Word and sentence meaning in semantics

A technology that strives to understand human communication must be able to understand meaning in language. In this post, we take a deeper look at a core component of our expert.ai technology, the semantic disambiguator, and how it determines word meaning and sentence meaning via disambiguation.

To start, let’s clarify our definitions of words and sentences from a linguistic point of view.

Word Meaning and Sentence Meaning in Semantics

Semantics is the study of the meaning of words, phrases, sentences and text. This can be broken down into subcategories such as formal semantics (logical aspects of meaning), conceptual semantics (cognitive structure of meaning) and today’s focus of lexical semantics (word and phrase meaning).

A “word” is a string of characters that can have different meanings (jaguar: car or animal?; driver: one who drives a vehicle or the part of a computer?; rows, the plural noun or the third singular person of the verb to row?). A “sentence” is a group of words that express a complete thought. To fully capture the meaning of a sentence, we need to understand how words relate to other words.

Going Back to School

To understand word meaning and sentence meaning, our semantic disambiguator engine must be able to automatically resolve ambiguities with any word in a text.

Let’s consider this sentence:

John Smith is accused of the murders of two police officers.

To understand the word meaning and sentence meaning in any phrase, the disambiguator performs four consecutive phases of analysis:

Lexical Analysis

During this phase, the stream of text is broken up into meaningful elements called tokens. The sequence of “atomic” elements resulting from this process will be further elaborated in the next phase of analysis.

• John > human proper noun
• Smith > human proper noun
• is > verb
• accused > noun
• of > preposition
• the > article

Grammatical Analysis

During this phase, each token in the text is assigned a part of speech. The semantic disambiguator can recognize any inflected forms and conjugations as well as identify nouns, proper nouns and so on.

Starting from a mere sequence of tokens, what results from this elaboration is a sequence of elements. Some of them have been grouped to form collocations (e.g., police officer) and every token or group of tokens is represented by a block that identifies its part of speech.

• John Smith > human proper noun
• is accused > predicate nominal

Syntactical Analysis

During this phase, the disambiguator operates several word grouping operations on different levels to reproduce the way that words are linked to one another to form sentences. Sentences are further analyzed to attribute a logical role to each phrase (subject, predicate, object, verb, complement, etc.) and identify relationships between them and other complements whenever possible. In our example, the sentence is made of a single independent clause, where John Smith is recognized as subject of the sentence.

• John Smith > subject
• is accused > nominal predicate

Semantic Analysis

During the last and most complex phase, the tokens recognized during grammatical analysis are associated with a specific meaning. Though each token can be associated to several concepts, the choice is made by considering the base form of each token with respect to its part of speech, the grammatical and syntactical characteristics of the token, the position of the token in the sentence and its relation to the syntactical elements surrounding it.

Like the human brain, the disambiguator eliminates all candidate terms for each token except one, which will be definitively assigned to the token. When it comes across an unknown element in a text (e.g., human proper names), it tries to infer word meaning and sentence meaning by considering the context in which each token appears to determine its meaning.

• Is accused > to accuse > to blame
• police officer > policeman, police woman, law enforcement officer

---

Want to learn more about the disambiguation process? Take a deep dive in our brief, “Disambiguation: The Key to Contextualization“.

• Chapter
• First Online: 29 October 2020

• 11k Accesses

Abstract

Semantics (Greek semain— = to mean) is the only branch of linguistics which is exclusively concerned with meaning. Semantics studies the meaning or meaning potential of various kinds of expressions: words, phrases, and sentences. This chapter is mainly confined to the study of word meaning (lexical semantics; lexicology). Research in lexical semantics addresses the following questions.

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

• Aitchison, Jean. 20124. Words in the mind: An introduction to the mental lexicon. Oxford: Blackwell.

  Google Scholar 

• Allan, Keith (ed.). 2009. Concise encyclopedia of semantics. Oxford: Elsevier.

  Google Scholar 

• Benson, Morton/Evelyn Benson/Robert Ilson (eds.). 2010³. The BBI dictionary of English word combinations. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: Benjamins.

  Google Scholar 

• Croft, William/David Alan Cruse. 2004. Cognitive linguistics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Cruse, Alan. 2006. A glossary of semantics and pragmatics. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Cruse, Alan et al., eds. 2002. Lexikologie/Lexicology. [HSK]. Berlin/New York: de Gruyter.

