Which of the dictionaries gives word combinations

Перевод задания
Прочитай записи из словаря и ответь на вопросы.
Оксфордский словарь английского языка
библиотека сущ. (множ. библиотеки) комната или здание для книг
библиотекарь сущ. тот, кто работает в библиотеке

 
Оксфордский русско−английский словарь
handy [ˈhændi] adj (handier, handiest)
1) (clever with hands) умелый, рукастый (coll); he is ~ у него золотые руки
2) (easy to handle) удобный для пользования
3) (convenient) удобный, сподручный (coll); it may come in ~ это может быть

 
Вопросы
1) Слово «библиотека» взято из одноязычного словаря? А как насчет слов «библиотекарь» и «удобный»?
2) Где можно найти информацию о том, как произносить слова?
3) Откуда вы знаете, что одно из слов является существительным, а другое − прилагательным?
4) Какое из слов имеет одно, а какое более одного значения?
5) Какой из словарей дает словосочетания?
6) Какой из словарей дает производные слова?
7) Что означает знак ~?

 
ОТВЕТ
1) The word “library” comes from a monolingual dictionary. The word “librarian” comes from a monolingual dictionary, too. The “handy” comes from a bilingual dictionary.
2) We find information about how to pronounce the words in bilingual dictionaries. There are transcriptions there.
3) We know that one of the words is a noun and the other is an adjective because there are letters for it: n – for nouns and adj – for adjectives.
4) Some words have one and some words have more than one meaning. Dictionaries give different meanings under numbers. Here the word “library” has one meaning and the word “handy” has 3 meanings.
5) Some of the dictionaries give word combinations. For example, Oxford Russian−English Dictionary gives word combinations.
6) Oxford Russian−English Dictionary gives derivatives: handy – handier – handiest.
7) The sign “~” shows us the place of the word. For example, “it may come in ~” means “it may come in handy”.

 
Перевод ответа
1) Слово «библиотека» взято из одноязычного словаря. Слово «библиотекарь» также взято из одноязычного словаря. «Умелый» взято из двуязычного словаря.
2) Мы находим информацию о том, как произносить слова в двуязычных словарях. Там есть транскрипции.
3) Мы знаем, что одно из слов является существительным, а другое − прилагательным, потому что для него есть буквы: n − для существительных и adj − для прилагательных.
4) Некоторые слова имеют одно и несколько слов имеют более одного значения. Словари дают разные значения под числами. Здесь слово «библиотека» имеет одно значение, а слово «умелый» имеет 3 значения.
5) Некоторые из словарей дают словосочетания. Например, Оксфордский русско−английский словарь дает словосочетания.
6) Оксфордский русско−английский словарь дает производные слова: удобный − удобнее − самый удобный.
7) Знак «~» показывает нам место слова. Например, «это может прийти ~» означает «это может быть удобным».

 Арзуманян Рузанна Валерьевна

«Слова, слова, слова…»

Предмет: английский язык

УМК:
«Английский язык», О.В. Афанасьева, И.В. Михеева

Класс:
8 класс

Тип урока: закрепление изученного материала

Цели урока:

×        
Научиться дифференцировать
и пользоваться различными видами словарей на уроках английского языка;

×        
Активизировать лексические
единицы в речи;

×        
Развить навыки
аудирования;

×        
Развить навыки
монологической речи;

Дидактический материал: учебник, рабочая тетрадь, ТСО, аудиоприложение к
учебнику, словари.

1.Организационный момент.

—        
Good morning dear boys and girls.

—        
Sit down please.

—        
How are you?

—        
Who is on duty today?

—        
What date is it today, Vanya?

—        
Who is absent today?

—        
Thank you very much, Vanya, sit
down please.

Today we shall read and work with a text. We’ll practice
our reading skills and we’ll try to understand and analyze the information in
it.

2. Фонетическая зарядка.

 But
in the beginning of our lesson let’s do some phonetic exercise.

Please
read these words in transcription.

(W/b p.42 ex.5)

3.Речевая зарядка.

I
want you to look at the blackboard. Read the names of the countries and match
them with the people (nations) who live there and their official language.

Countries	People	Official language
Australia	American	British English
China	Australian	Russian
England	the Chinese	Japanese
Great Britain	the Dutch	Italian
Italy	Norwegians	Dutch
Japan	the Japanese	Norwegian
Norway	Italians	Vietnamese
France	the English	French
The United Kingdom	the British	American English
The USA	the Vietnamese
Vietnam	Russians
Russia	the French

(w/b p.42 ex.4)

4.Проверка домашнего задания.

Now
let’s check your homework. Vanya please make us remember what was your home
task? (w/b p.44 ex.8)

It’s
a good work.

5. Работа с текстом.

  
5.1 Дотекстовый этап. 

Now please let’s go on. Open your t/b-s at p. 53 ex.8.
The text “WORDS… WORDS…WORDS…”.

1) Look at the title of the text. What are we going to
read about? …. OK! We’ll see.

       2) Dear children! Look
at the blackboard. There are some difficult              words from the text.
Who wants to try reading them? OK! Igor, please begin.

·       
Person [pə:’sən ]

·       
Look up
pronounce[prə’naυns]

·       
categories [‘kǽtigəriz]

·       
lingual=language[‘liηgwəl]

·       
monolingual

      [monəυliηgwəl]

·       
bilingual [bai’liηgwəl]

·       
multilingual [mΛlti’liηgwəl]

·       
Webster’s Third New
International Dictionary

·       
Oxford Basic English Dictionary

·       
Oxford Russian Dictionary

3) Children! Who can try to tell the main idea of the
text?

