Who invented the word scientist

Who is known as father of science?

Albert Einstein called Galileo the “father of modern science.” Galileo Galilei was born on February 15, 1564, in Pisa, Italy but lived in Florence, Italy for most of his childhood. His father was Vincenzo Galilei, an accomplished Florentine mathematician, and musician.

Who is the best scientist alive in the world?

Arguably the world’s most famous living scientist, Stephen Hawking is known for his landmark contributions to our understanding of the big bang, black holes, and relativity.

Who is the first woman scientist in the world?

When it comes to the topic of women in science, Marie Curie usually dominates the conversation. After all, she discovered two elements, was the first women to win a Nobel Prize, in 1903, and was the first person to win a second Nobel, in 1911.

Who is the best scientist in the world?

The 10 Greatest Scientists of All Time

Who was the first ever scientist?

But for his pioneering use of experiment, observation and maths to understand nature, the Italian genius Galileo Galilei arguably best fits the description of ‘first scientist’.

Who invented science first?

Aristotle is considered by many to be the first scientist, although the term postdates him by more than two millennia. In Greece in the fourth century BC, he pioneered the techniques of logic, observation, inquiry and demonstration.

What year did science begin?

The earliest roots of science can be traced to Ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia in around 3000 to 1200 BCE.

Who is the king of science?

“Physics is the king of all sciences as it helps us understand the way nature works.

Do you call a scientist Doctor?

Scientists who are called «Doctor» are not medical doctors, like the ones who take care of you when you’re sick. Their title refers to the level of specialization and education that they have achieved in their field of study.

Which country has best scientist?

The top 10 countries for scientific research in 2018

Who is the most famous female?

Here are the 12 women who changed the world

Who is the best female scientists in the world?

Meet 10 Women in Science Who Changed the World

Who is the richest scientist in the world?

1. James Watson, $20 Billion. According to Wealthy Gorilla, James Watson is the richest scientist in the world as he has a net worth of $20 billion. Watson is a biologist, geneticist, and zoologist who is best known for his work on the double helix structure of the DNA molecule.

Who is the best scientist in 2020?

Who is the greatest scientist of 21st century?

The Greatest Scientists of the 21st Century

Who is the famous scientists in the world?

Isaac Newton attended Cambridge University upon finishing school in 1661. He developed a variety of scientific methods and discoveries including those in optics and colors. 2. Albert Einstein — In his younger years, Albert Einstein had always shown a great interest in mathematics and science.

Who was one of 100 greatest scientists of all time?

THE 100 GREATEST SCIENTISTS

• Computer scientist
  • Computational scientist
  • Data scientist
• Mathematician^[31]
  • Algebraist
  • Analyst
  • Geometer
  • Logician
  • Probabilist
  • Statistician
  • Topologist
• Systems scientist

• Agriculturist
• Applied physics
  • Health physicist
  • Medical physicist
• Biomedical scientist
• Engineering scientist
• Environmental scientist
• Food scientist
• Kinesiologist
• Nutritionist
• Operations research and management analysts
• Physician scientist

• Materials scientist
• Mathematical biologist
• Mathematical chemist
• Mathematical economist
• Mathematical physicist
• Mathematical sociologist

