образование новых слов без изменения их написания и произношения)

2) словосложение (образование нового слова путем сложения двух слов в одно)

3) изменение ударения в слове (и получение нового слова другой части речи).

4) аффиксация (прибавление к корню суффикса или префикса)

Конверсия. Словосложение. Изменение ударения.

Иногда слово может менять свое значение и выполнять новую синтаксическую функцию в предложении, не изменяя при этом написания и произношения (конверсия). Наиболее распространенным является образование глаголов от существительных: master (хозяин) — to master (управлять), house (дом) — to house (размещать), water (вода) — to water (поливать). Но глаголы могут быть образованы и от прилагательных: empty (пустой) — to empty (опустошать) white (белый) — to white (белить).

Словосложение — это объединение полнозначных слов или их основ в сложное слово. Вновь образованное сложное слово пишется слитно или через дефис: airfield — аэродром (air — воздух, field — поле), air-base — авиабаза (air — воздух, base — база), airman — авиатор (air — воздух, man — мужчина), schoolday — школьный день (school — школа, day — день), birthplace — место рождения (birth — рождение, place — место).

Сложные слова могут состоять из двух существительных, первое из которых приобретает значение прилагательного. В этом случае слова пишутся отдельно. Например: service dress — форменная одежда, одежда для службы (service — служба, dress — платье), shop window — витрина (shop — магазин, window — окно), skim milk — снятое молоко (to skim — снимать (накипь и т.д.), milk — молоко).

Многие существительные совпадают по форме с глаголами, но отличаются ударением. Как правило, в существительных ударение падает на первый слог, а в соответствующих глаголах — на второй: export (экспорт) — to export (экспортировать) present (подарок) — to present (дарить).

Словообразование с помощью аффиксации.

Образование новых слов может происходить при помощи присоединения к основе слова суффиксов или префиксов (приставок). Префиксы присоединяются к корню слова в начале, а суффиксы — в конце. Слова, образованные с помощью префиксов или суффиксов, в отличие от простых слов, называются производными.

Префиксы, как и суффиксы, могут присоединяться к различным частям речи, изменяя при этом значение основы слова, например: happy (счастливый) — unhappy (несчастный) — happiness (счастье) — happily (счастливо); help (помощь) — helper (помощник) — helpful (полезный) — helpless (беспомощный).

Наиболее употребительные приставки (префиксы) и их значения:

1. Префикс со значением “снова”, “заново”, “вновь”, “пере”:

re-	to construct (строить) — to reconstruct (перестроить), to read (читать) — to reread (перечитать), to write (писать) — to rewrite (переписать)

2. Префиксы, которые придают слову противоположное значение или обозначают противоположное действие:

un-       dis-       de-       anti-     counter- contra-

to dress (одеваться) — to undress (раздеваться), to tie (связывать) — to untie (развязывать)  to appear (появляться) — to disappear (исчезать) formation (формирование) — deformation (деформация) fascist (фашист) — anti-fascist (антифашист) attack (атака) — counterattack (контратака) to  contradict (противоречить, возражать)

3. Префиксы, имеющие отрицательное значение:

a- ab- un-         im-        in-         ir-         il-    dis-       mis-      non-

amoral (аморальный, безнравственный) absent (отсутствующий),  abnormal (ненормальный) kind (добрый) — unkind (недобрый) possible (возможный) — impossible (невозможный) ability (способность) — inability (неспособность) regular (регулярный) — irregular (нерегулярный)  legal (легальный) — illegal (нелегальный)  honest (честный) — dishonest (нечестный), to understand (понимать) — to misunderstand (неправильно понять) interference (вмешательство) — non-interference (невмешательство)

! NOTE ! Приставка, которая начинается на “i” изменяется в зависимости от того, какая за ней стоит буква: il + l, ir + r, im + b, m, p.

4. Префиксы, имеющие значение “сверх”, “пере”, “чрезмерно”:

over- super-  ultra- extra-

to pay (платить) — to overpay (переплатить) human (человеческий) — superhuman (сверхчеловеческий)  short (короткий) — ultra-short (ультракороткий) extraordinary (необычный)

5.        Префиксы со значением “между”, “взаимно”:

со-       inter-

existence (существование) — co-existence (сосуществование) national (национальный) — international (интернациональный)

6.        Префиксы, которые переводятся как

а)        “перед”:

рге- fore-

war (война) — pre-war (довоенный), historic (исторический) — prehistoric (доисторический) to foresee (предвидеть)

б)        “после”:

post-

war (война,) — post-war (послевоенный), revolutionary (революционный) — post-revolutionary (послереволюционный)

в)        “недостаточно”, “недо-“:

under-

to pay (платить) — to underpay (оплачивать низко, т.е. недостаточно оплачивать, недоплачивать), production (производство)  —  underproduction (недопроизводство)

г)        “под”:

sub-	division (разделение) — subdivision (подразделение), committee (комиссия, комитет) —   subcommittee (подкомиссия)

д)        “экс”, “бывший”:

ex-	champion (чемпион) — ex-champion (бывший чемпион)

е)        само-, авто-

auto-

autobiography (автобиография), automatic (автоматический)

ж)        полу-

semi-

semifinal (полуфинал), semicircle (полукруг)

з)        через-, транс-

trans-

transatlantic (трансатлантический)

и)        вверх, кверху, наверху

up-	upstairs (вверх по лестнице), upside (верхняя часть), to uproot (вырывать с корнем)

к)        двойной, два, дважды

bi-	bilingual (двуязычный), bi-monthly (выходящий два раза в месяц)

л)        имеющий дело с книгами

bibli(o)-

bibliography (библиография)

м)        относящийся к жизни

bio-	biography (биография)

н)        второстепенное значение

by-	by-street (переулок, улочка)

о)        много-, мульти-, поли-

multi- poly-

multicolored (многоцветный), multimillionaire (мультимиллионер) polyglot (полиглот), polytechnic (политехнический)

п)        второстепенное значение

by-	by-street (переулок, улочка)

7. Префикс глагола, имеющий значение “делать”:

en-	large (большой) — to enlarge (увеличивать, делать больше), danger (опасность) — to endanger (подвергать опасности), force (сила) — to enforce (принуждать, настаивать)

Основные суффиксы существительных:

1. Суффиксы, обозначающие принадлежность к

а)        политическому направлению профессии или нации:

-ist   -an, -ian

Communist (коммунист), Marxist (марксист}, materialist (материалист);  artist (художник), typist (машинистка), pianist (пианист), historian (историк), librarian (библиотекарь), musician (музыкант); Russian (русский), Bulgarian (болгарин)

2. Суффикс, обозначающий учение, теорию, качество:

-ism	marxism (марксизм), heroism (героизм)

3. Суффиксы, обозначающие действующее лицо, его занятие или должность:

-ег, -or -ee, -eer

to teach (учить) — teacher (учитель), to direct (руководить) — director (руководитель) employee (служащий), refugee (беженец, эмигрант), auctioneer (аукционер),

 4.        Суффикс, обозначающий результат действия:

-ment -ade

achievement (достижение), agreement (согласие), government (правительство) lemonade (лимонад), blockade (блокада)

5.        Суффиксы, обозначающие

а)        состояние:

-hood -ship -cy, -acy

brotherhood (братство), childhood (детство), manhood (мужественность) dictatorship (диктатура), friendship (дружба), leadership (руководство) accuracy (точность), infancy (младенчество), supremacy (превосходство)

б)        действие, состояние:

-age       -ing     -ence     -ance   -ion, -tion     -ition, -ation -sion     -al

shortage (нехватка), marriage (брак, супружество), voyage (путешествие)  hunting (охота),  crossing (пересечение,  перекресток),  living (житье)  silence (молчание), difference (различие) importance (важность), resistance (сопротивление) collection (собрание, коллекция), dictation (диктант, диктовка) competition (соревнование), hesitation (сомнение, колебание) decision (решение)  removal ( удаление), arrival (прибытие), refusal (отказ), approval (одобрение)