  Google Scholar 

• Cruse, David A. 1986. Lexical semantics. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Cruse, David A. 2011³. Meaning in language: An introduction to semantics and pragmatics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Davidson, George W./Peter Mark Roget. 2004. Roget’s thesaurus of English words and phrases. London: Penguin Books.

  Google Scholar 

• Davis, Steven et al., eds. 2004. Semantics: a reader. New York: Oxford University Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Geeraerts, Dirk. 2010. Theories of lexical semantics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Geeraerts, Dirk/Hubert Cuyckens (eds.). 2007. Handbook of cognitive linguistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Goatly, Andrew. 2011². The language of metaphors. London/New York: Routledge.

  Google Scholar 

• Jaszczolt, Katarzyna M. 2002. Semantics and pragmatics: Meaning in language and discourse. London/Munich: Longman.

  Google Scholar 

• Lakoff, George. 1987. Women, fire, and dangerous things: What categories reveal about the mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Lakoff, George/Mark Johnson. 1980, reprint 2003. Metaphors we live by. Chicago: Chicago University Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Lappin, Shalom/Chris Fox (ed.). 2015². The handbook of contemporary semantic theory. Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell.

  Google Scholar 

• Löbner, Sebastian. 2013². Understanding semantics. London: Arnold.

  Google Scholar 

• Lyons, John. 1977. Semantics. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Murphy, M. Lynne. 2010. Lexical meaning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Murphy, M. Lynne/Anu Koskela. 2010. Key terms in semantics. London: Continuum.

  Google Scholar 

• Oxford English Dictionary online: OED online. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Riemer, Nick (ed.). 2016. The Routledge handbook of semantics. London: Routledge.

  Google Scholar 

• Saeed, John. 20164. Semantics. Oxford: Blackwell.

  Google Scholar 

• Taylor, John R. 20033. Linguistic categorization. Prototypes in linguistic theory. Oxford: Clarendon Press.

  Google Scholar 

• Ungerer, Friedrich/Hans-Jörg Schmid. 20062. An introduction to cognitive linguistics. London: Longman.

  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

1. Englisches Seminar, Universität Freiburg, Freiburg im Breisgau, Germany

   Bernd Kortmann

Authors

1. Bernd Kortmann

   You can also search for this author in
   PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to
Bernd Kortmann .

Rights and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer-Verlag GmbH Deutschland, ein Teil von Springer Nature

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Kortmann, B. (2020). Semantics: Word and sentence meaning.

In: English Linguistics. J.B. Metzler, Stuttgart. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-476-05678-8_6

Download citation

• .RIS
• .ENW
• .BIB

• DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-476-05678-8_6

• Published: 29 October 2020

• Publisher Name: J.B. Metzler, Stuttgart

• Print ISBN: 978-3-476-05677-1

• Online ISBN: 978-3-476-05678-8

• eBook Packages: J.B. Metzler Humanities (German Language)

Presentation on theme: «Module 3 L4. Word and Sentence Meaning Consists of: word 1/ Semantics and the study of the word: sense relation 3/ Aspect of Sentential Meaning sentence.»— Presentation transcript:

1

Module 3 L4. Word and Sentence Meaning Consists of: word 1/ Semantics and the study of the word: sense relation 3/ Aspect of Sentential Meaning sentence 2/ Semantics and the Nature of the Lexicon 4/ Pragmatics and Speech Acts Theory

2

Unit 1: 1/ Semantics and the study of the word: sense relation Sense/lexical relations used to explain meaning of English words as: Synonymy Antonymy Hyponymy Homonoymy Polysemy Mentonymy

3

As you study you know: 1/ Semantics theories try to explain the nature the meaning of words and sentences. 2/ meaning of a word is realized from its referential or denotation characteristics. 3/ some words it is not easy to analyze their characteristics.  Therefore, it is better to study them by the relation that create with other words which is based on the sense of the words

4

 This sense relation study through Synonymy Antonymy Hyponymy Homonoymy Polysemy Metonymy We will use these sense relation to study t he meaning of words, as follows:

5

when the relation is closed and similar..   between word we used it. We call them synonymous. Like this set of synonymy: Sad/angry/depressed/afraid(emotional set)  Pairs of words with similar meaning called synonymys as:-  Friends/ally  Boss/master  Amiable/friendly s ynonymy

6

Synonym typeDefinitionExample Stylistic (most common) A lexical unit that has a similar range of reference but is differentiated by speaker intention, the audience, and the situation.range of reference {happy, glad, joyful}