1. ^ «Eusocial climbers» (PDF). E.O. Wilson Foundation. Retrieved 3 September 2018. But he’s not a scientist, he’s never done scientific research. My definition of a scientist is that you can complete the following sentence: ‘he or she has shown that…’,» Wilson says.
2. ^ «Our definition of a scientist». Science Council. Retrieved 7 September 2018. A scientist is someone who systematically gathers and uses research and evidence, making a hypothesis and testing it, to gain and share understanding and knowledge.
3. ^ Lehoux, Daryn (2011). «2. Natural Knowledge in the Classical World». In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago, U.S.A. Press. p. 39. ISBN 978-0226317830.
4. ^ Aristotle, Metaphysics Alpha, 983b18.
5. ^  Smith, William, ed. (1870). «Thales». Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology. p. 1016.
6. ^ Michael Fowler, Early Greek Science: Thales to Plato, University of Virginia [Retrieved 2016-06-16]
7. ^ Frank N. Magill, The Ancient World: Dictionary of World Biography, Volume 1, Routledge, 2003 ISBN 1135457395
8. ^ Singer, C. (2008). A Short History of Science to the 19th century. Streeter Press. p. 35.
9. ^ Needham, C. W. (1978). Cerebral Logic: Solving the Problem of Mind and Brain. Loose Leaf. p. 75. ISBN 978-0-398-03754-3.
10. ^ Cahan, David, ed. (2003). From Natural Philosophy to the Sciences: Writing the History of Nineteenth-Century Science. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-08928-2.
11. ^ Lightman, Bernard (2011). «Science and the Public». In Shank, Michael; Numbers, Ronald; Harrison, Peter (eds.). Wrestling with Nature : From Omens to Science. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 367. ISBN 978-0226317830.
12. ^ Gary B. Ferngren (2002). «Science and religion: a historical introduction Archived 2015-03-16 at the Wayback Machine«. JHU Press. p.33. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0
13. ^ On the historical development of the character of scientists and the predecessors, see: Steven Shapin (2008). The Scientific Life: A Moral History of a Late Modern Vocation. Chicago: Chicago University Press. ISBN 0-226-75024-8
14. ^ Einstein (1954, p. 271). «Propositions arrived at by purely logical means are completely empty as regards reality. Because Galileo realised this, and particularly because he drummed it into the scientific world, he is the father of modern physics—indeed, of modern science altogether.»
15. ^ Stephen Hawking, Galileo and the Birth of Modern Science Archived 2012-03-24 at the Wayback Machine, American Heritage’s Invention & Technology, Spring 2009, Vol. 24, No. 1, p. 36
16. ^ Peter Damerow (2004). «Introduction». Exploring the Limits of Preclassical Mechanics: A Study of Conceptual Development in Early Modern Science: Free Fall and Compounded Motion in the Work of Descartes, Galileo and Beeckman. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 6.
17. ^ Harrison, Peter (8 May 2012). «Christianity and the rise of western science». Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 28 August 2014.
18. ^ Noll, Mark, Science, Religion, and A.D. White: Seeking Peace in the «Warfare Between Science and Theology» (PDF), The Biologos Foundation, p. 4, archived from the original (PDF) on 22 March 2015, retrieved 14 January 2015
19. ^ Lindberg, David C.; Numbers, Ronald L. (1986), «Introduction», God & Nature: Historical Essays on the Encounter Between Christianity and Science, Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, pp. 5, 12, ISBN 978-0-520-05538-4
20. ^ Gilley, Sheridan (2006). The Cambridge History of Christianity: Volume 8, World Christianities C.1815-c.1914. Brian Stanley. Cambridge University Press. p. 164. ISBN 0-521-81456-1.
21. ^ Lindberg, David. (1992) The Beginnings of Western Science University of Chicago Press. p. 204.
22. ^ Robert Routledge (1881). A popular history of science (2nd ed.). G. Routledge and Sons. p. 553. ISBN 0-415-38381-1.
23. ^ «Spallanzani — Uomo e scienziato» (in Italian). Il museo di Lazzaro Spallanzani. Archived from the original on 2010-06-03. Retrieved 2010-06-07.
24. ^ Nineteenth-Century Attitudes: Men of Science. «Nineteenth-Century Attitudes: Men of Science». Archived from the original on 2008-03-09. Retrieved 2008-01-15.
25. ^ Friedrich Ueberweg, History of Philosophy: From Thales to the Present Time. C. Scribner’s sons v.1, 1887
26. ^ Steve Fuller, Kuhn VS. Popper: The Struggle For The Soul Of Science. Columbia University Press 2004. Page 43. ISBN 0-231-13428-2
27. ^ Science by American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1917. v.45 1917 Jan-Jun. Page 274 Archived 2017-03-02 at the Wayback Machine.
28. ^ ^{a b} Ross, Sydney (1962). «Scientist: The story of a word». Annals of Science. 18 (2): 65–85. doi:10.1080/00033796200202722. To be exact, the person coined the term scientist was referred to in Whewell 1834 only as «some ingenious gentleman.» Ross added a comment that this «some ingenious gentleman» was Whewell himself, without giving the reason for the identification. Ross 1962, p.72.
29. ^ Whewell, William. Murray, John (ed.). «On the Connexion of the Physical Sciences By Mrs. Sommerville». The Quarterly Review. LI (March & June 1834): 54–68.
30. ^ Holmes, R (2008). The age of wonder: How the romantic generation discovered the beauty and terror of science. London: Harper Press. p. 449. ISBN 978-0-00-714953-7.
31. ^ ^{a b} Whewell, William. The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences Volume 1. Cambridge. p. cxiii. or Whewell, William (1847). The Philosophy of the Inductive Sciences: Founded Upon Their History, Vol. 2. New York, Johnson Reprint Corp. p. 560.. In the 1847 second edition, moved to volume 2 page 560.
32. ^ «William Whewell (1794-1866) gentleman of science». Archived from the original on 2007-06-25. Retrieved 2007-05-19.
33. ^ Tamara Preaud, Derek E. Ostergard, The Sèvres Porcelain Manufactory. Yale University Press 1997. 416 pages. ISBN 0-300-07338-0 Page 36.
34. ^ «Everyone is a Scientist – Scientific Scribbles».
35. ^ ^{a b} Cyranoski, David; Gilbert, Natasha; Ledford, Heidi; Nayar, Anjali; Yahia, Mohammed (2011). «Education: The PhD factory». Nature. 472 (7343): 276–279. Bibcode:2011Natur.472..276C. doi:10.1038/472276a. PMID 21512548.
36. ^ «STEM education: To build a scientist». Nature. 523 (7560): 371–373. 2015. doi:10.1038/nj7560-371a.
37. ^ Gould, Julie (2016). «What’s the point of the PhD thesis?». Nature. 535 (7610): 26–28. Bibcode:2016Natur.535…26G. doi:10.1038/535026a. PMID 27383968.
38. ^ ^{a b} Kruger, Philipp (2018). «Why it is not a ‘failure’ to leave academia». Nature. 560 (7716): 133–134. Bibcode:2018Natur.560..133K. doi:10.1038/d41586-018-05838-y. PMID 30065341.
39. ^ Lee, Adrian; Dennis, Carina; Campbell, Phillip (2007). «Nature’s guide for mentors». Nature. 447 (7146): 791–797. Bibcode:2007Natur.447..791L. doi:10.1038/447791a. PMID 17568738.
40. ^ Kwok, Roberta (2017). «Flexible working: Science in the gig economy». Nature. 550: 419–421. doi:10.1038/nj7677-549a.
41. ^ Woolston, Chris (2007). Editorial (ed.). «Many junior scientists need to take a hard look at their job prospects». Nature. 550: 549–552. doi:10.1038/nj7677-549a.
42. ^ Lee, Adrian; Dennis, Carina; Campbell, Phillip (2007). «Graduate survey: A love–hurt relationship». Nature. 550 (7677): 549–552. doi:10.1038/nj7677-549a.
43. ^ Stockton, Nick (7 October 2014), «How did the Nobel Prize become the biggest award on Earth?», Wired, retrieved 3 September 2018
44. ^ Foreword. National Academies Press (US). 1992.
45. ^ «The Brain: The Final Frontier?». November 2014.
46. ^ «The Last Frontier — Carnegie Mellon University | CMU».
47. ^ ^{a b} van Noorden, Richard (2015). «India by the numbers». Nature. 521 (7551): 142–143. Bibcode:2015Natur.521..142V. doi:10.1038/521142a. PMID 25971491.
48. ^ «Employment: Male majority». Nature. 542 (7642): 509. 2017-02-22. doi:10.1038/nj7642-509b. S2CID 256770781.
49. ^ Margaret A. Eisenhart, Elizabeth Finkel (1998). Women’s Science: Learning and Succeeding from the Margins. University of Chicago Press. p. 18.

