Word as grammatical unit

A word
is a unit of language that carries meaning and consists of one or
more morphemes which are linked more or less tightly together.
Typically a word will consist of a root or stem and zero or more
affixes. Words can be combined to create phrases, clauses and
sentences. A word consisting of two or more stems joined together is
called a compound. As
the word is the main unit of traditional grammatical theory, it
serves the basis of
the
distinction which
is frequently «drawn between morpfiology and syntax. Morphology
deals with the internal structure of words, peculiarities of their
grammatical
categories and their semantics while
traditional syntax deals with the rules governing combination
of words in sentences (and texts in modern linguistics). We can
therefore say that the word is the
main unit of morphology. It
is difficult to arrive at a one-sentence definition of such a complex
linguistic unit as
the word. It is also the basic nominative
unit of
language
with the help of which the naming function of language is realized.
One of the most characteristic features of the word is its
indivisibility. As any other linguistic unit the word is a bilateral
entity. It unites a concept
and
a sound image and thus has two sides — the content and expression
sides:
concept and sound form.

8. Grammatical categories of communication.

Grammatical
categories
are made up by the unity of that
have the meanings have the same form (e.g. singular::plural). Due to
dialectal unity of language and thought,
grammatical categories correlate, on the one hand, with the
conceptual categories
and, on the other hand, with the objective reality.
It
follows that we may define grammatical categories as references of
the corresponding. obiective
categories. For example, the objective category
of time
finds its representation in
the grammatical category
of tense,
the objective
category of
quantity
finds its representation
in the grammatical category
of number.
Those grammatical categories that
have references in the objective reality are called referential
grammatical categories. They
are called significational
categories.
To this type belong the categories of
mood
and degree.
Speaking about the grammatical category of
mood we can say that it has modality
as its
conceptual correlate. It can be explained by the fact that it does
not refer to
anything in the objective reality — it expresses the speaker’s
attitude to what he says. The
relation between two
grammatical forms differing in meaning and external signs is called
opposition
-book::books
(unmarked member/marked member). All grammatical categories find
their realization
through oppositions, e.g. the grammatical category of number is
realized through the opposition
singular::plural.

9, 10. Parts of speech. Different approaches.

The parts of
speech are classes of words, all’ the members of these classes having
certain
characteristics in common which distinguish them from the members of
other problem
of word classification into parts of speech still remains one of the
most
controversial problems in modern linguistics. The artitude of
grammarians
with
regard
to parts of speech and the basis of their classification varied a
good deal at different
times. Only in English grammarians have been vacillating between 3
and. 13 parts of speech. There are
four approaches to the problem:

Classical (logical-inflectional)

Functional

Distributional

Complex,

The
classical
of speech theory is.based on Latin grammar.
According, to the Latin classification of the parts of speech all
words were divided
dichotomically into declinable and indeclinable parts of speech.
declinable
words,
included nouns, pronouns, verbs and participles, indeclinable words —
adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions and interjections. Based on the
the principle of
declinability/indeclmability is not relevant for analytical
languages. Functional
— To/nominative
parts of speech belonged noun-words (noun, noun-pronoun,
noun-numeral, infinitive, gerund), adjective-words (adjective,
adjective-pronoun, adjective-numeral, participles), verb (finite
verb, verbals — gerund, infinitive,
participles), while adverb, preposition, conjunction and interjection
belonged to the group of articles. A
Distributional
approach to the parts to the parts of speech classification can be
illustrated
bythe classification introduced by Charles Fries. He wanted to avoid
the traditional
terminology and establish a classification of words based on the
ability of words to combine with other words of different types. At
the same time, the lexical meaning of words was not taken into
account. In modern linguistics,
parts of speech are discriminated according to three, criteria:
semantic,
formal and functional. This approach may be defined as complex.
The semantic
criterion presupposes the grammatical meaning of the whole class of
words (general
grammatical meaning). The formal criterion reveals paradigmatic
properties: relevant grammatical
categories, the form of the words, their specific inflectional and
derivational
features.
Thus, when characterizing any part of speech we

are to
describe: a) its semantics; b) its morphological features; c) its
syntactic peculiarities.
The
linguistic evidence drawn from our grammatical study makes it
possible to divide all the words of
the language into: those
denoting things, objects, notiona, qualities, etc. — words with the
corresponding references
the objective reality. – notional words those
having no references of their own in the objective reality; most of
them are used only
as grammatical means to form up and frame utterances — function