7

a word opposite in meaning to another. Fast is an antonym of slow. Has two types: Gradable: : Differ by degree and can compared with suffix As tall — taller- tallest More most Antonymy

8

Also in substitution like: Everybody/everyone Bandit /brigand( قاطع طريق Some are broad or near: Rich غني / sumptuous باذخ

9

nongradable No compare – but complementary(binary) pairs Examples: Male/ female Sister/brother Buy/ sell Master/ servant

10

Categories of Antonyms There are three categories of antonyms: Graded antonyms — deal with levels of the meaning of the words, like if something is not “good”, is may still not be “bad.” There is a scale involved with some words, and besides good and bad there can be average, fair, excellent, terrible, poor, or satisfactory. Complementary antonyms — have a relationship where there is no middle ground. There are only two possibilities, either one or the other. Relational antonyms — are sometimes considered a subcategory of complementary antonyms. With these pairs, for there to be a relationship, both must exist. The chart below shows examples of all three categories of antonyms.

11

More example for un-gradable for final exam fat and skinny- young and old -happy and sad -hard and soft last and first — foolish and wise -fast and slow -warm -and cool wide and narrow- abundant and scarce- joy and grief — dark and light -dangerous and safe -clever and foolish early and late empty and full -smart and dumb -risky and safe bad and good pretty and ugly best and worst simple and challenging soft and hard worried and calm sane and crazy rich and poor cool and hot wet and dry late and early ignorant and educated big and small optimistic and pessimistic excited and bored

12

L adding a Prefix Sometimes, an antonym can be easily made by adding a prefix. Examples of antonyms that were made by adding the prefix “un” are: Likely and unlikely Able and unable Fortunate and unfortunate Forgiving and unforgiving By adding the prefix “non” you can make these pairs:

13

Entity and nonentity Conformist and nonconformist Payment and nonpayment Combatant and noncombatant Lastly, adding the prefix “in” can make the following pairs: Tolerant and intolerant Decent and indecent Discreet and indiscreet Excusable and inexcusable

14

hyponymy A hyponym is a subordinate, specific term whose referent is included in the referent of super ordinate term. Likes: blue- green= ar to super word color. Hyponymy is not restricted to objects, abstract concepts, or nouns. It can be identified in many other areas of the lexicon.

15

Examples: E.g. the verb cook has many hyponyms. Word: Cook Hyponyms: Roast مشوي, boil مسلوق, fry مقلي, grill مشوي, bake محمص, etc. Word: color Hyponyms: blue, red, yellow, green, black and purple. In a lexical field, hyponymy may exist at more than one level. A word may have both a hyponym and a super ordinate term. For example, Word: Living Hyponym: bird, insects, animals Now let’s take the word bird from above hyponyms. Word: Bird Hyponyms: sparrow, عصفور hawk صقر, crow, غراب fowl طير / ذجاج

16

Homonymy Words with same spelling and pronunciation but with different meaning:: Bank- river Bank- financial Fly- insect Fly move Lead- verb guide Lead –make pencil9 رصاص

17

Words with same pronucaition but different spelling Key- quay Been- bean Court- caught Were- where two- to Eye- I

18

Hyponymy It describes what happens when we say ‘An X is a kind of Y’—A daffodil is a kind of flower, or simply, A daffodil is a flower.“ A meaning of word included in the meaning of another. Dogs- elephant, goat,… are included in animals, Hierarchical structure

19

20

21

المفهوم الماخوذ

22

Continue on the last lecture

23

Polysemy It means when a word has multiple meaning Has one entry in dictionary examples Foot head

24

of a person Foot of mountain of notes part of a body Head department of meeting How?

25

Metonymy كناية Metonymies are frequently used in literature and in everyday speech. A metonymy is a word or phrase that is used to stand in for another word. Sometimes a metonymy is chosen because it is a well-known characteristic of the word. One famous example of metonymy is the saying, «The pen is mightier than the sword,“ which originally came from Edward Bulwer Lytton’s play Richelieu. This sentence has two examples of metonymy: The «pen» stands in for «the written word.»