в) качество или состояние:

-dom   -ness   -ty

freedom (свобода), kingdom (королевство), wisdom (мудрость)  coldness (холод),  darkness  (темнота),  kindness (доброта), weakness (слабость)  activity (активность), safety (безопасность)

г) место действия, занятие или состояние

-ery	bakery (булочная), surgery (кабинет хирурга), cookery (кулинария), slavery (рабство)

д) род занятий, отрасль науки

-ics	physics (физика), politics (политика)

Основные суффиксы прилагательных:

1.        Суффикс, образующий прилагательные от существительных и обозначающий национальную принадлежность или слабую степень качества:

-ese -ish

Chinese (китаец, китайский), Japanese (японец, японский) Pole (поляк) — Polish (польский), Scott (шотландец) — Scottish (шотландский) red (красный) — reddish (красноватый), child (ребенок) — childish (ребячливый, детский)

2.        Суффиксы, образующие прилагательные от глаголов и обозначающие наличие качества:

-ive -ent -ant

to act (действовать) — active (активный), to talk (разговаривать) – talkative (разговорчивый)  to differ (различать) — different (различный), to insist (настаивать) — insistent (настойчивый) to observe (наблюдать, замечать) — observant (наблюдательный, внимательный)

3.        Суффиксы, образующие прилагательные от существительных
и обозначающие наличие качества, свойства:

-ic     -al -ful -ous   -у

base (основа) — basic (основной), economy (экономика) — economic (экономический) centre (центр) — central (центральный) culture (культура) — cultural (культурный), beauty (красота) — beautiful (красивый) peace (мир) — peaceful (мирный), fame (слава) — famous (знаменитый) cloud (облако) — cloudy (облачный), sun (солнце) — sunny (солнечный)

4.        Суффиксы, образующие прилагательные от различных частей
речи и обозначающие

а)        качество, свойство:

-аrу -огу

element (элемент) — elementary (элементарный) illusion (иллюзия) — illusory (обманчивый, иллюзорный)

б)        способность что-либо сделать, состояние, качество:

-able   — ible

to change (изменить) — changeable (изменчивый) to eat (есть) — eatable (съедобный), reason (разум) — reasonable (разумный)

в)        отсутствие качества:

-less

useless (бесполезный), windless (безветренный)

Основные суффиксы глаголов:

-ate -en       -fy, -ify -ize, -ise

active (активный) — to activate (активизировать) short (короткий) — to shorten (укоротить) pure (чистый) — to purify (очищать), simple (простой) — to simplify (упрощать) character (характер) — to characterize (характеризовать)

Основные суффиксы наречий

Суффиксы, образующие наречия от

а) прилагательных, иногда — существительных, порядковых числительных и причастий:

-ly	bad (плохой) — badly (плохо), part (часть) — partly (частично), first (первый) — firstly (во-первых)

б) существительных и наречий и обозначающие направление (или направленность):

-wards -ward

North (север) — northward(s) (к северу, на север), after (после) — afterwards (впоследствии, позже, потом), back (обратно, назад) — backward(s) (назад, в обратном направлении) home (дом, домой) — homeward (к дому, по направлению к дому)

NOTE! В английском языке большое место занимают слова, заимствованные из других языков. Такие слова называются интернациональными. По корню этих слов легко догадаться об их значении. Например: telegram (телеграмма), orchestra (оркестр), concert (концерт) и др. Умение подмечать интернациональные слова в значительной степени облегчает работу по переводу текста.

WORD-BUILDING (exercises)

Ex. 1. Переведите следующие слова, выделите в них суффиксы и префиксы:

Untrue, prehistoric, ultramodern, postwar, ex-champion, anti-body, decompose, decode, deform, depart, discover, disappearance, reread, reconstruct, coauthor, unequal, misunderstand, undress, disarm, anti-fascist, cooperation, co-existence, interaction, superhuman, ultra-violet.

Ex. 2. Определите, к какой части речи относятся следующие слова. Переведите их:

Achievement — achieve, resistance — resistant, assistance — assist — assistant, celebration — celebrate, difference — different, city — citizen, nation — national — nationality, measure — measurement, develop — development, act — active — activity, contain — container, discover — discovery — discoverer, literature — literary, graduate — graduation — undergraduate — post-graduate, educate — education, progress — progressive, act — action — activity — active, govern — governor — government.

Ex. З. Образуйте от данных глаголов существительные с помощью суффикса -ег или -or. Переведите на русский язык:

To lead, to write, to read, to visit, to speak, to sleep, to act, to direct, to conduct, to drive, to fight, to mine, to report, to sing, to skate, to swim, to teach, to travel, to sail, to invent, to found, to compose.

Ex. 4. Образуйте от данных слов существительные с помощью суффикса -ist, -ism, -ian. Переведите на русский язык:

Special, social, art, capital, economy, international, piano, technic, mathematics, statistics, politics, music, electric, Russia, Hungary, Canada, India.

Ex. 5. Образуйте от данных глаголов существительные с помощью суффикса -ment. Переведите на русский язык:

Develop, achieve, move, arrange, treat, state, improve, agree, equip, govern, require, measure, announce, pave.

Ex. 6. Образуйте прилагательные с помощью суффиксов -ful и -less, переведите их на русский язык:

Beauty, thank, hope, doubt, care, aim, use, shape, fruit, power, thought, harm, colour.

Ex. 7. Образуйте прилагательные с помощью суффиксов -able, -ible, переведите их на русский язык:

Change, convert, prevent, break, compare, desire, profit, read, comfort, respect, expect.

Ex. 8. Найдите и выделите суффиксы в данных словах и определите, к какой части речи эти слова относятся:

British, foolish, understandable, heartless, pitiless, successful, experiment, function, musician, socialist, artist, capitalism, professional, fundamental, industrial, doubtful, useful, different, treatment, creative, attractive, peaceful, dangerous, elementary, childish, active, economic, director, worker, passage, marriage, silence, freedom, kingdom.

Ex. 9. Образуйте глаголы с помощью суффикса -en:

Red, tight, soft, deep, short, dark, bright, weak, black, white, sweet, sharp, strength.

Ex. 10. Образуйте наречия с помощью суффикса -1у и переведите их:

Bad, first, part, quick, strong, short, silent, rapid, wide, extreme, cruel, kind, happy.

Ex. 11. Образуйте глаголы от данных существительных. Переведите их:

Turn, smile, smoke, snow, start, stay, step, stop, study, talk, visit, rest, air, paper, cover, handle, cause, watch, act, address, answer, brush, clean, cross, crowd, wave, wish, work, dance, doubt, dress, end, fight, help, hope, joke, laugh, lift, light, love, mind, paper, pencil, place, plan, play, post, reply, report, return, sail, show.

Ex. 12. Переведите на русский язык. Выделите словообразующие элементы. Определите, к какой части речи относятся данные слова:

React, reaction, reactor, reactivity; science, scientific, scientist; industry, industrial, industrious; cold, coldly, coldness; dark, darkness, darken; happy, happily, happiness, unhappy; equal, equally, unequal, equality; free, freedom, freely; attention, attentive, attentively; sun, sunny, sunless; care, careful, careless, carefully, carelessness; to differ, different, difference, indifferent; England, English, Englishman; fame, famous.

Ex. 13. Переведите следующие сложные слова:

Airport, armchair, bathroom, bedroom, bookcase, bookshelf, classroom, custom-house, dining-room, drawing-room, fireplace, folksong, gentleman, hairbrush, icebox, newspaper, notebook, postcard, post-office, raincoat, sportsman, sunshine, writing-table.

