Word and word formation ppt

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Words and Word-Formation Processes

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Etymology: It is the study of the origin and history of a word. When we look closely at the etymologies of words, we soon discover that there are many different ways in which new words can enter the language. In this chapter, we will explore some of the basic processes by which new words are created.

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1. Coinage: One of the least common processes of word formation in English is coinage. It is simply defined as the invention of totally new terms. The most typical examples are invented trade names for commercial products. Older examples are aspirin, nylon, vaseline. More recent examples are kleenex, teflon, and xerox. The most salient contemporary example of coinage is the word google which is the name of a company (Google), and has later widely used with the meaning of “to use the internet to find information.”

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2. Borrowing: It is one of the most common sources of new words in English. It is the taking over of words from other languages. English has adopted many loan-words from other languages such as alcohol (Arabic), boss (Dutch), piano (Italian), croissant (French), and yogurt ( Turkish).

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3. Compounding: It is the joining of two separate words to produce a single form. It is a very common and productive source of new terms not only in English but also in other languages. Famous examples are bookcase, fingerprint, sunburn, wallpaper, textbook, wastebasket, waterbed, and doorknob.

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4. Blending: Blending is typically made by taking only the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of another word. The word smog is blended from smoke and fog, brunch (breakfast / lunch), motel (motor / hotel), telecast (television / broadcast), infotainment (information/ entertainment).

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5. Clipping: It is the reduction of a word of more than one syllable into a shorter form, often in casual speech. The term gasoline is reduced to gas. Common examples are ad (advertisement), fan (fanatic), sitcom (situation comedy), fax (facsimile). In educational fields, there are many reduced words like math, chem, exam, gym, prof, and lab.

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6. Backformation: It is a very specialized type of reduction. It typically happens when a word of one type (usually a noun) is reduced to form another word of a different type (usually a verb). For example the noun television is reduced to form the verb televise. Other instances are donate (from ‘donation’), emote (from ‘emotion’), babysit (from ‘babysitter’). Another particular type of backformation happens when a word of a longer syllable is reduced to a single syllable, then –y or – ie is added to the end, such as movie (moving picture), telly (television), and barbie (barbecue).

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7. Conversion: It is a change in the function of a word, as for example when a noun comes to be used as a verb (without any reduction). This process is also called “category change” and “functional shift.” A number of nouns such as paper, butter, vacation, party, via the process of conversion, come to be used as verbs, as in the following sentences: He’s papering the bedroom walls; Have you buttered the toast?; They’re vacationing in France; and Laura parties every Saturday night.

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8. Acronyms: Acronyms are new words formed from the initial letters of a set of other words. Acronyms are pronounced as single words, and they are written in capital letters such as CD (compact disk), VCR (video cassette recorder), ATM (automatic teller machine), AIDS, NATO, NASA, UNESCO. Other acronyms are not written in capital letters like radar, laser, and scuba.

1. LECTURE 4 WORD STRUCTURE AND WORD FORMATION www.philology.bsu.by/кафедры/кафедра английского языкознания/учебные материалы/кафедра английского языкознания/папки преп

LEXICOLOGY COURSE
LECTURE 4
WORD STRUCTURE AND
WORD FORMATION
www.philology.bsu.by/кафедры/кафедра английского
языкознания/учебные материалы/кафедра английского
языкознания/папки преподавателей/Толстоухова В.Ф.

2. The questions under consideration

1. Morpheme. Allomorph
2. Word Structure
3. Immediate Constituents Analysis
4. Affixation
5. Conversion
6. Word-Composition
6.1. Properties of compounds
7. Other Types of Word Formation

3. Word-formation (definition)

Word-formation is the branch of
lexicology that studies
the derivative structure of existing words
and
the patterns on which a language builds
new words.
It is a certain principle of classification of
lexicon and
one of the main ways of enriching the
vocabulary.