26

Examples for Metonymy words Crown — in place of a royal person The White House — in place of the President or others who work there The restaurant: staff Dish — for an entire plate of food The Pentagon — to refer to the staff Ears — for giving attention («Lend me your ears!» from Mark Antony in Julius Caesar)

27

More examples Eyes — for sight The library — for the staff or the books Pen — for the written word Sword — for military might Silver fox — for an attractive older man Hand — for help The name of a country — used in place of the government, economy, etc. The name of a church — used in place of its individual members The name of a sports team — used in place of its individual members

28

Examples for metonymy sentences These sentences will further enhance your appreciation and understanding of metonymies. The metonymy is underlined. We must wait to hear from the crown until we make any further decisions. The White House will be announcing the decision around noon today. If we do not fill out the forms properly, the suits will be after us shortly. She’s planning to serve the dish early in the evening. The cup is quite tasty. The Pentagon will be revealing the decision later on in the morning.

29

The restaurant has been acting quite rude lately. Learn how to use your eyes properly! The library has been very helpful to the students this morning. That individual is quite the silver fox. Can you please give me a hand carrying this box up the stairs? The United States will be delivering the new product to us very soon.

30

Why to use metonymy As with other literary devices, one of the main purposes of using a metonymy is: to add flavor to the writing. Instead of just repeatedly saying, «the staff at the restaurant» or naming all of the elements of a dinner each time you want to refer to the meal, one word breaks up some of that awkwardness. Using a metonymy serves a double purpose — it breaks up any awkwardness of repeating the same phrase over and over and it changes the wording to make the sentence more interesting.

31

Questions’ Bank A. 1. Give the synonymy of the following 2. Give the antonym for these words: ___________________ 3. Give the Hyponymy for these words: _______________ 4. Give the homonymy for the following?

32

B. What are the types meaning sense relation ? Word 1Word 2Sense relation fatthinsynonymy happygladhomonymy antonym hyponymy polysemy

33

Next: Semantics and the Nature of the Lexicon 1. Semantics and the nature of the Lexicon Subcategorizing English Words Role Relations of Lexical items

Seven Types of Meaning in Semantics

A M.A Project By Litton Prosad

Introduction:

The word semantic (from French sémantique) was invented by Michel Bréal during the 19th century.

Some people would like semantics to pursue study of meaning in a wider sense of ‘all that is communicated by language’; others (among them most modern writers within the framework of general linguistics) limit it in practice to the study of logical or conceptual meaning. It needs no great insight to see that semantics in the former, wider sense can lead us once again into the void from which Bloomfield retreated with understandable misgivings- the description of all that may be the object of human knowledge or belief. On the other hand, we can, by carefully distinguishing types of meaning, show how they all fit into the total composite effect of a linguistic communication, and show how method of study appropriate to one type may not be appropriate to another.

It has been observed that there is tremendous renewal of interest in semantic theory among linguists in the last few years. The main reason is the development of generative grammar with its emphasis on the distinction between ‘deep structure’ and ‘surface structure’. On the one hand semantics deals with the way words are and sentences are related to objects and processes in the world. On the other hand, it deals with the way in which they are related to one another in terms of such notions as ‘synonymy’, entailment’, and ‘contradiction’. According to John I Saeed, Semantics is the study of meaning communicated through language. He further says that a speaker’s semantic knowledge is an exciting and challenging task.

The semantic analysis, generally, must explain how the sentences of a particular language are understood, interpreted, and related to states, processes and objects in the world.

Seven Types of Meaning

A piece of language conveys its dictionary meaning, connotations beyond the dictionary meaning, information about the social context of language use, speaker’s feelings and attitudes rubbing off of one meaning on the another meaning of the same word when it has two meanings and meaning because of habit occurrence.

Broadly speaking, ‘meaning’ means the sum total of communicated through language. Words, Phrases and sentences have meanings which are studies in semantics.

Geoffrey Leech in his ‘Semantic- A Study of meaning’ (1974) breaks down meaning into seven types or ingredients giving primacy to conceptual meaning.

The Seven types of meaning according to Leech are as follows.

1) Conceptual or Denotative Meaning:

Conceptual meaning is also called logical or cognitive meaning. It is the basic propositional meaning which corresponds to the primary dictionary definition. Such a meaning is stylistically neutral and objective as opposed to other kinds of associative meanings. Conceptual

Meanings are the essential or core meaning while other six types are the peripheral. It is peripheral in as sense that it is non-essential. They are stylistically marked and subjective kind of meanings. Leech gives primacy to conceptual meaning because it has sophisticated organization based on the principle of contrastiveness and hierarchical structure.