Continue Learning about General Science

voracious – ненасытный

natural science – естественные науки

fascinated – очарованный

private tutor – частный учитель

tuition teacher – преподаватель

obtain – получить

appoint – быть назначенным

to be elected – быть избранным

effect – воздействие

rigorous – суровый

wires – провод

electric current – электрический ток

attract – притягивать

repel – отталкивать

flow – протекать

respectively – одновременно

gifted – одаренный

apply – применять

generalizing – обобщение

Ampere’s law – закон Ампера

provide – обеспечивать

relationship – связь

electrodynamic molecule – электродинамическая молекула

component element – составной элемент

deduce – выводить

coin – разработать/придумать

treatise – трактат

mutual action – взаимное действие

length – отрезок/длина

current-carrying wire – проводник тока

contribution – вклад

circuital – циклический

relate – связывать

integrated magnetic field – интегрированное магнитное поле

closed loop – замкнутая петля

passing – проходящий

astatic needle – астатическая магнитная стрелка

vital – необходимый

astatic galvanometer – астатический гальванометр

Answer the questions:

What does Ampere’s law state?

What is a vital component of astatic galvanometer?

What did Ampere’s rigorous experiments in electromagnetic show?

Who discovered the link between electricity and magnetism?

What did Ampere’s works provide?

What is his major contribution to electromagnetism?

How long had Ampere been a professor of mathematics at the Polytechnique School?

When was Ampere elected to the French Academy of Sciences?

What made Ampere begin working on electromagnetic discoveries?

Translate the following sentences using words and word combinations from the text:

После долгих лет интенсивных исследований и экспериментов он открыл связь между электричеством и магнетизмом.

Он обобщил законы физики и открыл принцип, который был назван «Закон Ампера».

Он обеспечил физическое понимание электромагнитной связи и внес вклад в развитие классического электромагнетизма.

Он был назначен профессором, несмотря на отсутствие необходимой квалификации.

Он был любопытным и умным и был очарован математикой.

James Watt

James Watt was a Scottish inventor and mechanical engineer, known for his improvements of the stream engine.

Watt was born on January 19, 1736, in Greenock, Scotland. He worked as a mathematical-instrument maker from the age of 19 and soon became interested in improving the steam, engine which was used at that time to pump out water from mines.

Watt determined the properties of steam, especially the relation of its density to its temperature and pressure, and designed a separate condensing chamber for the steam engine that prevented large losses of steam in the cylinder. Watt’s first patent, in 1769, covered this device and other improvements on steam engine.

At that time, Watt was the partner of the inventor John Roebuck, who had financed his researches. In 1775, however, Roebuck’s interest was taken over by the manufacturer Matthew Boulton, owner of the Soho Engineering Works at Birmingham, Watt and Boulton began the manufacture of steam engines together as companions. Watt continued his research and patented several other important inventions, including the rotary engine for driving various types of machinery; the double-action, in which steam is admitted alternately into both ends of the cylinder; the steam indicator, which records the steam pressure in the engine. He retired in 1800 and thereafter devoted himself entirely to research work.

The misconception that Watt was the actual inventor of the steam engine arose from the fundamental nature of his contributions to its development. The centrifugal or flyball governor, which he invented in 1788, and which automatically regulated the speed of an engine, is of particular interest today. It embodies the feedback principle of a servomechanism, linking output to input, which is the basic concept of automation.

The watt, the unit of power, was named in his honor. Watt was also a well known civil engineer. In 1767, he invented an attachment that adapted telescopes for use in the measurement of distances. Watt died in 1819 in Heathfield, near Birmingham.

1. Answer the questions:

Who was James Watt?

How was the steam engine used at the beginning of the 18th century?

What did Watt determine?

What did Watt patent in the seventieth?

Was Watt the actual inventor of the steam engine?

What is the centrifugal or fly bale governor?

What unit of power was named in his honour?

What attachment did he invent in 1767?

2. Match the words to make correct word combinations:

the properties

to pump out

the measurement

began

prevented

basic concept

research

a separate condensing

the rotary

steam

of automation

work

engine

chamber

of steam

water

engine

of distances

large lasses of steam

the manufacture

Georg Simon Ohm

Georg Simon Ohm (16 March 1789 – 6 July 1854) was a German physicist and mathematician. As a school teacher, Ohm began his research with the new electrochemical cell, invented by Italian scientist Alessandro Volta. Using equipment of his own creation, Ohm found that there is a direct proportionality between the potential difference (voltage) applied across a conductor and the resultant electric current. This relationship is known as Ohm’s law.