4. Word-formation is studied

synchronically
Scholars investigate
the existing system
of the types of wordformation
Diachronically
Scholars investigate
the history of wordformation

5. 1. Morpheme. Allomorph

The smallest unit of language that carries
information about meaning or function is
the morpheme.
(Greek morphe «form»
+ -eme «the smallest distinctive unit»)

6. Examples of morphemes

BUILD+ER
build (with the meaning of «construct»)
-er (which indicates that the entire word
functions as a noun with the meaning
«one who builds»).
HOUSE+S
house (with the meaning of «dwelling»)
-s (with the meaning «more than one»)

7. simple words vs complex words

and
boy — boy-s
hunt — hunt-er —hunt-er-s
act act-ive — act-iv-ate ––re-act-iv-ate
Simple words cannot be divided into
smaller parts. Complex words contain
two or more morphemes.

8. morphemes are two-facet language units

A morpheme is a meaning and a stretch
of sound joined together.
It is the minimum meaningful language
unit.

9. Structure of morphemes

free morpheme
(can be a word by
itself,
coincides with the
stem or a word-form)
bound morpheme
(must be attached to
another element,
only can be a part of
a word )

10. allomorphs (from Greek allos «other»)

allomorphs (from Greek allos
«other»)
All the representatives of the given
morpheme are called allomorphs of that
morpheme.
An allomorph is a positional variant of
that or this morpheme occurring in a
specific environment.

11. Examples of allomorphs

an orange, an accent, a car
cats, dogs, judges (the plural morpheme –
s)
assert /assert-ion, permit/permiss-ive,
include/inclus-ive, electric/electric-ity,
impress/impress-ion

12. 2. Word Structure

Words that can be divided have two or
more parts:
a root
affixes (a prefix, a suffix )
inflection

13. Word Structure

A root constitutes the core of the word
and carries the major component of its
meaning. It has more specific and
definite meaning
Affixes are morphemes that modify the
meaning of the root. An affix added
before the root is called a prefix (unending); an affix added after the root is
called a suffix (kind-ness).

14. Examples of word structure

un-work-able
govern-ment
fright-en-ing
re-play
A word may have one or more affixes of
either kind, or several of both kinds.

15. A base

A base is the form to which an affix is
added. In many cases, the base is also the
root. In other cases, however, the base
can be larger than a root.
Blackened
Blacken (verbal base) +ed
Blacken
Black (not only the root for the entire word
but also the base for) +en

16. suffixes vs inflections

Suffixes can form a new part of speech,
e.g.: beauty — beautiful. They can also
change the meaning of the root, e.g.:
black — blackish.
Inflections are morphemes used to
change grammar forms of the word, e.g.:
work — works — worked—working.
English is not a highly inflected language.

17. Four structural types of words in English

simple (root) words consist of one root
morpheme and an inflexion (boy, warm, law,
tables, tenth);
derived words consist of one root
morpheme, one or several affixes and an
inflexion (unmanageable, lawful);
compound words consist of two or more root
morphemes and an inflexion (boyfriend,
outlaw);
compound-derived words consist of two or
more root morphemes, one or more affixes
and an inflexion (left-handed, warm-hearted,
blue-eyed).

18. Two main types of word-formation

word-derivation
(encouragement,
irresistible, worker)
Subdivided into
Affixation
Conversion
Derivational
Composition
word-composition
(blackboard,
daydream, weekend)
Subdivided into
• Derivational
Composition

19. 3. Immediate Constituents Analysis (L. Bloomfield)

Why is it used? (to discover the
derivational structure of lexical units).
How? First we separate a free and a
bound forms. At any level we obtain only
two ICs.