E.g.

/P/ can be described as- voiceless + bilabial + plosive.

Similarly

Boy = + human + male-adult.

The hierarchical structure of ‘Boy’ = + Human + Male-Adult

Or “Boy” =Human – Male/Female-adult in a rough way.

Conceptual meaning is the literal meaning of the word indicating the idea or concept to which it refers. The concept is minimal unit of meaning which could be called ‘sememe’. As we define phoneme on the basis of binary contrast, similarly we can define sememe ‘Woman’ as = + human + female + adult. If any of these attribute changes the concept cease to be the same.

Conceptual meaning deals with the core meaning of expression. It is the denotative or literal meaning. It is essential for the functioning of language. For example, a part of the conceptual meaning of ‘Needle” may be “thin”, “sharp” or “instrument”.

The organization of conceptual meaning is based on two structural principles- Contrastiveness and the principle of structure. The conceptual meanings can be studied typically in terms of contrastive features.

For example the word “woman” can be shown as:

“Woman = + Human, -Male, + Adult”.

On the contrary, word

“Boy” can be realized as:-

“Boy = “+ human, + male, — Adult”.

By the principle of structure, larger units of language are built up out smaller units or smaller units or smaller units are built out larger ones.

The aim of conceptual meaning is to provide an appropriate semantic representation to a sentence or statement. A sentence is made of abstract symbols. Conceptual meaning helps us to distinguish one meaning from the meaning of other sentences. Thus, conceptual meaning is an essential part of language. A language essentially depends on conceptual meaning for communication. The conceptual meaning is the base for all the other types of meaning.

2) Connotative Meaning:

Connotative meaning is the communicative value of an expression over and above its purely conceptual content. It is something that goes beyond mere referent of a word and hints at its attributes in the real world. It is something more than the dictionary meaning. Thus purely conceptual content of ‘woman’ is +human + female+ adult but the psychosocial connotations could be ‘gregarious’, ‘having maternal instinct’ or typical (rather than invariable) attributes of womanhood such as ‘babbling’,’ experienced in cookery’, ‘skirt or dress wearing ‘etc. Still further connotative meaning can embrace putative properties of a referent due to viewpoint adopted by individual, group, and society as a whole. So in the past woman was supposed to have attributes like frail, prone to tears, emotional, irrigational, inconstant , cowardly etc. as well as more positive qualities such gentle, sensitive, compassionate, hardworking etc. Connotations vary age to age and society to society.

E.g. Old age ‘Woman’ — ‘Non-trouser wearing or sari wearing’ in Indian context must have seemed definite connotation in the past.

Present ‘Woman’—- Salwar/T-shirt/Jeans wearing.

Some times connotation varies from person to person also

. E.g. connotations of the word ‘woman’ for misogynist and a person of feminist vary.

The boundary between conceptual and connotative seems to be analogous. Connotative meaning is regarded as incidental, comparatively unstable, in determinant, open ended, variable according to age, culture and individual, whereas conceptual meaning is not like that . It can be codified in terms of limited symbols.

3) Social Meaning:

The meaning conveyed by the piece of language about the social context of its use is called the social meaning. The decoding of a text is dependent on our knowledge of stylistics and other variations of language. We recognize some words or pronunciation as being dialectical i.e. as telling us something about the regional or social origin of the speaker. Social meaning is related to the situation in which an utterance is used.

It is concerned with the social circumstances of the use of a linguistic expression. For example, some dialectic words inform us about the regional and social background of the speaker. In the same way, some stylistic usages let us know something of the social relationship between the speaker and the hearer

E.g. “I ain’t done nothing”

The line tells us about the speaker and that is the speaker is probably a black American, underprivileged and uneducated. Another example can be

“Come on yaar, be a sport. Don’t be Lallu”

The social meaning can be that of Indian young close friends.

Stylistic variation represents the social variation. This is because styles show the geographical region social class of the speaker. Style helps us to know about the period, field and status of the discourse. Some words are similar to others as far as their conceptual meaning is concerned. But they have different stylistic meaning. For example, ‘steed ’, ‘horse and ‘nag’ are synonymous. They all mean a kind of animal i.e. Horse. But they differ in style and so have various social meaning. ‘Steed’ is used in poetry; ‘horse’ is used in general, while ‘nag’ is slang. The word ‘Home’ can have many use also like domicile ( official), residence (formal) abode (poetic) , home (ordinary use).