Ex. 14. Прочтите следующие пары слов, соблюдая ударения. Переведите их:

An accent — to accent, a contract — to contract, a content — to content, a contest — to contest, a convoy — to convoy, a convict — to convict, a perfect — to perfect, a record — to record.

Ex. 15. Определите, к каким частям речи относятся выделенные слова:

1. Не works as a teacher. 2. I saw one of his works at the exhibition. 3. I was waiting for your report. 4. They report the results of their experiment every Monday. 5. His report contains some of his thoughts about the experiment. 6. You’ll make progress if you work hard. 7. He thought about his new work. 8. I have a present for you. 9. I am busy at present. 10. He presented me with a book.

Ex. 16. Проанализируйте состав следующих слов. Определите части речи. Дайте начальную форму. Переведите слова:

Powerful, inventor, high-quality, network, demoralize, profitable, dislike, disagree, movement, shorten, incorrect, electricity, fruitful, fruitless, happiness, dangerous, noisy, sunny, rainy, badly, strongly, reading, teaching, rebuild, retell, leader, teacher, unhappy, unusual, translation, cooperation, schoolboy, icebreaker.

Ex. 17. Напишите сложные существительные, исходя из объяснений.

Например: A machine for drying hair – hair drier.

1. A thing for opening tins — … . 2. A machine for playing records — … . 3. A machine for mixing food — … . 4. A thing that times eggs (when they are boiling) — … . 5. Things for warming people’s legs — … . 6. Stuff that kills flies — … . 7. A liquid that removes paint — … . 8. A tool that opens bottles — … . 9. A thing for peeling potatoes — … . 10. A liquid for removing eye makeup — … . 11. Stuff for freshening the air — … .

Ex. 18. Напишите  словосочетания по модели число+ существительное+существительное (! не забывайте что число и первое существительное соединяется дефисом и что это существительное обычно стоит в единственном числе)

Например: a walk lasting for three miles – a three-mile walk.

1. A girl who has just celebrated her sixteenth birthday — … . 2. A flight lasting for ten hours — … . 3. A note that is worth twenty pounds — … . 4. A language course that lasts four weeks — … . 5. A drive that takes three hours — … .  6. A meal that consists of three courses — … . 7. A holiday that lasts two weeks — … . 8. A delay at the airport that went on for two hours — … . 9. A letter that goes on for ten pages — … . 10. A university course that takes three years — … . 11. A prison sentence of ten years — … . 12. A hotel with five stars — … . 13. A speed limit of 30 miles an hour — … . 14. A house that was built two hundred years ago — … .

Ex. 19. Распределите прилагательные по трем группам: 1) люди, 2) места, 3) вещи:

Obstinate, unspoilt, hand-made, waterproof, easy-going, breathtaking, aggressive, deserted, overgrown, overcrowded, cunning, picturesque, arrogant, long-lasting, spoilt, automatic, accurate, artificial.

Ex. 20. Выберите слово с нужным по смыслу префиксом  или суффиксом.

1. I know Jim Kerry is very popular but I find him totally childish / childlike. 2. I couldn’t work out whom the letter was from. The signature was childish / childlike. 3. Sarah is so childish / childlike. She always plays trick on her friends. 4. It was wonderful to watch the tiny lambs playing. I got such childish / childlike pleasure from the experience. 5. Sophie is extremely sensitive / sensible at the moment. Anything you say seems to upset her. 6. Karen is not a very sensitive / sensible person. She wore high-heeled shoes for our four-mile walk. 7. I’ve never known her to tell a lie. She’s a very true / truthful person. 8. I can never watch sad films that are based on true / truthful a story. They always make me cry. 9. Susan is so intolerable / intolerant of other people. She never accepts anyone else’s opinion, and she always thinks she knows best. 10. I find Mark’s behaviour intolerable / intolerant. It’s unfair to be so selfish. 11. We’re having an economic / economical crisis at the moment. James has lost his job and I don’t know how we are going to pay the rent. 12. It’s more economic  / economical to drive slowly. You can do a lot more miles to the gallop.

Ex. 21. Подберите к каждой тройке слов такое, чтобы с его помощью образовать составные существительные, используйте слова: board, green, paper, book, birthday, blood, rain, site, road, sports, ice, water, day, night, hand, case, sun, bag.

Например: camp…, building…, bomb… – campsite, building site, bomb-site.

1. …test, …pressure, …donor. 2. …fall, …melon, …skiing. 3. …house, …grocer, …salad. 4. …club, …mare, …shift. 5. brief…, suit…, book… . 6. paper…, plastic…, shoulder… . 7. …bow, …coat, …drop. 8. …shine, …rise, …set. 9. …works, …sign, …rage. 10. black…, floor…, notice… . 11. …light, …break, …dream. 12. …shake, …writing, …book. 13. …cube, …berg, …rink. 14. …cake, …present, …card. 15. …scape, …lady, …slide. 16. …car, …center, …ground. 17. address…, visitor’s…, note… .

Ex. 22. Дополните предложения сложными существительными в скобках (это могут быть и составные существительные, и существительные в притяжательном падеже в простой или аналитической форме).

1. Your coat is on the … (back, chair). 2. You’ve just spilt the … (milk, cat). 3. Can you buy some … (paper, toilet). 4. I never listened to my … (advise, parents). 5. Can you buy a … (wine, bottle) to have with supper? 6. What did that … (road, sigh) say? Did you see it? 7. It’s such a mess in here. There are empty … (wine, bottles) everywhere. 8. The … (Prime Minister, duties) include entertaining heads of the state. 9. The … (my shoe, heel) has come off. 10. Can I borrow your … (brush, hair)? 11. What happened at the … (film, end)? 12. Here is … (today, news). 13. Where is the nearest … (Metro, station)? 14. It’s my … (anniversary, parents, wedding) next week. 15. The … (company, success) is due to its efficiency. 16. I’ve got a … (fortnight, holiday) next month. 17. The … (government, economic policy) is confusing. 18. My children go to the local … (school, state). 19. The annual … (rate, inflation) is about 4 percent. 20. Are there any … (coffee, cups) in your bedroom? There are none in the kitchen. 21. Do you want a … (coffee, cup)?

Ex. 22. Заполните пропуски глаголом или существительным: advice – to advise, use – to use, abuse – to abuse, belief – to believe, relief – to relieve, grief – grieve, excuse – to excuse, breath – to breathe, half – to halve, house – to house, safe – to save, bath – to bathe.

1. It is my personal … that this man is innocent. 2. Let me listen to your chest. Take a deep … and say “Ah”. 3. You should put your valuables in the … .  4. Drug … is a terrible problem all over the world. 5. I know it isn’t good for my skin, but I love sun … . 6. I’ve been so worried about you! It’s such a … to see you at last! 7. “What are we going to do with this cake?” “Cut it in two. You take … and I’ll take … .” 8. Can you show me how to … this new coffee machine? 9. The refugees are … in temporary accommodation. 10. She apologizes for her behavior, and said it was because she’d had a busy day, but that’s no … for breaking all the plates. 11. People need time to … after the death of someone they love. 12. Take my … . Never marry for money. Marry for love.

Ex. 22. Напишите слово противоположное по значению, используя префикс

Kind, honest, credible, appear, fair, equal, pleased, continue, fasten, normal, employed, friendly, trust, professional, known, cover, safe, use, probable, important, emotional.

WORD-BUILDING (Test)

1. Определите, к какой части речи относятся данные слова. Переведите их:

Beautiful, function, artist, musician, heartless, economic, worker, badly, act, action, active, basic, fruitless, population, movement, historic, democratic, work, daily, literature, picture, organization, friendship, highly, leader, fight, fighter, national, impressive, hopeful, hopeless, beautiful, special, specialist, define, definition, humanism, humanist, humanistic, use, useful, useless.