From early childhood, Georg was taught by his father who brought him to a high standard in mathematics, physics, chemistry and philosophy. In 1806, Ohm accepted a position as a mathematics teacher in Gottstatt Monastery. In 1809, he became a private tutor in Neuchâtel. For two years he carried out his duties as a tutor and continued his private study of mathematics.

In 1817, Ohm spent time carrying out physics experiments in the well-equipped laboratory. Thus, he developed his important theory between the relationship of resistance, electric current and voltage. In 1825, Ohm published his first paper which examined the decrease in the electromagnetic force produced by a wire as the length of the wire increased. Ohm published two more papers in 1826, and his famous book containing Ohm’s law, in 1827 in which he detailed his complete theory of electricity.

Resigning his teaching position in 1828, Ohm was without permanent employment until 1833 when he accepted a professorship at the Polytechnic School of Nuremberg, remaining there for sixteen years.

In 1849 he became curator of the Bavarian Academy’s physics cabinet at Munich, and in 1852 was appointed to the chair of physics at the University of Munich, a position he held until his death. After extensive research, he wrote “The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically” in 1827, which formulated the relationship between voltage (potential difference), current and resistance in an electrical circuit: I = V / R

The unit of current is the ampere (I); that of potential difference is the volt (V); and that of resistance is the ohm (Ω). This equation, as defined using the unit of resistance above, was not formalized until the 1860’s.

Ohms Law states that the current flow through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference (voltage) and inversely proportional to the resistance. The law still remains the most widely used and appreciated of all the rules relating to the behavior of electrical circuits. Ohm died on July 6, 1854. He was 65 years old. The physical unit of electrical resistance, the Ohm (Ω), was named in his honor.

Find Russian equivalents for the following words and word combinations:

electrochemical cell;

potential difference;

voltage;

conductor;

resultant;

electric current;

private tutor;

resistance;

decrease;

electromagnetic force;

wire;

to resign;

chair of physics;

galvanic circuit;

equation;

current flow;

inversely proportional.

Answer the questions:

What did Ohm begin his first research with?

What position did Ohm hold until his death?

What relationship did he explain in “The Galvanic Circuit Investigated Mathematically”?

What does Ohm’s law state?

Match the following words to make word combinations:

potential

electric

private

electromechanical

electromagnetic

teaching

permanent

directly

physical

current

position

unit

difference

employment

proportional

force

cell

tutor

Write a short summary of the text (15-20 sentences).

Archimedes [ɑːkɪˈmiːdiːz]

Archimedes was a mathematician, inventor, and astronomer who was one of the most celebrated mathematicians of all time. He was born in Syracuse, a Greek city-state. He was educated at Alexandria.

Archimedes greatest love was theoretical mathematics. He wrote several treatises and corresponded with other mathematicians of the day. This includes a development of calculus using infinitesimals. Archimedes development of calculus remained unimproved until the 15th Century.

Using the method of approximation, he showed pi has to be greater than 223/71 and less than 22/7. He proved that the volume and surface area of a sphere was 2/3 of a cylinder of the same height and diameter.

As well as mathematics, Archimedes made discoveries in the field of mechanics. Although he did not invent the lever, he made descriptions about its use, the mathematical underpinning of levers, and made practical innovations to help sailors lift heavier objects than they could on their own. Archimedes work on the lever led to one of his most famous statements: “Give me a place to stand on, and I will move the Earth.”

Archimedes was also known as an outstanding astronomer. He made observations on solstices and calculated the distance to the sun and planets through the use of Pythagorean theory.

Archimedes was involved in constructing and possibly inventing the Archimedes screw, which is able to lift liquid and solids uphill against the force of gravity. It was an important device which could lift water from low-lying lands to higher lands. He invented many military defences, which included a system of mirrors deflecting the sunlight to the Roman ships – either to set them alight or blind the sailors heading to shore.

Another weapon was the Claw of Archimedes – it involved a long metal hook suspended from a crane-like arm. It was used to drop on invading ships to lift them from the water and possibly sink it. He is also credited with inventing a more powerful and accurate catapult.

Archimedes was killed by a Roman soldier in 212 BC. He was buried in Syracuse with a model sculpture of his sphere and cylinder. The tomb of Archimedes was later rediscovered by Cicero in about 75 BC.

Archimedes’ Greatest Achievements:

• invented the sciences of mechanics and hydrostatics;

• discovered the laws of levers, which allow us to move heavy objects using small forces;

• invented one of the most fundamental concepts of physics – the center of gravity;

• calculated pi to the most precise value known. His upper limit for pi was the fraction 22⁄7;

• discovered and mathematically proved the formulas for the volume and surface area of a sphere;

• showed how exponents could be used to write bigger numbers than had ever been thought of before;

• proved that to multiply numbers written as exponents, the exponents should be added together;

• was the first person to apply lessons from physics to solve problems in pure mathematics;

• invented war machines such as a highly accurate catapult.

Vocabulary:

treatise – трактат

calculus – исчисление

infinitesimals – бесконечно малый

unimproved – недоказанный

method of approximation – метод приближения

height – высота

lever – рычаг

mathematical underpinning – математическая основа

solstice – солнцестояние

the Archimedes screw – Архимедов винт

solid – груз

military defence – средство военной обороны

deflect – отражать/отводить

the Claw of Archimedes – коготь Архимеда

suspend – подвешенный

crane-like arm – крыло крана

drop on – топить

invading – вторжение

exponent – показатель степени

Answer the questions:

What was Archimedes’ contribution to the lever’s use?