Stylistic variation is also found in sentence. For example, two criminals will express the following sentence

“They chucked the stones at the cops and then did a bunk with the look”

(Criminals after the event)

But the same ideas will be revealed by the chief inspector to his officials by the following sentence.

“After casting the stones at the police, they abandoned with money.”

(Chief Inspector in an official report)

Thus through utterances we come to know about the social facts, social situation, class, region, and speaker-listener relations by its style and dialect used in sentences.

The illocutionary force of an utterance also can have social meaning. According to the social situation, a sentence may be uttered as request, an apology, a warning or a threat, for example, the sentence,

“I haven’t got a knife” has the common meaning in isolation. But the sentence uttered to waiter mean a request for a knife’

Thus we can understand that the connotative meaning plays a very vital role in the field of semantics and in understanding the utterances and sentences in different context.

4) Affective or Emotive Meaning:

For some linguists it refers to emotive association or effects of words evoked in the reader, listener. It is what is conveyed about the personal feelings or attitude towards the listener.

E.g. ‘home’ for a sailor/soldier or expatriate

and ‘mother’ for a motherless child, a married woman (esp. in Indian context) will have special effective, emotive quality.

In affective meaning, language is used to express personal feelings or attitude to the listener or to the subject matter of his discourse.

For Leech affective meaning refers to what is convey about the feeling and attitude of the speak through use of language (attitude to listener as well as attitude to what he is saying). Affective meaning is often conveyed through conceptual, connotative content of the words used

E.g. “you are a vicious tyrant and a villainous reprobation and I hate you”

Or “I hate you, you idiot”.

We are left with a little doubt about the speaker’s feelings towards the listener. Here speaker seems to have a very negative attitude towards his listener. This is called affective meaning.

But very often we are more discreet (cautious) and convey our attitude indirectly.

E.g. “I am terribly sorry but if you would be so kind as to lower your voice a

little”

. Conveys our irritation in a scaled down manner for the sake of politeness. Intonation and voice quality are also important here. Thus the sentence above can be uttered in biting sarcasm and the impression of politeness maybe reversed while –

e.g.

“Will you belt up?”— can be turned into a playful remark between intimates if said with the intonation of a request.

Words like darling, sweetheart or hooligan, vandal have inherent emotive quality and they can be used neutrally.

I.A. Richards argued that emotive meaning distinguishes literature or poetic language from factual meaning of science. Finally it must be noted that affective meaning is largely a parasitic category. It overlaps heavily with style, connotation and conceptual content.

5) Reflected Meaning:

Reflected meaning and collocative meaning involve interconnection

At the lexical level of language, Reflected meaning arises when a word has more than one conceptual meaning or multiple conceptual meaning. In such cases while responding to one sense of the word we partly respond to another sense of the word too. Leech says that in church service ‘the comforter and the Holy Ghost ’refer to the third in Trinity. They are religious words. But unconsciously there is a response to their non-religious meanings too. Thus the ‘comforter’ sounds warm and comforting while the ‘Ghost’ sounds ‘awesome’ or even ‘dreadful’. One sense of the word seems to rub off on another especially through relative frequency and familiarity (e.g. a ghost is more frequent and familiar in no religious sense.).

In poetry too we have reflected meaning as in the following lines from ‘Futility’

‘Are limbs so dear achieved, are sides,

Full nerved still warm-too hard to stir’

Owen here uses ‘dear’ in the sense of expensiveness. — But the sense of beloved is also eluded.

E.g. Daffodils

“The could not but be gay

In such jocund company”

The word ‘gay’ was frequently used in the time of William Wordsworth but the word now is used for ‘homosexuality’.

In such type cases of multiple meaning, one meaning of the word pushes the other meaning to the background. Then the dominant suggestive power of that word prevails. This may happen because of the relative frequency or familiarity of the dominant meaning. This dominant meaning which pushes the other meaning at the background is called the reflected meaning.

Reflected meaning is also found in taboo words. For examples are terms like erection, intercourse, ejaculation. The word ‘intercourse’ immediately reminds us of its association with sex (sexual intercourse). The sexual association of the word drives away its innocent sense, i.e. ‘communication’. The taboo sense of the word is so dominant that its non-taboo sense almost dies out. In some cases, the speaker avoids the taboo words and uses their alternative word in order to avoid the unwanted reflected meaning. For example, as Bloomfield has pointed out, the word ‘Cock’ is replaced by speakers, they use the word ‘rooster’ to indicate the general meaning of the word and avoid its taboo sense. These words have non-sexual meanings too. (E.g. erection of a building, ejaculate-throw out somebody) but because of their frequency in the lit of the physiology of sex it is becoming difficult to use them in their innocent/nonsexual sense.