20. Ungentlemanly

1.un— + gentlemanly
2. gentleman + -ly
3. gentle + man
4. as a result, un + (gentle + man) + ly

21. eatable uneatable

eatable
The adjective eatable
consists of two ICs
eat + able and may
be described as a
suffixal derivative
uneatable
the adjective
uneatable is a
prefixal derivative
(the two ICs are un +
eatable)

22. 4. Affixation is a basic means of forming words

suffixation
• is characteristic of
noun and adjective
formation
• does not only modify
the lexical meaning
of the stem,
• but transfers the
word to another part
of speech care (n) /
care — less (adj).
prefixation
• is typical of verb
formation
modifies the lexical
meaning of stems
• joins the part of
speech the
unprefixed word
belongs to, e.g. usual
/un — usual.

23. classification of suffixes

their origin
meaning
part of speech they form
productivity

24. according to their origin:

Romanic (e.g. -age, -ment, -tion),
Native (-er, -dom, -ship),
Greek (-ism, -ize), etc

25. according to their meaning :

-er denotes the agent of the action,
-ess denotes feminine gender,
-ence/ance has abstract meaning,
-age, -dom — collectivity

26. according to their part of speech they form :

noun suffixes -er, -ness, -ment;
adjective-forming suffixes -ish, -ful, -less,
-y;
verb-suffixes -en, -fy,

27. according to their productivity :

What is productivity? It is the relative
freedom with which they can combine
with bases of the appropriate category
productive suffixes are -er, -ly, -ness, ie, -let,
non-productive (-dom, -th)
semi-productive (-eer, -ward).

28. Classification of Prefixes

their origin
meaning
productivity

29. according to their origin:

Native, e.g. un-;
Romanic, e.g. in-;
Greek, e.g. sym-;

30. according to meaning

negative prefixes in-, un-, поп-, a-, dis-;
prefixes of time and order ex-, neo-, after, fore-, post-, proto-;
prefix of repetition re-;
size and degree: hyper-, mega-, mini-,
super-, sur-, ultra-, vice-, etc

31. according to productivity

What is productivity? It is the ability to
make new words:
e.g. un- is highly productive.

32. 5. Conversion (definition)

It is a kind of word formation.
The process of making new parts of
speech without the addition of an affix.
It is a productive way of forming words
in English.
It is sometimes called zero derivation.

33. Examples of coversion

He was knocked out in the first round.
Round the number off to the nearest
tenth.
The neighbors gathered round our
barbecue.
The moon was bright and round.
People came from all the country round.

34. Conversion

Prof. Smirnitsky A. I. in his works on the
English language treats conversion as a
morphological way of forming words.
Other linguists (H. Marchand, V.N.
Yartseva, Yu.A. Zhluktenko, A.Y.
Zagoruiko, I.V. Arnold) treat conversion
as a combined morphological and
syntactic way of word-building, as a new
word appears not in isolation but in a
definite environment of other words.

35. The three most common types of conversion

verbs derived from nouns (to butter, to
ship),
nouns derived from verbs (a survey, a
call),
verbs derived from adjectives (to empty).

36. Less common types of conversion

nouns from:
adjectives (a bitter, the poor, a final),
from phrases, e.g. a down-and-out,
verbs from prepositions (up the price, out
e.g. diplomats were outed from the
country; Truth will out. — Истина станет
известной)

37. Verbs converted from nouns

instrumental use of the object, e.g.
screw — to screw, eye — to eye;
action characteristic of the object, e.g.
ape — to ape;
acquisition: fish — to fish;
deprivation of the object, e.g. dust — to
dust

38. Nouns converted from verbs

instance of an action, e.g. to move — a
move;
word — agent of an action, e.g. to bore
— a bore;
place of an action, e.g. to walk — a
walk;
result of the action, e.g. to cut — a cut

39. 6.Word-Composition

Word-composition is the combination of
two or more existing words to create a
new word
e.g. campsite (N+N), bluebird (A+N),
whitewash (A+V), in-laws (P+N), jumpsuit
(V+N).

40. Word-Composition

In most compounds the rightmost
morpheme determines the category of
the entire word,
e.g. greenhouse is a noun because its
rightmost component is a noun,
spoonfeed is a verb because feed also
belongs to this category, and
nationwide is an adjective just as wide is.