What was the Archimedes’ screw able to?

What military defences did he invent?

What did the Claw of Archimedes involve?

What are the most important Archimedes’ discoveries in the field of mathematics?

Translate the second part of the text in the written form.

Fill in the gaps with the appropriate words and word combinations:

This type of weapon involved a long metal hook suspended from a crane-like arm. _______ .

One of the most famous Archimedes’ developments included ________ using infinitesimals.

It is known that the volume and surface area of a ________ is 2/3 of a ________ of the same height and ________ .

This equipment helped sailors lift heavy objects. ________ .

Archimedes calculated the distance to the sun and planets using ________ .

This tool was able to lift liquid and solids uphill against the force of gravity. ________ .

A special system of mirrors ________ the sunlight to the invading ships.

Archimedes created the most powerful and accurate _______ .

Pythagorean theory, sphere, diameter, catapult, the Claw of Archimedes, lever, cylinder, deflected, calculus, the Archimedes screw.

Make 10 sentences using the words below. White them in The Past Simple Tense:

утверждение – Ved/V2

отрицание – didn’t V1

вопрос – Did подлежащее V1

Pythagorean theory;

theoretical mathematics;

weapon:

force of gravity;

inventor;

military defence;

development;

the Archimedes screw;

treatise;

device.

Blaise Pascal

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662), the French philosopher and scientist, was one of the greatest and most influential mathematicians of all time. He was also an expert in hydrostatics, an inventor, and a religious philosopher.

Born at Clermont-Ferrand on June 19, 1623, Pascal’s father was Étienne Pascal, a local judge and later a tax collector. He was the second child of three children and the only son. The Pascal family settled in Paris in 1631 and later they moved to Rouen in 1640.

At a tender age of 12, Pascal began participating in the meetings of a mathematical academy. He learned different languages from his father, Latin and Greek in particular, but Pascal Sr. didn’t teach him mathematics. This increased the curiosity of young Pascal, who went on to experiment with geometrical figures, even formulating his own names for standard geometrical terms.

Pascal wrote an important short work on projective geometry, “Essay on Conics” aged just 16. Pascal’s Theorem states that opposite sides of a hexagon inscribed in a conic, intersect in three collinear points.

Pascal invented a calculator called the Pascaline. This mechanical calculator was able to add and subtract and used a numerical wheel with movable dials.

During the 1640’s Pascal contributed to hydrostatics. This is the branch of fluid mechanics that studies fluids at rest. In the course of his experiments, he invented the syringe and the hydraulic press. Pascal carried out experimentations with air pressure. He confirmed Evangelista Torricelli’s theory concerning the cause of barometrical variations. By 1647 he had proved to his satisfaction that a vacuum existed and wrote “New Experiments Concerning Vacuums”.

His theoretical work on the equilibrium of fluids led to his work “Treatise on the Equilibrium of Liquids” in 1653 in which he explained Pascal’s law of pressure. The Pascal principle states that when there is an increase in pressure at any point in a confined fluid, there is an equal increase at every other point in the container.

Pascal also studied conic sections and produced important theorems in projective geometry. He studied the Pascal Triangle, making many new mathematical observations. This is a triangle where each number is the sum of the two directly above it. The triangle was used to prove Pascal’s Identity. This is a useful theorem of combinatorics dealing with binomial coefficients. His work “Treatise on the Arithmetical Triangle” was published in 1653.

In 1654, Pascal began corresponding with mathematician Pierre de Fermat. He conducted experiments with dice and discovered that there was a fixed likelihood of a particular outcome. This was the beginning of the field of probability. Fermat and Pascal are today recognized as the co-founders of probability theory.

Blaise Pascal died on the 19th of August, 1662. The Pascal (Pa) unit of pressure was named in his honor. The computer language Pascal is named after him in recognition of his early computing machine.

Vocabulary:

hydrostatics – гидростатика

tax collector – сборщик налогов

participate – принимать участие

projective geometry – проективная геометрия

conic – коническое сечение

hexagon – шестиугольник

inscribed – вписанный

intersect – пересекаться

collinear points – коллинеарные точки

Pascaline – счетная машина Паскаля

subtract – вычитать

wheel – колесо

movable dial – подвижная шкала

fluid mechanics – гидромеханика

syringe – шприц

hydraulic press – гидравлический пресс

confirm – подтверждать/доказывать

barometrical variations – барометрические колебания

equilibrium of fluids – равновесие жидкостей

law of pressure – закон распределения давления

confined fluid – замкнутая жидкость

Pascal Triangle – треугольник Паскаля

identity – тождество

combinatorics – комбинаторика

binomial coefficients – биномиальный коэффициент

dice – игральная кость

likelihood – вероятность

outcome – результат/следствие

probability theory – теория вероятности

computing machine – вычислительная машина

Say if the following statements are true or false. Correct the false sentences:

Blaise Pascal produced important theorems in projective geometry and studied conic sections.

Father sent Pascal to the meetings of a mathematical academy.

The unit of pressure was named in Pascal’s honor.

Pascal explained the law of pressure in “Essay of Conics”.

Pascal formulated his own names for standard geometrical terms.

Blaise Pascal invented the hydraulic press and the syringe during his experiments in the sphere of hydrostatics.

Pascal’s triangle is a triangle where each number is the sum of the four directly above it. This triangle was used to prove probability theory.

Pascal confirmed Evangelista Torricelli’s theory carrying out experimentations with air pressure.

Pascal was one of the first scientists created early computing machine.