Thus we can see that reflected meaning has great importance in the study of semantics.

6) Collocative Meaning:

Collocative meaning is the meaning which a word acquires in the company of certain words. Words collocate or co-occur with certain words only e.g. Big business not large or great.Collocative meaning refers to associations of a word because of its usual or habitual co-occurrence with certain types of words. ‘Pretty’ and ‘handsome’ indicate ‘good looking’.

However, they slightly differ from each other because of collocation or co-occurrence. The word ‘pretty’ collocates with – girls, woman, village, gardens, flowers, etc.

On the other hand, the word ‘handsome’ collocates with – ‘boys’ men, etc. so ‘pretty woman’ and ‘handsome man’. While different kinds of attractiveness, hence ‘handsome woman’ may mean attractive but in a mannish way. The verbs ‘wander’ and ‘stroll’ are quasi-synonymous- they may have almost the same meaning but while ‘cows may wonder into another farm’, they don’t stroll into that farm because ‘stroll’ collocates with human subject only. Similarly one ‘trembles with fear’ but ‘quivers with excitement’. Collocative meanings need to be invoked only when other categories of meaning don’t apply. Generalizations can be made in case of other meanings while collocative meaning is simply on idiosyncratic property of individual words. Collocative meaning has its importance and it is a marginal kind of category.

7) Thematic Meaning:

It refers to what is communicated by the way in which a speaker or a writer organizes the message in terms of ordering focus and emphasis .Thus active is different from passive though its conceptual meaning is the same. Various parts of the sentence also can be used as subject, object or complement to show prominence. It is done through focus, theme (topic) or emotive emphasis. Thematic meaning helps us to understand the message and its implications properly. For example, the following statements in active and passive voice have same conceptual meaning but different communicative values.

e.g.

1) Mrs. Smith donated the first prize

2) The first prize was donated by Mrs. Smith.

In the first sentence “who gave away the prize “is more important, but in the second sentence “what did Mrs. Smith gave is important”. Thus the change of focus change the meaning also.

The first suggests that we already know Mrs. Smith (perhaps through earlier mention) its known/given information while it’s new information.

Alternative grammatical construction also gives thematic meaning. For example,

1) He likes Indian good most.

2) Indian goods he likes most

3) It is the Indian goods he likes most.

Like the grammatical structures, stress and intonation also make the message prominent. For example, the contrastive stress on the word ‘cotton’ in the following sentence give prominence to the information

1. John wears a cotton shirt
2. The kind of shirt that john wears is cotton one.

Thus sentences or pairs of sentences with similar conceptual meaning differ their communicative value. This is due to different grammatical constructions or lexical items or stress and intonations. Therefore they are used in different contents.

“Ten thousand saw I at a glance”

Wordsworth here inverts the structure to focus on ‘ten thousand”

.

Sometimes thematic contrast i.e. contrasts between given and new information can be conveyed by lexical means.

e.g.

1) John owns the biggest shop in London

2) The biggest shop in London belongs to John.

The ways we order our message also convey what is important and what not. This is basically thematic meaning.

Associative Meaning:

Leech uses this as an umbrella term for the remaining 5 types of meanings( connotative, social, affective, reflective and collocative).All these have more in common with connotative than conceptual meaning. They all have the same open ended, variable character and can be analyzed in terms of scales or ranges ( more/less) than in either or contrastive terms. These meanings contain many imponderable factors. But conceptual meaning is stable

Summary of Seven Types of Meaning.

1. Conceptual Meaning = Logical, cognitive or connotative content.

2. Connotative Meaning = What is communicated by virtue of what language

refers

3. Social Meaning = What is communicated of the social circumstances of

Language

4. Affective Meaning = What is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of

the Speaker through language.

5. Reflected Meaning = What is communicated through associations with

another Sense of the same world.

6. Collocative Meaning = What is communicated through associations with

words which co-occur with another word.

7. Thematic Meaning = What is communicated by the way in which the

message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.