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The word as a grammatical unit has its form (grammatical form) and meaning (lexical and grammatical). Grammatical forms of words (word forms) are typically constructed by morphemes added synthetically, or structurals added analytically:

Number: book – books, family – families, leaf – leaves.

Case: my sister’s children, the title of the book, the students’ papers.

Aspect: was drawing – drew, repaired – have repaired – have been repairing.

Degrees of comparison: cold – colder – the coldest, difficult – more difficult – the most difficult, less interesting – the least interesting.

By grammatical forms we understand variants of a word having the same lexical meaning but differing grammatically. In other words, the grammatical form (grameme) is the total of formal means to render a particular grammatical meaning.

There are the following ways of changing grammatical forms of words:

· The use of affixes as word changing morphemic elements added to the root of the word: e(s) (the plural of nouns, the possessive of nouns, the 3^rd person singular of Present Simple); ing (Present Participle, Gerund); er/est (Comparative and Superlative Degrees); ed (the Past Simple of the Indicative Mood, the Subjunctive Mood, Past Participle).

· Sound interchange as the use of different root sounds in grammatical forms of a word, which may be either consonants or vowels (e.g. speak – spoke, crisis – crises, write – wrote, wife – wives, analysis – analyses).

· Suppletivity as creating grammatical forms of a word coming from different roots (e.g. far – further, he – him, bad – worst, was – been).

· Analytical forms being made up of two components: a notional word used as an unchanged element carrying a lexical meaning and a structural changed grammatically but expressing no lexical meaning (e.g. will be reading, can sing, will be able to translate, would bring, less expensive, the most beautiful).

Grammatical forms being on the plane of expression (form) and possessing morphemic features, expressed either syntactically or analytically, convey certain grammatical meanings being on the plane of content (meaning) shaped in morphology as meanings of number, case, degree, voice, tense, etc. The system of grammatical forms of a word is called a paradigm with paradigmatic lines, the elements of which build up typically the so called privative morphological opposition based on a morphological differential feature (synthetical or analytical) present in its strong (marked) member and absent in its weak (unmarked) member. Compare: zero::Ved; zero::shall/willV; zero::Ving. Of minor types is an equipollent opposition (person forms of the verb ‘be’: am – is – are) and a gradual opposition (zero::adjer::adjest). Thus a grammatical paradigm is represented by the opposition of marked and non-marked members specifically connected with paradigmatic relations in order to express number, tense, mood, case, etc. The general grammatical meaning of two or more grammatical forms in a paradigm opposed to each other generates a grammatical category. The evidence is seen in the following examples:

the word forms ‘ student, book ’denote singularity, while ‘ books, students ’ denote plurality; as opposed to each other in the paradigmatic series, they have one grammatical meaning, that of number; thus the opposition of grammatical forms makes up the category of number;

the word forms ‘ swims, is working ’indicate reference to present including the moment of speaking, whereas ‘ swam, was working ’ indicate reference to past excluding the moment of speaking; and the opposition of grammatical forms in the paradigmatic series having the grammatical meaning of reference to the moment of speaking makes up the category of tense.

Taking into account the given assumptions, the grammatical category is defined as a system, expressing a generalized grammatical meaning by means of paradigmatic correlation of grammatical forms, analytical or synthetical, which makes the specific peculiarity of the language.