41. 6.1. Properties of compounds

How can compounds in English be
written? — Differently:
as single words,
with an intervening hyphen,
as separate words.

42. endocentric compounds

If a compound denotes a subtype of the
concept denoted by its head it is called
endocentric.
Thus, cat food is a type of food, sky blue is a
type of blue
airplane, steamboat, policeman, bathtowel

43. exocentric compounds

If the meaning of the compound does not
follow from the meanings of its parts it is
said to be exocentric
e.g. redneck is a person and not a type of
neck;
walkman is a type of portable radio.

44. Classification of compounds according to the principle

1) of the parts of speech compound words
represent:
nouns: night-gown, waterfall, looking-glass;
verbs: to honeymoon, to outgrow;
adjectives: peace-loving, hard-working,
pennywise;
adverbs: downstairs, lip-deep;
prepositions: within, into, onto;
numerals: thirty-seven;

45. Classification of compounds according to the principle

2.of the means of composition used to link the
two ICs together:
neutral — formed by joining together two
stems without connecting elements
(juxtaposition), e.g. scarecrow, goldfish,
crybaby;
morphological — components are joined by a
linking element, i.e. vowels ‘o’ and ‘i’ or the
consonant ‘s’, e.g. videophone, tragicomic,
handicraft, craftsman, microchip;
syntactical — the components are joined by
means of form-word stems, e.g. man-of-war,
forget-me-not, bread-and-butter, face-to-face;

46. 7. Other Types of Word Formation

back-formation or disaffixation (baby-sitter —
to baby-sit). Back-formation is a process that
creates a new word by removing a real or
supposed affix from another word in the
language.
sound interchange (speak — speech, blood —
bleed), and sound imitation (walkie-talkie, brag
rags, to giggle);
distinctive change (‘conduct — to con ‘duct,
‘increase — to in crease, ‘subject — to subject);

47. Other Types of Word Formation

blending: these are words that are created
from parts of two already existing items,
usually the first part of one and the final
part of the other:
brunch from breakfast and lunch,
smog from smoke and fog
clipping is a process that shortens a
polysyllabic word by deleting one or
more syllables: prof for professor, burger
for hamburger.

48. Other Types of Word Formation

acronymy: NATO, NASA, WAC, UNESCO.
Acronyms are formed by taking the initial
letters of the words in a phrase and
pronouncing them as a word. (names of
organizations and in terminology).
NASA stands for National Aeronautics
and Space Administration, NA TO —
North Atlantic Treaty Organization

49. Other Types of Word Formation

onomatopoeia, i.e. formations of words
from sounds that resemble those
associated with the object or action to be
named, or that seem suggestive of its
qualities.
e.g. hiss, buzz, meow, cock-a-doodle-doo,
and cuckoo

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Word formation 8-11

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Основные суффиксы прилагательных: Суффикс, обозначающий национальную принадлежность или слабую степень качества: — ese — ish Chinese ( китаец, китайский), Japanese ( японец, японский) Pole ( поляк) — Polish ( польский), Scott ( шотландец) — Scottish ( шотландский) red ( красный) — reddish ( красноватый), child ( ребенок) — childish ( ребячливый, детский)

Слайд 3

Суффиксы, образующие прилагательные от глаголов и обозначающие наличие качества: — ive – ent -ant to act ( действовать) — active ( активный), to talk ( разговаривать) – talkative ( разговорчивый) to differ ( различать) — different ( различный), to insist ( настаивать) — insistent ( настойчивый) to observe ( наблюдать, замечать) — observant ( наблюдательный, внимательный)