2. Переведите слова на русский язык. Определите префикс и его значение:

Coauthor, undress, disarm, postwar, illegal, unkind, reconstruct, deformation, prewar, antibody, ex-champion, superhuman, ultrashort.

3. Образуйте прилагательные от существительных при  помощи следующих  суффиксов: -al, -ful, -ous, -у,  -able, -ible, -ic, -less, -ish. Переведите пары слов.

Reason, beauty, hope, doubt, care, aim, use, desire, boy, success, heart, experiment, form, office, danger, fame, electron, base, nature, cloud, sun, child, Scott, history, home.

4. Переведите предложения. Определите, к каким частям речи относятся выделенные слова. Назовите сложные слова:

1. Many pupils study English. 2. My grandfather has a large study. 3. Who ruled this country? 4. All sportsmen must obey the rules of the game. 5. The Soviet Union is tied by friendship with India in their work for peace. 6. All peace-loving people work for peace for the whole of mankind.

5. Назовите глаголы, от которых образованы следующие существительные:

Protection, show, writer, worker, movement, investigation, achievement, statement, reader, department, equipment, construction, organization, reporter, arrival, improvement, conductor, establishment, development, education, definition, regulation, assistance, agreement.

6. Переведите без словаря. Определите, к какой части речи относятся слова:

a) Specialist, institute, university, culture, central, national, nation, international, organization, Soviet, minister, nature, natural, traditional, progressive, moral, social, socialist, public, programmer, popular, modern, revolution, revolutionary, final, talent, continent, festival, political, experiment, experimentation, electricity, technical, transformation, system, systematically, practice, practical, seminar, lecture, lecturer, period, historic, history, professor, complex, form, acceleration, instrument, philosopher, idea, basic, fundamental, conceptions, mass, class, element, motor, method, problem, energy, radio, text, material, temperature, progress, television.

b) 1. France and England are European countries. 2. In the evening we like to listen to classical music. 3. We saw a comedy at the Drama Theatre last night. 4. Your train leaves from platform two. 5. This jazz orchestra gave several concerts in our town. 6. In 1610 Galileo constructed the first telescope in the world. 7. This was a dangerous experiment.

7. Проанализируйте следующие слова, какие они? Определите их составляющие. Переведите на русский язык:

Ice-hockey, world-wide, bedroom, newspaper, long-term, birthplace, sportsman, apple-pie, peace-loving, schoolchildren, football, highland, television, underground, north-west, sometimes, lowland, landscape, well-known, multinational, network, vice-president.

8. Поставьте слово, указанное в скобках, в нужную форму.

1. My father is very … (act) even though he’s seventy. 2. I’ve always wanted to work in the theatre, but … (act) it isn’t a very secure profession. 3. I … (hope), we’ll soon find a solution to the problem. 4. Look … (care) to the left and to the right before crossing the road. 5. It was very … (care) of you to lose my watch. 6. I take two … (day) newspapers and three Sunday papers. 7. You’ve broken my camera! Look at it! It’s … (use)! 8. Thanks for the advice. It was really … (use). 9. I have some very … (noise) neighbours. 10. She became … (fame) as a result of her invention.

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Описание презентации по отдельным слайдам:

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  Word-building in Modern English

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  By word-building are understood processes of producing new words from the resources of this particular language. Together with borrowing, word-building provides for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language.

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  Morpheme is the smallest recurrent unit of language directly related to meaning

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  All morphemes are subdivided into two large classes: roots (or radicals) and affixes. The latter, in their turn, fall into prefixes which precede the root in the structure of the word (as in re-read, mispronounce, unwell) and suffixes which follow the root (as in teach-er, cur-able, diet-ate).

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  We can distinguish words due to a morphological structure

  Words which consist of a root are called root words:
  house, room, book, work, port, street, table, etc.

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  We can distinguish words due to a morphological structure

  Words which consist of a root and an affix (or several affixes) are called derived words or derivatives and are produced by the process of word-building known as affixation (or derivation):
  re-read, mis-pronounce, un-well, teach-er.

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  We can distinguish words due to a morphological structure

  A compound word is made when two words are joined to form a new word:
  dining-room, bluebell (колокольчик), mother-in-law, good-for-nothing(бездельник)

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  We can distinguish words due to a morphological structure
  Сompound-derivatives are words in which the structural integrity of the two free stems is ensured by a suffix referring to the combination as a whole, not to one of its elements:
  kind-hearted, old-timer, schoolboyishness, teenager.

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  There are the following ways of word-building:
  Affixation
  Composition
  Conversion
  Shortening (Contraction)
  Non-productive types of word-building:
  A) Sound-Imitation
  B) Reduplication
  C) Back-Formation (Reversion)

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  Affixation

  The process of affixation consists in coining a new word by adding an affix or several affixes to some root morpheme.

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  The role of the affix in this procedure is very important and therefore it is necessary to consider certain facts about the main types of affixes. From the etymological point of view affixes are classified into the same two large groups as words: native and borrowed.

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  An affix of foreign origin can be regarded as borrowed only after it has begun an independent and active life in the recipient language and it is taking part in the word-making processes of that language. This can only occur when the total of words with this affix is so great in the recipient language as to affect the native speakers’ subconscious to the extent that they no longer realize its foreign flavour and accept it as their own.

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  By productive affixes we mean the ones, which take part in deriving new words in this particular period of language development. The best way to identify productive affixes is to look for them among neologisms and so-called nonce-words.
  The adjectives thinnish (жидковатый) and baldish (лысоватый) bring to mind dozens of other adjectives made with the same suffix: oldish (староватый), youngish (моложавый), mannish (мужеподобная), girlish (женоподобный), longish (длинноватый), yellowish (желтоватый), etc.

  The same is well illustrated by the following popular statement: «/ don’t like Sunday evenings: I feel so Mondayish». (Чу́вствующий лень по́сле воскре́сного о́тдыха)

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  One should not confuse the productivity of affixes with their frequency of occurrence. There are quite a number of high-frequency affixes which, nevertheless, are no longer used in word-derivation

  e. g. the adjective-forming native suffixes -ful, -ly; the adjective-forming suffixes of Latin origin -ant, -ent, -al which are quite frequent

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  Some Non-Productive Affixes

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  Composition

  Composition is a type of word-building, in which new words are produced by combining two or more stems

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  Compounds are not homogeneous in structure. Traditionally three types are distinguished:
  neutral
  morphological
  syntactic

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  Neutral

  In neutral compounds the process of compounding is realised without any linking elements, by a mere juxtaposition of two stems, as in
  blackbird(дрозд)
  shopwindow(витрина) sunflower(подсолнух) bedroom(спальня) etc.

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  There are three subtypes of neutral compounds depending on the structure of the constituent stems.

  The examples: shopwindow(витрина), sunflower(подсолнух), bedroom(спальня) represent the subtype which may be described as simple neutral compounds: they consist of simple affixless stems.

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  Compounds which have affixes in their structure are called derived or derivational compounds.

  E.g. blue-eyed(голубоглазый),
  broad-shouldered(широкоплечий)

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  The third subtype of neutral compounds is called contracted compounds. These words have a shortened (contracted) stem in their structure:
  V-day (день победы) (Victory day), G-man (агент ФБР) (Government man «FBI agent»), H-bag (сумочка) (handbag), T-shirt(футболка), etc.

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  Morphological

  Morphological compounds are few in number. This type is non-productive. It is represented by words in which two compounding stems are combined by a linking vowel or consonant:
  e. g. Anglo-Saxon, Franko-Prussian, handiwork(изделие ручной работы), statesman (политический деятель/политик)

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  Syntactic

  These words are formed from segments of speech, preserving in their structure numerous traces of syntagmatic relations typical of speech: articles, prepositions, adverbs.
  e.g. father-in-law, mother-in-law etc.