Key words:

levels of grammatical description уровни грамматического описания

constituent part конституирующая часть

grammatical system грамматическая система

prescriptive предписывающая без объяснения

explanatory объяснительная

kernel ядерная

theme тема (известная информация)

rheme рема (новая информация)

informative value информативная значимость

speech act речевой акт

coherent целостный

cohesive связный

grammatical formation of utterance грамматическая организация высказывания

grammatical structure of language грамматическая структура языка

coherent system целостная система

morpheme морфема

word слово

phrase фраза

sentence предложение

grammatical unit грамматическая единица

word form словоформа

morphological морфологический

categorical features категориальные признаки

parts of speech части речи

communicative unit коммуникативная единица

structural unit структурная единица

nominative unit номинативная единица

segmental сегментный

Morphology Морфология

Syntax Синтаксис

subject matter предмет изучения

paradigm парадигма

grammatical structure of language грамматическая структура языка

synthetical ситетический

analytical аналитический

grameme граммема (словоформа с грамматическим значением)

inflection инфлексия

affixation аффиксация

suppletivity суплетивизм

grammatical form грамматическая форма

grammatical meaning грамматическое значение

grammatical category грамматическая категория

functional words функциональные слова

auxiliary вспомогательный глагол

article артикль

preposition предлог

fixed word order фиксированный порядок слов

grammatical relations грамматические отношения

Number Число

Case Падеж

Aspect Вид

Degrees of comparison Степени сравнения

root of the word корень слова

plural множественное число

possessive притяжательный падеж

3^rd person singular 3 лицо ед. число

sound change чередование

analytical form аналитическая форма

notional word знаменательное слово

paradigmatic line парадигматический ряд

privative morphological opposition привативная морфологическая оппозиция

strong (marked) member сильныймаркированный компонент

weak(unmarked)member слабыйнемаркированный компонент

equipollent opposition эквиполентная оппозиция

gradual opposition последовательная оппозиция

paradigmatic relations парадигматические отношения

tense грамматическое время

mood наклонение

case падеж

singularity единичность

plurality множественность

reference соотнесенность

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Описание презентации по отдельным слайдам:

• 

  1 слайд

  Word as the basic unit of language
  Lecture 2.

• 

  2 слайд

  § 1. The Definition of the Word
  A successful definition should 1) contain essential features of a word and 2) draw a sharp borderline between various linguistic units:
  1.1. word and phoneme (Oh! I)
  1.2. word and morpheme (man, wise, ism)
  1.3. word and phrase (all right, alarm clock, the reciprocal pronouns each other and one another)

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  3 слайд

  1.1. Unity of form and meaning
  Word — Form

  phonetic/graphic morphological structure grammar form
  Essential features
  Word – Meaning

  denotational connotational lexico-grammatic grammatic

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  4 слайд

  1.2. When used in sentences words are syntactically organized. Their freedom of entering into syntactic constructions is limited by rules and constraints
  They told me this story vs. They spoke me this story
  to deny smth categorically vs. to admit categorically

  1.3. Words are characterized by (in)ability to occur in different situations
  In a business letter: ‘I was a bit put out to hear that you are not going to place the order with us’
  To a friend: ‘I regret to inform you that our meeting will have to be postponed.

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  5 слайд

  Distinctive features: Within the scope of linguistics the word has been defined syntactically, semantically, phonologically and by combining various approaches.
  Syntactic: H. Sweet «the minimum sentence“
  L. Bloomfield «a minimum free form».
  Syntactic and semantic aspects:
  E. Sapir — «one of the smallest completely satisfying bits of isolated ‘meaning’, into which the sentence resolves itself. It cannot be cut into without a disturbance of meaning”.
  Indivisibility criterion: A lion is a word-group because we can insert other words between them: a living lion. Alive is a word: it is indivisible, nothing can be inserted between its elements.
  Semantic:
  Stephen Ullmann: “words are meaningful units.»