Слайд 4

Суффиксы, образующие прилагательные от существительных и обозначающие наличие качества, свойства: — ic -al — ful — ous — у base ( основа) — basic ( основной), economy ( экономика) — economic ( экономический) centre ( центр) — central ( центральный) culture ( культура) — cultural ( культурный), beauty ( красота) — beautiful ( красивый) peace ( мир) — peaceful ( мирный), fame ( слава) — famous ( знаменитый) cloud ( облако) — cloudy ( облачный), sun ( солнце) — sunny ( солнечный)

Слайд 5

Суффиксы, образующие прилагательные от различных частей речи и обозначающие а) качество, свойство: -а r у — огу element ( элемент) — elementary ( элементарный) illusion ( иллюзия) — illusory ( обманчивый, иллюзорный) б) способность что-либо сделать, состояние, качество: — able — ible to change ( изменить) — changeable ( изменчивый) to eat ( есть) — eatable ( съедобный), reason ( разум) — reasonable ( разумный) в) отсутствие качества : — less useless ( бесполезный), windless ( безветренный)

Слайд 6

суффиксы существительных и прилагательных Существительные: — ness, -ion, — ation , — ment , — ance , — ition Прилагательные: — al, -y, — ly , — ful , — ous , — tific 1) Прилагательное Существительное 1. luck y ( удачный) luck ( удача) 2. …… happiness ( счастье) 3. wonderful ( чудесный) …… 4. …… speed ( скорость) 5. greedy ( жадный) …… 6. …… friend ( друг) 7. …… danger ( опасность) 8. traditional ( традиционный) …… 9. …… science ( наука) 10. ill ( больной) …… 11. …… truth ( правда) 12. …… profession ( профессия) 13. …… business ( бизнес) 14. healthy ( здоровый) …… 15. …… wealth ( богатство)

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lucky ( удачный) scientific ( научный) happy ( счастливый) illness ( болезнь) wonder ( чудо) truthful ( правдивый) speedy ( скоростной) professional greed ( жадность) busy ( деловой) friendly ( дружелюбный) health ( здоровье) dangerous ( опасный) wealthy ( богатый) tradition ( традиция)

Слайд 8

Образуйте прилагательные с помощью суффиксов — ful и — less , переведите их на русский язык: Beauty, thank, hope, doubt, care, aim, use, shape, fruit, power, thought, harm, colour .

Слайд 9

Образуйте прилагательные с помощью суффиксов — able, — ible , переведите их на русский язык: Change, convert, prevent, break, compare, desire, profit, read, comfort, respect, expect.

Слайд 10

Найдите и выделите суффиксы в данных словах и определите, к какой части речи эти слова относятся: British, foolish, understandable, heartless, pitiless, successful, experiment, function, musician, socialist, artist, capitalism, professional, fundamental, industrial, doubtful, useful, different, treatment, creative, attractive, peaceful, dangerous, elementary, childish, active, economic, director, worker, passage, marriage, silence, freedom, kingdom.

Слайд 11

Заполните предложения прилагательными , образованными от существительных , данных в скобках, при помощи суффиксов – ful ,- ly ,-y 1. You must be…………………when you open the door. (CARE) 2. The countryside looks very………………….now. (COLOUR) 3. That was a very………………thing to do! (COWARD) 4. He has a…………………routine of exercises. (DAY) 5. She was…………………when I told her my plan. (DOUBT) 6. It was very………………..so I drove slowly. (FOG) 7. It’s nice meeting such a……………….person. (FRIEND) 8. He looked very…………………in that hat. (FUN) 9. They saw a…………………figure at the castle door. (GHOST) 10. Working on the car made her hands………………… (GREASE) 11. Let’s go for a………………walk in the fresh air! (HEALTH) 12. We’re………………….that they’ll agree to come. (HOPE) 13. Seeing all that food made me very……………….. (HUNGER) 14. She married a………………..businessman. (SUCCESS) 15. He looked…………………..when he heard the news. (THOUGHT) 16. You can trust her. She’s a very…………………girl. (TRUTH) 17. This map was very………………..on my holiday. (USE) 18. It was…………………to see him again. ( WONDER )