Pascal’s Theorem states that opposite sides of a hexagon inscribed in a conic, intersect in three geometric lines.

Match the words from these columns to make word combinations and translate them:

projective

probability

hydraulic

fluid

numerical

geometrical

fixed

mathematical

computing

Arithmetical

movable

particular

confined

collinear

barometrical

computer

conic

binomial

theory

figures

outcome

coefficients

observations

triangle

language

fluid

geometry

sections

points

press

machine

variations

likelihood

wheel

mechanics

dials

Match the following terms to the appropriate definition:

Chernov, Dmitrii Konstantinovich

Born: October, 20 in 1839, in St. Petersburg. Died: January, 2 in 1921, in Yalta. 

Profession: Russian scientist, specialist in metallurgy, metal science, and the heat treatment of metals.

The son of a feldsher, Chernov graduated from the St. Petersburg Institute of Practical Technology in 1858. He worked in the mechanical department of the St. Petersburg Mint. From 1859 to 1866 he was an instructor, an assistant librarian and a curator in the museum of the St. Petersburg Institute of Practical Technology.

In 1866 he became an engineer in the forging shop of the Obukhov Steel Mill in St. Petersburg, and from 1880 to 1884 he was engaged in prospecting deposits of rock salt in the Bakhmut region of the Coal Basin; the beds he discovered proved to be of industrial importance.

Beginning in 1886 he simultaneously served as chief inspector of the Ministry of Railroad Transport in 

charge  of overseeing the filling of  orders at metallurgical  works. He became a professor of metallurgy at the 

Mikhail Artillery Academy in 1889.

Chernov D. K. has established the dependence of structure and properties of steel on its hot mechanical and heat treatment. Chernov D. has opened critical temperatures, at which phase transformations occur in steel as a result of heating or cooling in solid state . These critical temperatures, defined by Chernov by colors of steel heating, were named Chernov’s points. Chernov D. K. represented graphically influence of carbon on position of critical points, having created the first sketch of outline of equilibrium diagram «ferrum-carbon».

Results of his research which had begun the modern metallography, Chernov D.K. published in 1868 in «Notes of Russian engineering society», having named it «Critical review of Lavrov’s and Kalakutskiy’s articles about steel and steel instruments and own Chernov’s research in the same subject».

In another scientific paper «Research concerning the structure of cast steel pigs» Chernov stated a theory of steel ingot crystallization. He investigated the process of crystals origin and growth in details. He gave a scheme of structural zones of ingot, developed a theory of consequent crystallization, studied defects of cast steel thoroughly and specified how to avoid them. These research of Chernov in many respects promoted transformation of metallurgy from craft in theoretically proved scientific discipline.

Chernov’s papers in the field of metallurgy intensification, processes and perfection of manufacture technology were of great value for progress of metallurgy of steel. Chernov put forward the idea of mixing metal during crystallization, having offered for this purpose a rotating iron mold.

Vocabulary

metal science – металловедение

the heat treatment of metals – термообработка металлов

the mechanical department – механический отдел

St. Petersburg Mint – Петербургский Монетный Двор

assistant librarian – помощник библиотекаря

forging shop of the Obukhov Steel Mill – кузнечный цех Обуховского металлургического комбината

prospecting deposits – поиск месторождений

rock salt – каменная соль

Bakhmut region – Бахмутский район

coal basin – угольный бассейн

beds – залежи

simultaneously – одновременно

chief inspector – главный инспектор

in charge – ответственный за

overseeing – наблюдение

filling of orders – выполнение заказов

establish – устанавливать

property – свойство

steel – сталь

hot mechanical treatment – горячая механическая обработка

phase transformations – фазовые превращения

solid state – твердое состояние

color of steel heating – степень нагрева стали

Chernov’s points – точки Чернова

influence of carbon – влияние углерода

sketch of outline – эскиз контура

equilibrium diagram – фазовая диаграмма

ferrum-carbon – железо-углерод

cast steel pigs – литая сталь

steel ingot crystallization – кристаллизация стальных слитков

crystal origin – образование кристаллов

ingot – слиток

consequent – последовательный

thoroughly – тщательно

craft – кустарный

intensification – развитие

manufacture technology – технология производства

put forward – выдвинуть идею

rotating iron mold – вращающаяся железная форма

mechanical

rock

metallurgy of

critical

equilibrium

heat

coal

metal

metallurgical

solid

phase

crystals

manufacture

Chernov’s

ferrum

salt

origin

treatment

department

steel

temperatures

technology

science

points

carbon

basin

diagram

works

transformations

state

Translate the following phrases:

был вовлечен в поиск месторождений каменной соли;

он исследовал процесс образования кристаллов;

он представил графически влияние углерода на положение критических точек;

совершенствование технологии производства;

термообработка металлов;

теоретически доказанная научная дисциплина;

степень нагрева стали;

для этой цели он предложил вращающуюся железную форму.

Mendeleev Dmitri Ivanovich»

A Russian name appeared in 1964 on the honorary board of science at Bridgeport University, USA: Mendeleyev was added to the list of the greatest geniuses — Euclid, Archimedes, Copernicus, Galilei, Newton and Lavoisier. D.I. Mendeleyev, the explorer of nature, is the greatest chemist of the world. The Mendeleyev system has served for almost 150 years as a key to discovering new elements and it has retained its key capacity until now.