Conclusion:

Study of meaning, one of the major areas of linguistic study. Linguists have approached it in a variety of ways. Members of the school of interpretive semantics study the structures of language independent of their conditions of use. In contrast, the advocates of generative semantics insist that the meaning of sentences is a function of their use. Still another group maintains that semantics will not advance until theorists take into account the psychological questions of how people form concepts and how these relate to word meanings.

In linguistics, semantics is the subfield that is devoted to the study of meaning, as borne on the syntactic levels of words, phrases, sentences, and even larger units of discourse (referred to as texts). As with any empirical science, semantics involves the interplay of concrete data with theoretical concepts. Traditionally, semantics has included the study of connotative sense and denotative reference, truth conditions, argument structure, thematic roles, discourse analysis, and the linkage of all of these to syntax.

According to Leech there are only seven types of meaning. Meaning plays a vital role in understanding what is communicated. Thus, there are seven types of meaning and they contributed much to the field of semantics. The study of meaning is a new field of this century, in days to come; this field of study will progress and will have much value in analysis of meaning in field of linguistics.

Certificate

This is to certify that Mr. Litton Prosad Mowalie has worked on the topic “Seven Types of Meaning” A term paper on “SEMANTICS AND PRAGMATICS”, Paper — VIII in partial fulfillment of M.A. in English in Institute of Advanced Studies in English. The sources she cited in this work duly acknowledged in the Bibliography.

Acknowledgements

I take this priviledge to acknowledge and to express my sincere gratitude to Dr. Sridhar Gokhale and Miss Madhuri Gokhale who inspired and provided ample materials in the class for the better understanding of the subject. It is because of their marvelous teaching, I am able to comprehend the topic and write a term paper. I would also like to express my gratitude to my classmates who have supported me with notes and books. I am indebted to Dr. Ashok Thorat for the opportunity of studying in his institute and to the librarian for the good support with books.

Abstract

The place of English language in the cultural and educational life of India is now a well-explored field. But language itself stubbornly resists all attempts to pin down into categories and pigeon holes. The matrixes and certainties of one generation give way inevitably to the perplexities of the next. Whatever were the original reasons for the promotion of English language. It has its own value all over the world. To understand what is communicated through language, the meaning is the most vital part without which no communication can be called a communication. So study of meanings becomes a very important aspect of linguistics and semantics.

This term paper is titled as “Seven types of Meanings’ as a part of curriculum in Institute of Advanced studies in English, Pune. The paper deals with various types of meaning. Since meaning is important, it becomes inevitable to study about it deeply. This term paper has been prepared with a great deal of effort to bring out the different types of meaning available in the study of semantics specially the seven types of meaning proposed by Geoffrey Leech.. The paper gives a comprehensive presentation on seven types of meaning with many examples and explanation. I am sure this paper will be beneficial for anyone who reads with enthusiasm of learning. The term paper concludes in the last part of it with the ‘associative meaning’ which is not an eight type of meaning but it includes five from the seven types of meaning.

Bibliography

1. Napoli, 1994, Linguistics

— Oxford University Press

2. Paul Cobley, 1993, The Cambridge Companion to Semiotics and Linguistics.

Routledge

3. Chapel F. Hockett, 1986, Mordern Linguistics

-Oxford and IBH.

4. Kaplan, 1983, The Oxford Handbook of Applied

Linguistics

— Oxford University Press.

June 18, 2017 – 02:15 pm

Word Senses and Taxonomies

2.3Word senses and taxonomies

Word senses

As cultures develop, they create or learn about new categories of things, for example, tools, and they then have the need to refer to these new things. Where might the words for the new categories come from?

We have seen that words — common nouns — are associated with categories of things. I will refer to those categories that make up the meanings of words as semantic categories. As already noted, people also have plenty of categories that have no words associated with them. In fact which categories have labels varies from person to person and from language to language, as we will see soon. One way to summarize what we’ve discussed so far is shown in the figure below. So far the situation I’ve described looks like the following:

In the figure the word form is connected to the word’s meaning, a semantic category, by an arrow that I will use to indicate a meaning relation. The arrow has two heads because a Speaker can get from a semantic category to a word form, and a Hearer can get from a word form to the word’s meaning. You should already know that the figure does not correspond to everyone’s view of what word meaning is because what I’m calling the «semantic category» could be distributed in various ways rather than localized as it appears here.

You might also like

Malayalam Words and the English meaning

CAFELS (Basic English): Anticipating Meaning and Sentence …