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  6 слайд

  Semantic-phonological approach:
  A.H.Gardiner: «A word is an articulate sound-symbol in its aspect of denoting something which is spoken about.»
  Thus, a satisfying word-definition should reflect the following features as borrowed from the above explanations:
  the association of a particular meaning with a particular group of sounds
  capable of a particular grammatical employment
  the smallest significant unit, used in isolation
  capable of functioning alone
  characterized by morphological uninterruptability and
  having semantic integrity

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  7 слайд

  § 2. Types of lexical units
  The units/elements of a vocabulary are lexical units, which means that they are two-facet elements possessing form and meaning.
  Set expressions or groups of words into which words may be combined
  Morphemes which are parts of words, into which words may be analyzed
  They are, apart from words:

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  8 слайд

  Morphemes are structural units which either form a new word or modify its meaning. Their meaning is of more abstract and general nature. Morphemes can’t function alone and deny grammar change.

  Set expressions are word groups consisting of two or more words whose combination is integrated so that they are introduced in speech ready-made as units with a specialized meaning of the whole that is not understood as a mere sum total of the meanings of the elements.

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  9 слайд

  are the biggest units of morphology and the smallest of syntax
  embody the main structural properties and functions of the language (nominative, significative, communicative and pragmatic)
  can be used in isolation
  are thought of as having a single referent or represent a concept, a feeling, an action
  are the smallest units of written discourse: they are marked off by solid spelling
  segmentation of a sentence into words is easily done by an illiterate speaker, but that of a word into morphemes presents sometimes difficulties even for trained linguists
  are written as a sequence of letters bounded by spaces on a page (with exceptions)
  Wоrds are the central elements of language system = we speak in words and not otherwise, because they :

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  10 слайд

  Thus, the vocabulary of a language is not homogeneous, it’s made of sets with blurred boundaries
  WORDS
  morphemes
  set expressions
  phrasal verbs
  adaptive abstract system
  selective reflection
  Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations
  Functional vs. referential approach

• 

  11 слайд

  § 3. Types of words
  Eight Kinds of Words by Tom McArthur:

  The orthographic word
  (a visual sign with space around: colour vs. color)
  The phonological word
  (a spoken signal: a notion vs. an ocean)
  The morphological word
  (a unity behind variants of form
  The lexical word
  (lexeme, full word as related to a thing, action or state in the world)

• 

  12 слайд

  The grammatical word
  (form word, a closed set of conj-s, determiners, particles, pronouns, etc.)
  The onomastic word
  (words with unique reference: Napoleon)
  The lexicographical word
  (a word as an entry in the dictionary)
  The statistical word
  (each letter or group of letters from space to space)

• 

  13 слайд

  Types of words as regards their structure, semantics and function (E.M. Mednicova):

  MORPHOLOGICALLY:
  Monomorphemic: root-words
  Polymorphemic: derivatives, compounds, compound-
  derivatives, derivational compounds

  SEMANTICALLY:
  Monosemantic: words having only one lexical meaning and denoting, accordingly, one concept

  Polysemantic: words having several meanings, thus denoting a whole set of related concepts grouped according to the national peculiarities of a given language

• 

  14 слайд

  SYNTACTICALLY:
  Categorematic: notional words
  Syncategorematic: form-words

  STYLISTICALLY:
  Neutral
  Elevated (bookish) (steed, to commence, spouse, slay, maiden)
  Colloquial (smart, cute, chap, trash, horny)
  Substandard words (vulgarisms, taboo, jargon argot, slang), etc (there are various other stylistic groupings).

  ETYMOLOGICALLY:
  Native
  Borrowed
  Hybrid
  international words

• 

  15 слайд

  Practical tasks # 2
  Which criterion can be used to distinguish word from other language units? Match:
  a) Phoneme1) meaningful unit able of functioning alone
  b) Morpheme2) unity of form and meaning
  c) Free phrase 3) semantic integrity
  2. Which units from the list below are not lexical units?
  Shchd) he is a genius
  To make firee) in a nutshell
  Did f) dogs

• 

  16 слайд

  3. How many lexemes are there in the phrase:
  Don’t trouble trouble until trouble troubles you.
  4. Which one of these words is monosemantic?
  to get, a cat, an aspen-tree, to borrow, a ball, to follow.

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