D.I. Mendeleyev was the fourteenth and the last child of the Director of the Gymnasium at Tobolsk. After finishing school at the age of 16 he was taken by his mother to St. Petersburg and entered the Pedagogical Institute in 1850, took a degree in chemistry in 1856 and in 1859 he was sent abroad for two years for further training. He returned to St. Petersburg in 1861 as Professor of Chemistry and gave a course of lectures on chemistry at St. Petersburg,s University. His lectures were always listened to with great interest and attention. Even in class of two hundred students everyone was able to follow his discussions from the beginning to the end. Interesting experiments were made in his classes.

In 1868 Mendeleyev began to write a great text book of chemistry, known in its English translation as «Principles of Chemistry» Hard work preceded it. Mendeleyev made thousands of experiments and calculations, wrote a lot of letters, studied many reports. Everything in the world that was known about chemical elements Mendeleyev knew. For months, for years he searched for missing data. All those data were being brought together and grouped in a special way. When compiling this, he tried to find some system of classifying the elements some sixty in all then known whose properties he was describing. This led him to formulate the Periodic Law: «The properties of elements and, consequently, the properties of the simple and complex bodies formed from them are periodic functions of their atomic weights». The Law earned him lasting international fame. He presented it verbally to the Russian Society in October 1868 and published 1869. But Mendeleyev was recognized as the author of the Periodic Law only after gallium, scandium and germanium had been discovered in France, Sweden and Germany and after the properties of number of elements predicted be Mendeleyev had been confirmed.

In this paper he set out clearly his discovery that if the elements are arranged in order of their atomic weights, chemically related elements appear at regular intervals. The greatness of Mendeleyev,s achievement lies in the fact that he had discovered a generalization that not only unified an enormous amount of existing information but pointed the way to further progress.

Today the Periodic Law is studied by millions of school children and by students at higher educational establishments of natural sciences and engineering. It is studied by philosophers, historians, teachers and chemists.

The law serves as a basis for thousands of researches. The Periodic Law crossed national boundaries and has become the property of all nations, just like the works of Newton, Lomonosow, Pavlov, Lobachevsky, Einstein and other. In our country the Russian Chemical Society, a number of higher and secondary schools, some industrial plants have been named after Mendeleyev. The Academy of Sciences and the Mendeleyev Society award the Mendeleyev Prize and the Mendeleyev Gold Medal for outstanding research work in chemistry.

1. Find English equivalents in the text:

Система Менделеева;

новые элементы;

профессор химии;

интересные эксперименты;

начал писать;

тяжелая работа;

химические элементы;

Периодического закон;

свои открытия;

дальнейший прогресс;

служит основой;

выдающиеся исследования.

2. Finish the sentences according to the text:

… has served for almost 150 years as a key to discovering new elements and it has retained its key capacity until now.

His lectures were always listened to with great …

… began to write a great text book of chemistry, known in its English translation as «Principles of Chemistry» Hard work preceded it.

All those data were being brought together …

… earned him lasting international fame.

… were being brought together and grouped in a special way.

… serves as a basis for thousands of researches.

It is studied by philosophers, historians, teachers …

3. Answer the questions:

What did Mendeleev’s father work for?

In which year D. Mendeleev received a degree in chemistry?

What was the name of the first textbook of Mendeleev chemistry textbook?

What law brought him solid international fame?

In which year did he first introduce him to the Russian society?

Is Mendeleev immediately recognized as the author of the Periodic Law?

Some of the Great Names in the History of Metallurgy

A nosov, Pavel Petrovich (1799-1851) was a Russian metallurgist. He entered the St. Petersburg Mining Corps of Cadets at the age of 11. Graduated with honours in 1817 he was appointed to a minor post at the Zlatoust Crown Works (Златоустовские казенные заводы). Mendeleev was promoted to Supervisor of the Zlatoust Arms Factory in 1819, to its Superintendent in 1824, and its Manager in 1829. From 1847 until his death, he worked as the Chief of the Altai Works.

Anosov was renowned for his writings on the manufacture of iron and his re-discovery of the secret of damascene (дамасская сталь) lost in the Middle Ages. He explained the effect of the chemical composition, structure and treatment of steel on its properties. His findings formed the basis for the science of quality steels. Anosov summed up his studies in his classical treatise, “On Damaskene” (1841), immediately translated into German and French. Anosov was the first to use the microscope in studies into the structure of steel (1831), thus laying the foundation for the microscopic analysis of metals. Anosov was elected a corresponding member of the Kazan University (1844) and an honorary member of the Kharkov University (1846).

 Bessemer, Sir Henry (1813-1898) was a British civil engineer and inventor, elected to the London Royal Society in 1879. He was patented over a hundred inventions in various fields of technology. Those most important were the needle die for postal  stamps (игольчатый штамп для марок) and the word-casting machine (словолитная машина) in 1838, the sugar cane press (машина для прессования сахарного тростника) in 1849, and the centrifugal pump (центробежный насос) in 1850.

While working on ways and means of improving the quality of a heavy artillery shell in 1854, he felt the need for a better steel-making process. In 1856 he patented a vessel (сосуд) for converting molten pig iron (литое железо) into steel.  The process which took place in a vessel was named after him (Бессемеровский процесс) and revolutionized the iron and steel industry.

1. Make questions for the following sentences:

Pavel Anosov was 18 when he graduated from the Mining Corps of Cadets.

For a long time he was Mining Chief of the Zlatoust Works.

In his works he explained the effect of chemical composition of steel on its properties.

Bessemer patented over a hundred inventions in various fields of technology.  

It was Bessemer who advanced the idea of rolling steel without casting it into ingots.

2. Read the text carefully and agree or disagree with the statements given below.

Anosov was a famous Russian painter.