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  Conversion

  Conversion consists in making a new word from some existing word by changing the category of a part of speech, the morphemic shape of the original word remaining unchanged.

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  It has also a new paradigm peculiar to its new category as a part of speech. Conversion is a convenient and «easy» way of enriching the vocabulary with new words. The two categories of parts of speech especially affected by conversion are nouns and verbs.

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  Verbs made from nouns are the most numerous amongst the words produced by conversion:
  e. g. to hand(передавать)
  to back(поддерживать)
  to face(стоять лицом к кому-либо)
  to eye(рассматривать)
  to nose(разнюхивать)
  to dog(выслеживать)

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  Nouns are frequently made from verbs:
  e.g. make(марка)
  run(бег)
  find(находка)
  walk(прогулка)
  worry(тревога)
  show(демонстрация)
  move(движение)

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  Verbs can also be made from adjectives:
  e. g. to pale(побледнеть)
  to yellow(желтеть)
  to cool(охлаждать)

  Other parts of speech are not entirely unsusceptible to conversion.

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  Shortening (Contraction)

  This comparatively new way of word-building has achieved a high degree of productivity nowadays, especially in American English.
  Shortenings (or contracted words) are produced in two different ways.

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  34 слайд

  The first way
  The first is to make a new word from a syllable (rarer, two) of the original word.
  The latter may lose its beginning (as in phone made from telephone, fence from defence), its ending (as in hols from holidays, vac from vacation, props from properties, ad from advertisement) or both the beginning and ending (as in flu from influenza, fridge from refrigerator)

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  The second way
  The second way of shortening is to make a new word from the initial letters of a word group:
  U.N.O. from the United Nations Organisation, B.B.C. from the British Broadcasting Corporation, M.P. from Member of Parliament. This type is called initial shortenings.

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  Both types of shortenings are characteristic of informal speech in general and of uncultivated speech particularly:
  E. g. Movie (from moving-picture), gent (from gentleman), specs (from spectacles), circs (from circumstances, e. g. under the circs), I. O. Y. (from I owe you), lib (from liberty), cert (from certainty), exhibish (from exhibition), posish (from position)

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  Non-productive types of word-building
  Sound-Imitation
  Words coined by this interesting type of word-building are made by imitating different kinds of sounds that may be produced by
  human beings: to whisper (шептать), to whistle (свистеть), to sneeze (чихать), to giggle (хихикать);

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  animals, birds, insects: to hiss (шипеть), to buzz (жужжать), to bark (лаять), to moo (мычать);
  inanimate objects: to boom (гудеть), to ding-dong (звенеть), to splash (брызгать);

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  Reduplication
  In reduplication new words are made by doubling a stem, either without any phonetic changes as in bye-bye (coll, for good-bye)
  or with a variation of the root-vowel or consonant as in ping-pong, chit-chat (this second type is called gradational reduplication).

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  This type of word-building is greatly facilitated in Modern English by the vast number of monosyllables. Stylistically speaking, most words made by reduplication represent informal groups: colloquialisms and slang. E. g. walkie-talkie («a portable radio»), riff-raff («the worthless or disreputable element of society»; «the dregs of society»), chi-chi (sl. for chic as in a chi-chi girl)

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  In a modern novel an angry father accuses his teenager son of doing nothing but dilly-dallying all over the town. (dilly-dallying — wasting time, doing nothing)

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  Another example of a word made by reduplication may be found in the following quotation from “The Importance of Being Earnest” by O. Wilde:
  Lady Bracknell: I think it is high time that Mr. Bunbury made up his mind whether he was going to live or to die. This shilly-shallying with the question is absurd. (shilly-shallying — irresolution, indecision)

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  Back-formation

  Forming the allegedly original stem from a supposed derivative on the analogy of the existing pairs, i. e. the singling-out of a stem from a word which is wrongly regarded as a derivative.

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  The earliest examples of this type of word-building are the verb to beg (попрошайничать) that was made from the French borrowing beggar (нищий, бедняк), to burgle (незаконно проникать в помещение) from burglar (вор-домушник).
  In all these cases the verb was made from the noun by subtracting what was mistakenly associated with the English suffix -er.

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  Later examples of back-formation are to blood-transfuse (делать переливание крови) from blood-transfuing, to force-land (совершать вынужденную посадку) from forced landing, to baby-sit (присматривать за ребенком) from baby-sitter.

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Below is a massive list of music words — that is, words related to music. The top 4 are: sound, melody, rhythm and song. You can get the definition(s) of a word in the list below by tapping the question-mark icon next to it. The words at the top of the list are the ones most associated with music, and as you go down the relatedness becomes more slight. By default, the words are sorted by relevance/relatedness, but you can also get the most common music terms by using the menu below, and there’s also the option to sort the words alphabetically so you can get music words starting with a particular letter. You can also filter the word list so it only shows words that are also related to another word of your choosing. So for example, you could enter «sound» and click «filter», and it’d give you words that are related to music and sound.

You can highlight the terms by the frequency with which they occur in the written English language using the menu below. The frequency data is extracted from the English Wikipedia corpus, and updated regularly. If you just care about the words’ direct semantic similarity to music, then there’s probably no need for this.

There are already a bunch of websites on the net that help you find synonyms for various words, but only a handful that help you find related, or even loosely associated words. So although you might see some synonyms of music in the list below, many of the words below will have other relationships with music — you could see a word with the exact opposite meaning in the word list, for example. So it’s the sort of list that would be useful for helping you build a music vocabulary list, or just a general music word list for whatever purpose, but it’s not necessarily going to be useful if you’re looking for words that mean the same thing as music (though it still might be handy for that).

If you’re looking for names related to music (e.g. business names, or pet names), this page might help you come up with ideas. The results below obviously aren’t all going to be applicable for the actual name of your pet/blog/startup/etc., but hopefully they get your mind working and help you see the links between various concepts. If your pet/blog/etc. has something to do with music, then it’s obviously a good idea to use concepts or words to do with music.

If you don’t find what you’re looking for in the list below, or if there’s some sort of bug and it’s not displaying music related words, please send me feedback using this page. Thanks for using the site — I hope it is useful to you! 🐡