Pavel Anosov re-discovered the secret of damaskene.

The secret of damaskene was lost in ancient time.  

Henry Bessemer was an eletrician.

Bessemer had relatively few inventions. 

Benjamin Huntsman is a well-known British metallurgist of the 18th century.

He re-discovered the process of making strong steel.

Isaac Newton

Isaac Newton was a physicist and mathematician who developed the principles of modern physics, including the laws of motion and is credited as one of the great minds of the 17th-century Scientific Revolution. 

Newton was born on January 4, 1643, in Woolsthorpe, Lincolnshire, England. Newton was the only son of a prosperous local farmer, also named Isaac, who died three months before he was born.

Newton was enrolled at the King’s School in Grantham, a town in Lincolnshire, where he lodged with a local apothecary and was introduced to the fascinating world of chemistry.

When Newton arrived at Cambridge, the Scientific Revolution of the 17th century was already in full force. The heliocentric view of the universe – theorized by astronomers Nicolaus Copernicus and Johannes Kepler, and later refined by Galileo – was well known in most European academic circles.

Isaac Newton’s discoveries gave physics its theoretical foundation, granted powerful tools to mathematics and created a launch pad for future developments in science.

Sir Isaac Newton contributed to many branches of human thought, among which physics and mathematics were the fields in which he contributed substantially.

Newton made discoveries in optics, motion and mathematics. Newton theorized that white light was a composite of all colors of the spectrum, and that light was composed of particles. 

Newton’s first major public scientific achievement was designing and constructing a reflecting telescope in 1668. As a professor at Cambridge, Newton was required to deliver an annual course of lectures and chose optics as his initial topic. He used his telescope to study optics and help prove his theory of light and color. 

In 1687, following 18 months of intense and effectively nonstop work, Newton published Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), most often known as Principia. Principia is said to be the single most influential book on physics and possibly all of science. Its publication immediately raised Newton to international prominence.

Principia offers an exact quantitative description of bodies in motion, with three basic but important laws of motion: 

First Law – a stationary body will stay stationary unless an external force is applied to it.

Second Law – force is equal to mass times acceleration, and a change in motion (i.e., change in speed) is proportional to the force applied.

Third Law – for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. 

Newton’s three basic laws of motion outlined in Principia helped him arrive at his theory of gravity. Newton’s law of universal gravitation states that two objects attract each other with a force of gravitational attraction that’s proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers.

These laws helped explain not only elliptical planetary orbits but nearly every other motion in the universe: how the planets are kept in orbit by the pull of the sun’s gravity; how the moon revolves around Earth and the moons of Jupiter revolve around it; and how comets revolve in elliptical orbits around the sun. 

They also allowed him to calculate the mass of each planet, calculate the flattening of the Earth at the poles and the bulge at the equator, and how the gravitational pull of the sun and moon create the Earth’s tides. In Newton’s account, gravity kept the universe balanced, made it work, and brought heaven and Earth together in one great equation.

Exercises:

Match the words:

laws

bodies

planetary

universal

external

stationary

colors of the

developments in

launch

gravitational

bulge at the

Earth’s

theory of

scientific

change in

spectrum

equator

motion

body

pull

motion

science

revolution

orbits

force

gravity

pad

gravitation

tides

motion

Answer the questions:

What are the laws of motion?

In what spheres did Newton make discoveries?

What did Newton’s discoveries give physics?

What did Newton’s laws explain?

What does Newton’s law of universal gravitation state?

What is the value (значение) of gravity?

Тranslate the following phrases:

первое общественное научное достижение;

два объекта притягивают друг друга;

количественное описание тел в движении;

Ньютон предположил, что белый свет был композицией всех цветов спектра;

рассчитать массу каждой планеты;

объединил небо и Землю в одно уравнение;

Луна вращается вокруг Земли;

Ньютон сделал открытия в оптике и математике.

Vocabulary:

laws of motion – законы механики

to be credited – считаться

mind – ум

prosperous – благополучный

enroll – быть зачисленным

lodged with – быть под присмотром

apothecary – аптекарь

to be introduced – войти/вступить

heliocentric view of the universe – гелиоцентрический взгляд на вселенную

theorized by – быть разработанным

refine – уточнять

academic circles – академические круги

theoretical foundation – теоретический фундамент

grant – предоставить

tool – инструмент

launch pad – стартовая площадка

developments in science – научные открытия

contribute – вносить вклад

branch – отрасль

field – область

substantially – существенно

motion – движение

composite of colors of the spectrum – композиция всех цветов спектра

particle – частица

achievement – достижение

reflecting telescope – отражающий телескоп

require – подразумевать

deliver – впроводить

Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy – Математические принципы естественной философии

influential – влиятельный

raise – поднимать

international prominence – всенародное признание

quantitative description – количественное описание

body in motion – тело в движении

stationary body – тело в покое

external force – внешняя сила

apply to – прилагать

acceleration – ускорение

change in motion – изменение движения

opposite reaction – сила противодействия

outline – быть изложенным

theory of gravity – теория гравитации

the law of universal gravitation – закон всеобщей гравитации

attract – притягивать

gravitational attraction – гравитационное притяжение

inversely proportional distance – обратно пропорциональный

elliptical planetary orbits – эллиптические планетарные орбиты

by the pull – под действием

revolve – вращаться

flattening of the Earth – плоскость Земли

bulge at the equator – выпуклость у экватора

gravitational pull – гравитационная тяга

tides – приливы

account – мнение

heaven – небо

equation – уравнение