Lecture 3.
Word-building: affixation, conversion, composition, abbreviation.
THE WORD-BUILDING SYSTEM OF ENGLISH
1.
Word-derivation
2.
Affixation
3.
Conversion
4.
Word-composition
5.
Shortening
6.
Blending
7.
Acronymy
8.
Sound interchange
9.
Sound imitation
10. Distinctive stress
11. Back-formation
Word-formation is a branch of Lexicology which studies the process of building new
words, derivative structures and patterns of existing words. Two principle types of wordformation are distinguished: word-derivation and word-composition. It is evident that wordformation proper can deal only with words which can be analyzed both structurally and
semantically. Simple words are closely connected with word-formation because they serve as the
foundation of derived and compound words. Therefore, words like writer, displease, sugar free,
etc. make the subject matter of study in word-formation, but words like to write, to please, atom,
free are irrelevant to it.
WORD-FORMATION
WORD-DERIVATION
AFFIXATION
WORD-COMPOSITION
CONVERSION
1. Word-derivation.
Speaking about word-derivation we deal with the derivational structure of words which
basic elementary units are derivational bases, derivational affixes and derivational patterns.
A derivational base is the part of the word which establishes connection with the lexical
unit that motivates the derivative and determines its individual lexical meaning describing the
difference between words in one and the same derivative set. For example, the individual lexical
meaning of the words singer, writer, teacher which denote active doers of the action is signaled by
the lexical meaning of the derivational bases: sing-, write-, teach-.
Structurally derivational bases fall into 3 classes:
1. Bases that coincide with morphological stems of different degrees оf complexity, i.e.,
with words functioning independently in modern English e.g., dutiful, day-dreamer. Bases are
functionally and semantically distinct from morphological stems. Functionally the morphological
stem is a part of the word which is the starting point for its forms: heart – hearts; it is the part
which presents the entire grammatical paradigm. The stem remains unchanged throughout all
word-forms; it keeps them together preserving the identity of the word. A derivational base is the
starting point for different words (heart – heartless – hearty) and its derivational potential
outlines the type and scope of existing words and new creations. Semantically the stem stands for
the whole semantic structure of the word; it represents all its lexical meanings. A base represents,
as a rule, only one meaning of the source word.
2. Bases that coincide with word-forms, e.g., unsmiling, unknown. The base is usually
represented by verbal forms: the present and the past participles.
3. Bases that coincide with word-groups of different degrees of stability, e.g., blue-eyed,
empty-handed. Bases of this class allow a rather limited range of collocability, they are most
active with derivational affixes in the class of adjectives and nouns (long-fingered, blue-eyed).
Derivational affixes are Immediate Constituents of derived words in all parts of speech.
Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to
different types of bases. Affixation is subdivided into suffixation and prefixation. In Modern
English suffixation is mostly characteristic of nouns and adjectives coining, while prefixation is
mostly typical of verb formation.
A derivational pattern is a regular meaningful arrangement, a structure that imposes
rigid rules on the order and the nature of the derivational base and affixes that may be brought
together to make up a word. Derivational patterns are studied with the help of distributional
analysis at different levels. Patterns are usually represented in a generalized way in terms of
conventional symbols: small letters v, n, a, d which stand for the bases coinciding with the stems
of the respective parts of speech: verbs, etc. Derivational patterns may represent derivative
structure at different levels of generalization:
- at the level of structural types. The patterns of this type are known as structural
formulas, all words may be classified into 4 classes: suffixal derivatives (friendship) n + -sf →
N, prefixal derivatives (rewrite), conversions (a cut, to parrot) v → N, compound words (musiclover).
- at the level of structural patterns. Structural patterns specify the base classes and
individual affixes thus indicating the lexical-grammatical and lexical classes of derivatives
within certain structural classes of words. The suffixes refer derivatives to specific parts of
speech and lexical subsets. V + -er = N (a semantic set of active agents, denoting both animate
and inanimate objects - reader, singer); n + -er = N (agents denoting residents or occupations Londoner, gardener). We distinguish a structural semantic derivationa1 pattern.
- at the level of structural-semantic patterns. Derivational patterns may specify semantic
features of bases and individual meaning of affixes: N + -y = A (nominal bases denoting living
beings are collocated with the suffix meaning "resemblance" - birdy, catty; but nominal bases
denoting material, parts of the body attract another meaning "considerable amount" - grassy,
leggy).
The basic ways of forming new words in word-derivation are affixation and conversion.
Affixation is the formation of a new word with the help of affixes (heartless, overdo).
Conversion is the formation of a new word by bringing a stem of this word into a different
paradigm (a fall from to fall).
2. Affixation
Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes
to different types of bases. Affixation includes suffixation and prefixation. Distinction between
suffixal and prefixal derivates is made according to the last stage of derivation, for example,
from the point of view of derivational analysis the word unreasonable – un + (reason- + -able) is
qualified as a prefixal derivate, while the word discouragement – (dis- + -courage) + -ment is
defined as a suffixal derivative.
Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes. Suffixes usually modify
the lexical meaning of the base and transfer words to a different part of speech.
Suffixes can be classified into different types in accordance with different principles.
According to the lexico-grammatical character suffixes may be: deverbal suffixes, e.d.,
those added to the verbal base (agreement); denominal (endless); deadjectival (widen,
brightness).
According to the part of speech formed suffixes fall into several groups: noun-forming
suffixes (assistance), adjective-forming suffixes (unbearable), numeral-forming suffixes
(fourteen), verb-forming suffixes (facilitate), adverb-forming suffixes (quickly, likewise).
Semantically suffixes may be monosemantic, e.g. the suffix –ess has only one meaning
“female” – goddess, heiress; polysemantic, e.g. the suffix –hood has two meanings “condition or
quality” falsehood and “collection or group” brotherhood.
According to their generalizing denotational meaning suffixes may fall into several
groups: the agent of the action (baker, assistant); collectivity (peasantry); appurtenance
(Victorian, Chinese); diminutiveness (booklet).
Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes. Two types of prefixes can
be distinguished: 1) those not correlated with any independent word (un-, post-, dis-); 2) those
correlated with functional words (prepositions or preposition-like adverbs: out-, up-, under-).
Diachronically distinction is made between prefixes of native and foreign origin.
Prefixes can be classified according to different principles.
According to the lexico-grammatical character of the base prefixes are usually added to,
they may be: deverbal prefixes, e.d., those added to the verbal base (overdo); denominal
(unbutton); deadjectival (biannual).
According to the part of speech formed prefixes fall into several groups: noun-forming
prefixes (ex-husband), adjective-forming prefixes (unfair), verb-forming prefixes (dethrone),
adverb-forming prefixes (uphill).
Semantically prefixes may be monosemantic, e.g. the prefix –ex has only one meaning
“former” – ex-boxer; polysemantic, e.g. the prefix –dis has four meanings “not” disadvantage
and “removal of” to disbrunch.
According to their generalizing denotational meaning prefixes may fall into several
groups: negative prefixes – un, non, dis, a, in (ungrateful, nonpolitical, disloyal, amoral,
incorrect); reversative prefixes - un, de, dis (untie, decentralize, disconnect); pejorative prefixes
– mis, mal, pseudo (mispronounce, maltreat, pseudo-scientific); prefix of repetition (redo),
locative prefixes – super, sub, inter, trans (superstructure, subway, intercontinental,
transatlantic).
3. Conversion
Conversion is a process which allows us to create additional lexical terms out of those
that already exist, e.g., to saw, to spy, to snoop, to flirt. This process is not limited to one syllable
words, e.g., to bottle, to butter, nor is the process limited to the creation of verbs from nouns, e.g.,
to up the prices. Converted words are extremely colloquial: "I'll microwave the chicken", "Let's
flee our dog", "We will of course quiche and perrier you".
Conversion came into being in the early Middle English period as a result of the leveling
and further loss of endings.
In Modern English conversion is a highly-productive type of word-building. Conversion
is a specifically English type of word formation which is determined by its analytical character,
by its scarcity of inflections and abundance of mono-and-de-syllabic words in different parts of
speech. Conversion is coining new words in a different part of speech and with a different
distribution but without adding any derivative elements, so that the original and the converted
words are homonyms.
Structural Characteristics of Conversion: Mostly monosyllabic words are converted,
e.g., to horn, to box, to eye. In Modern English there is a marked tendency to convert
polysyllabic words of a complex morphological structure, e.g., to e-mail, to X-ray. Most converted
words are verbs which may be formed from different parts of speech from nouns, adjectives,
adverbs, interjections.
Nouns from verbs - a try, a go, a find, a loss
From adjectives - a daily, a periodical
From adverbs - up and down
From conjunctions - but me no buts
From interjection - to encore
Semantic Associations / Relations of Conversion:
The noun is the name of a tool or implement, the verb denotes an action performed by the
tool, e.g., to nail, to pin, to comb, to brush, to pencil;
The noun is the name of an animal, the verb denotes an action or aspect of behavior
considered typical of this animal, e.g., to monkey, to rat, to dog, to fox;
When the noun is the name of a part of a human body, the verb denotes an action
performed by it, e.g., to hand, to nose, to eye;
When the noun is the name of a profession or occupation, the verb denotes the activity
typical of it, e.g., to cook, to maid, to nurse;
When the noun is the name of a place, the verb will denote the process of occupying the
place or by putting something into it, e.g., to room, to house, to cage;
When the word is the name of a container, the verb will denote the act of putting
something within the container, e.g., to can, to pocket, to bottle;
When the word is the name of a meal, the verb means the process of taking it, e.g., to
lunch, to supper, to dine, to wine;
If an adjective is converted into a verb, the verb may have a generalized meaning "to be
in a state", e.g., to yellow;
When nouns are converted from verbs, they denote an act or a process, or the result, e.g.,
a try, a go, a find, a catch.
4. Word-composition
Compound words are words consisting of at least two stems which occur in the language
as free forms.
Most compounds in English have the primary stress on the first syllable. For example,
income tax has the primary stress on the in of income, not on the tax.
Compounds have a rather simple, regular set of properties. First, they are binary in
structure. They always consist of two or more constituent lexemes. A compound which has three
or more constituents must have them in pairs, e.g., washingmachine manufacturer consists of
washingmachine and manufacturer, while washingmachine in turn consists of washing and
machine. Compound words also usually have a head constituent. By a head constituent we mean
one which determines the syntactic properties of the whole lexeme, e.g., the compound lexeme
longboat consists of an adjective, long and a noun, boat. The compound lexeme longboat is a
noun, and it is а noun because boat is a noun, that is, boat is the head constituent of longboat.
Compound words can belong to all the major syntactic categories:
• Nouns: signpost, sunlight, bluebird, redwood, swearword, outhouse;
• Verbs: window shop, stargaze, outlive, undertake;
• Adjectives: ice-cold, hell-bent, undersized;
• Prepositions: into, onto, upon.
From the morphological point of view compound words are classified according to the
structure of immediate constituents:
• Compounds consisting of simple stems - heartache, blackbird;
• Compounds where at least one of the constituents is a derived stem -chainsmoker,
maid-servant, mill-owner, shop-assistant;
• Compounds where one of the constituents is a clipped stem - V-day, A-bomb, Xmas,
H-bag;
• Compounds where one of the constituents is a compound stem - wastes paper basket,
postmaster general.
Compounds are the commonest among nouns and adjectives. Compound verbs are few in
number, as they are mostly the result of conversion, e.g., to blackmail, to honeymoon, to
nickname, to safeguard, to whitewash. The 20th century created some more converted verbs, e.g.,
to weekend, to streamline,, to spotlight. Such converted compounds are particularly common in
colloquial speech of American English. Converted verbs can be also the result of backformation.
Among the earliest coinages are to backbite, to browbeat, to illtreat, to housekeep. The 20th
century gave more examples to hitch-hike, to proof-read, to mass-produce, to vacuumclean.
One more structural characteristic of compound words is classification of compounds
according to the type of composition. According to this principle two groups can be singled out:

words which are formed by a mere juxtaposition without any connecting elements,
e.g., classroom, schoolboy, heartbreak, sunshine;

composition with a vowel or a consonant placed between the two stems. e.g.,
salesman, handicraft.
Semantically compounds may be idiomatic and non-idiomatic. Compound words may be
motivated morphologically and in this case they are non-idiomatic. Sunshine - the meaning here
is a mere meaning of the elements of a compound word (the meaning of each component is
retained). When the compound word is not motivated morphologically, it is idiomatic. In
idiomatic compounds the meaning of each component is either lost or weakened. Idiomatic
compounds have a transferred meaning. Chatterbox - is not a box, it is a person who talks a great
deal without saying anything important; the combination is used only figuratively. The same
metaphorical character is observed in the compound slowcoach - a person who acts and thinks
slowly.
The components of compounds may have different semantic relations. From this point of
view we can roughly classify compounds into endocentric and exocentric. In endocentric
compounds the semantic centre is found within the compound and the first element determines
the other as in the words filmstar, bedroom, writing-table. Here the semantic centres are star,
room, table. These stems serve as a generic name of the object and the determinants film, bed,
writing give some specific, additional information about the objects. In exocentric compound
there is no semantic centre. It is placed outside the word and can be found only in the course of
lexical transformation, e.g., pickpocket - a person who picks pockets of other people, scarecrow an object made to look like a person that a farmer puts in a field to frighten birds.
The Criteria of Compounds
As English compounds consist of free forms, it's difficult to distinguish them from
phrases, because there are no reliable criteria for that. There exist three approaches to distinguish
compounds from corresponding phrases:
Formal unity implies the unity of spelling

solid spelling, e.g., headmaster;

with a hyphen, e.g., head-master;

with a break between two components, e.g., head master.
Different dictionaries and different authors give different spelling variants.
Phonic principal of stress
Many compounds in English have only one primary stress. All compound nouns are
stressed according to this pattern, e.g., ice-cream, ice cream. The rule doesn't hold with
adjectives. Compound adjectives are double-stressed, e.g., easy-going, new-born, sky-blue.
Stress cannot help to distinguish compounds from phrases because word stress may depend on
phrasal stress or upon the syntactic function of a compound.
Semantic unity
Semantic unity means that a compound word expresses one separate notion and phrases
express more than one notion. Notions in their turn can't be measured. That's why it is hard to
say whether one or more notions are expressed. The problem of distinguishing between
compound words and phrases is still open to discussion.
According to the type of bases that form compounds they can be of :
1.
compounds proper – they are formed by joining together bases built on the stems
or on the ford-forms with or without linking element, e.g., door-step;
2.
derivational compounds – by joining affixes to the bases built on the word-groups
or by converting the bases built on the word-groups into the other parts of speech, e.g., longlegged → (long legs) + -ed, a turnkey → (to turn key) + conversion. More examples: do-gooder,
week-ender, first-nighter, house-keeping, baby-sitting, blue-eyed blond-haired, four-storied. The
suffixes refer to both of the stems combined, but not to the final stem only. Such stems as nighter,
gooder, eyed do not exist.
Compound Neologisms
In the last two decades the role of composition in the word-building system of English has
increased. In the 60th and 70th composition was not so productive as affixation. In the 80th
composition exceeded affixation and comprised 29.5 % of the total number of neologisms in
English vocabulary. Among compound neologisms the two-component units prevail. The main
patterns of coining the two-component neologisms are Noun stem + Noun stem = Noun;
Adjective stem + Noun stem = Noun.
There appeared a tendency to coin compound nouns where:
 The first component is a proper noun, e.g., Kirlian photograph - biological field of
humans.
 The first component is a geographical place, e.g., Afro-rock.
 The two components are joined with the help of the linking vowel –o- e.g.,
bacteriophobia, suggestopedia.
 The number of derivational compounds increases. The main productive suffix to coin
such compound is the suffix -er - e.g., baby-boomer, all nighter.
 Many compound words are formed according to the pattern Participle 2 + Adv =
Adjective, e.g., laid-back, spaced-out, switched-off, tapped-out.
 The examples of verbs formed with the help of a post-positive -in -work-in, die-in,
sleep-in, write-in.
Many compounds formed by the word-building pattern Verb + postpositive are numerous
in colloquial speech or slang, e.g., bliss out, fall about/horse around, pig-out.
ATTENTION: Apart from the principle types there are some minor types of modern wordformation, i.d., shortening, blending, acronymy, sound interchange, sound imitation, distinctive
stress, back-formation, and reduplicaton.
5. Shortening
Shortening is the formation of a word by cutting off a part of the word. They can be
coined in two different ways. The first is to cut off the initial/ middle/ final part:
 Aphaeresis – initial part of the word is clipped, e.g., history-story, telephone-phone;
 Syncope – the middle part of the word is clipped, e.g., madam- ma 'am; specs
spectacles
 Apocope – the final part of the word is clipped, e.g., professor-prof, editored, vampirevamp;
 Both initial and final, e.g., influenza-flu, detective-tec.
Polysemantic words are usually clipped in one meaning only, e.g., doc and doctor have
the meaning "one who practices medicine", but doctor is also "the highest degree given by a
university to a scholar or scientist".
Among shortenings there are homonyms, so that one and the same sound and graphical
complex may represent different words, e.g., vac - vacation/vacuum, prep —
preparation/preparatory school, vet — veterinary surgeon/veteran.
6. Blending
Blending is a particular type of shortening which combines the features of both clipping
and composition, e.g., motel (motor + hotel), brunch (breakfast + lunch), smog (smoke + fog),
telethon (television + marathon), modem , (modulator + demodulator), Spanglish (Spanish +
English). There are several structural types of blends:

Initial part of the word + final part of the word, e.g., electrocute (electricity +
execute);

initial part of the word + initial part of the word, e.g., lib-lab (liberal+labour);

Initial part of the word + full word, e.g., paratroops (parachute+troops);

Full word + final part of the word, e.g., slimnastics (slim+gymnastics).
7. Acronymy
Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of parts of a word or phrase,
commonly the names of institutions and organizations. No full stops are placed between the
letters. All acronyms are divided into two groups. The first group is composed of the acronyms
which are often pronounced as series of letters: EEC (European Economic Community), ID
(identity or identification card), UN (United Nations), VCR (videocassette recorder), FBI
(Federal Bureau of Investigation), LA (Los Angeles), TV (television), PC (personal computer),
GP (General Practitioner), ТВ (tuberculosis). The second group of acronyms is composed by the
words which are pronounced according to the rules of reading in English: UNESCO (United
Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization), AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome), ASH (Action on Smoking and Health). Some of these pronounceable words are
written without capital letters and therefore are no longer recognized as acronyms: laser (light
amplification by stimulated emissions of radiation), radar (radio detection and ranging).
Some abbreviations have become so common and normal as words that people do not think
of them as abbreviations any longer. They are not written in capital letters, e.g., radar (radio
detection and ranging), laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) yuppie,
gruppie, sinbads, dinkies.
Some abbreviations are only written forms but they are pronounced as full words, e.g.,
Mr, Mrs, Dr. Some abbreviations are from Latin. They are used as part of the language etc. - et
cetera, e.g., (for example) — exampli gratia, that is - id est.
Acromymy is widely used in the press, for the names of institutions, organizations,
movements, countries. It is common to colloquial speech, too. Some acronyms turned into
regular words, e.g., jeep -came from the expression general purpose car.
There are a lot of homonyms among acronyms:
MP - Member of Parliament/Military Police/Municipal Police
PC - Personal Computer/Politically correct
8. Sound-interchange
Sound-interchange is the formation of a new word due to an alteration in the phonemic
composition of its root. Sound-interchange falls into two groups: 1) vowel-interchange, e.g., food
– feed; in some cases vowel-interchange is combined with suffixation, e.g., strong – strength; 2)
consonant-interchange e.g., advice – to advise. Consonant-interchange and vowel-interchange
may be combined together, e.g., life – to live.
This type of word-formation is greatly facilitated in Modern English by the vast number
of monosyllabic words. Most words made by reduplication represent informal groups:
colloquialisms and slang, hurdy-gurdy, walkie-talkie, riff-raff, chi-chi girl. In reduplication new
words are coined by doubling a stem, either without any phonetic changes as in bye-bye or with a
variation of the root-vowel or consonant as in ping-pong, chit-chat.
9. Sound imitation or (onomatopoeia)
It is the naming of an action or a thing by more or less exact reproduction of the sound
associated with it, cf.: cock-a-do-doodle-do – ку-ка-ре-ку.
Semantically, according to the source sound, many onomatopoeic words fall into the
following definitive groups: 1) words denoting sounds produced by human beings in the process of
communication or expressing their feelings, e.g., chatter; 2) words denoting sounds produced by
animals, birds, insects, e.g., moo, buzz; 3) words imitating the sounds of water, the noise of metallic
things, movements, e.g., splash, whip, swing.
10. Distinctive stress
Distinctive stress is the formation of a word by means of the shift of the stress in the
source word, e.g., increase – increase.
11. Back-formation
Backformation is coining new words by subtracting a real or supposed suffix, as a result
of misinterpretation of the structure of the existing word. This type of word-formation is not
highly productive in Modern English and it is built on the analogy, e.g., beggar-to beg, cobbler to cobble, blood transfusion — to blood transfuse, babysitter - to baby-sit.

Word-building
is one of the main ways of enriching vocabulary. There are four main
ways of word-building in modern English: affixation, composition,
conversion, abbreviation. There are also secondary ways of
word-building: sound interchange, stress interchange, sound
imitation, blends, back formation.

Affixation

Affixation
is one of the most productive ways of word-building throughout the
history of English. It consists in adding an affix to the stem of a
definite part of speech. Affixation is divided into suffixation and
prefixation.

Suffixation.

The
main function of suffixes in Modern English is to form one part of
speech from another, the secondary function is to change the lexical
meaning of the same part of speech. ( e.g. «educate» is a verb,
«educatee» is a noun, and « music» is a noun, «musicdom» is
also a noun) .

There
are different classifications of suffixes :

1.
Part-of-speech classification. Suffixes which can form different
parts of speech are given here :

a)
noun-forming suffixes, such as : -er (criticizer), -dom
(officialdom), -ism (ageism),

b)
adjective-forming suffixes, such as : -able (breathable), less
(symptomless), -ous (prestigious),

c)
verb-forming suffixes, such as -ize (computerize) , -ify (micrify),

d)
adverb-forming suffixes , such as : -ly (singly), -ward (tableward),

e)
numeral-forming suffixes, such as -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy).

2.
Semantic classification . Suffixes changing the lexical meaning of
the stem can be subdivided into groups, e.g. noun-forming suffixes
can denote:

a)
the agent of the action, e.g. -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent
(student),

b)
nationality, e.g. -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), -ish (English),

c)
collectivity, e.g. -dom (moviedom), -ry (peasantry, -ship
(readership), -ati ( literati),

d)
diminutiveness, e.g. -ie (horsie), -let (booklet), -ling (gooseling),
-ette (kitchenette),

e)
quality, e.g. -ness (copelessness), -ity (answerability).

3.
Lexico-grammatical character of the stem. Suffixes which can be added
to certain groups of stems are subdivided into:

a)
suffixes added to verbal stems, such as : -er (commuter), -ing
(suffering), — able (flyable), -ment (involvement), -ation
(computerization),

b)
suffixes added to noun stems, such as : -less (smogless), ful
(roomful), -ism (adventurism), -ster (pollster), -nik (filmnik), -ish
(childish),

c)
suffixes added to adjective stems, such as : -en (weaken), -ly
(pinkly), -ish (longish), -ness (clannishness).

4.
Origin of suffixes. Here we can point out the following groups:

a)
native (Germanic), such as -er,-ful, -less, -ly.

b)
Romanic, such as : -tion, -ment, -able, -eer.

c)
Greek, such as : -ist, -ism, -ize.

d)
Russian, such as -nik.

5.
Productivity. Here we can point out the following groups:

a)
productive, such as : -er, -ize, —ly, -ness.

b)
semi-productive, such as : -eer, -ette, -ward.

c)
non-productive , such as : -ard (drunkard), -th (length).

Suffixes
can be polysemantic, such as : -er can form nouns with the following
meanings : agent,doer of the action expressed by the stem (speaker),
profession, occupation (teacher), a device, a tool (transmitter).
While speaking about suffixes we should also mention compound
suffixes which are added to the stem at the same time, such as -ably,
-ibly, (terribly, reasonably), -ation (adaptation from adapt).

There
are also disputable cases whether we have a suffix or a root morpheme
in the structure of a word, in such cases we call such morphemes
semi-suffixes, and words with such suffixes can be classified either
as derived words or as compound words, e.g. -gate (Irangate), -burger
(cheeseburger), -aholic (workaholic) etc.

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