That’s good!

 4) Tell me please, where do you usually find the
meaning of a new word?

 5) What dictionaries do you know?   Ok!

5.2  Текстовый этап.

1) And now before we start reading the text, I want
you to listen to it.  Please, look and follow while listening.

      
2) Well that’s it. Now let’s begin reading.

      
3) OK! Look at the following figures 450,000; 35,000; 10,000 – 12,000. What do
they mean?

Good!
Shall we move on?

    
5.3  Послетекстовый этап.

      
1) And now, I  want you to describe the kinds of  dictionaries using the text.  So…

         
— the monolingual dictionary

               — the
bilingual dictionary

               — the
multilingual dictionary

2) Let’s make up a new title
for the text. Please  your variants.

3) And now, we’ll make up a
plan for our text. It will help you to prepare your retelling.

                a)…….

                b)…….

                c)…….

      4) Now please let’s go
on and do the ex.9 p.54. Please, read the task.

Look at the two dictionary
entries and answer the questions.

 Questions

1)   
Which of the two words comes from
a monolingual (bilingual) dictionary?

2)   
Where can you find information
about how to pronounce the words?

3)   
How do you know that one of the
words is a noun and the other is an adjective?

4)   
Which of the words has one and
which more than one meaning?

5)   
Which of the dictionaries gives
word combinations?

6)   
Which of the dictionaries gives
derivatives?

7)   
What does ~ stand for?

6. Подведение итогов.

I think that’ll do. Thanks for
your good work. Now my dear friends our lesson is over. Open your daybooks and
write down the homework. Your home task is to retell the text using your plan.

And now your marks.

See you soon! Good bye!

There are about 250
different kinds of dictionaries and their typology is not easy. The
leading competing companies compiling and publishing English
dictionaries produce various,
though very often similar series known as Oxford,
Cambridge, Longman, Collins, Chambers’s,
Penguin dictionaries (in
Great Britain) and Webster’s
(G. and C.
Merriam Co.),
Funk and Wagnalls Co., Random house dictionaries (in
the USA). Here arc the most important
principles along which they may be classified.

All reference books that provide a large amount of information of a
particular kind. But

according to
the type of items included and
the kind of
information about them all

dictionaries
may be divided into two categories: encyclopedic
and
linguistic
dictionaries,

or
into encyclopedias
and
dictionaries. ,

147

An
encyclopedic
dictionary is
a thing-book.
It
deals with every kind of knowledge about the
world (general encyclopedia) or with one particular branch of it
(special encyclopedia).

In
contrast to a linguistic
dictionary, which
is a word-book,
some
common words, like mother,
father, house, I, the, white, oh, do
not enter an encyclopedia, while many geographical
names and names of prominent people make up an important part of it.

Some words, like taxonomic
names of plants, animals, and diseases enter both kinds of
dictionaries,
but information about them has a different character. In linguistic
dictionaries
the most extensive information is linguistic
information
about a word. In encyclopedic
dictionaries the most extensive is extralinguistic
information
about a concept.

The
most well known encyclopedias in English are The
Encyclopedia Britannica (in
24 volumes)
and The
Encyclopedia Americana (in
30 volumes). Very popular in Great Britain
are also Chamber’s
Encyclopedia (in
15 volumes) and Everyman’s
Encyclopedia (in
12 volumes). Among single-volume encyclopedias is the Hutchinson
20th Century Encyclopedia.

There arc also smaller
reference books that are dedicated to special branches of knowledge:
literature, business, medicine, chemistry, and linguistics. For
example, Who’s
Who
dictionaries,
The
Oxford Companion to English Literature (Theatre, etc.),
Cambridge
Paperback Guide to Literature in English, The Cambridge Guide to
Women’s
Writing in English, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English
Language by
David Crystal, or The
Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language by
David Crystal.

In
modern reference books, however, there is no strict borderline
between these two types of
dictionaries. Many linguistic dictionaries, especially in America and
the Longman
dictionaries,
include extralinguistic information, and many encyclopedic
dictionaries include
some linguistic information.

Classification of linguistic dictionaries

1.
One of the basic criteria for classifying linguistic dictionaries is
the
number of lexical items
they
include. A linguistic dictionary may be unabridged,
the
most complete

of
its type, and abridged.

One
may think that the bigger the dictionary is the better vocabulary is
presented there. This
may be true but it is simplification of the problem of lexicon.

The
most complete, unabridged
general
dictionaries, like Webster’s
Third New
International
Dictionary of the English Language and
the Oxford
English Dictionary

include about half of a million (500,000) entry words. But even they
do not include all the

148

lexical
units in the language. Scientific, technical terms and many other
specialized lexical units are left out and delegated to special
dictionaries.

The
number of lexical items in other dictionaries is usually less
numerous. A dictionary for
kindergartens like The
Oxford Picture Dictionary for Kids may
include about 700 words,
which are actually labels for pictures. A second-grader may need a
dictionary with about
3,500 entries. Pocket English dictionaries may include over 12,000
words, like the Longman
New Pocket English Dictionary.

2. Depending on the nature
of the included lexical items linguistic
dictionaries may be divided
into general
and
restricted.
General
dictionaries include words from different
spheres of life. Restricted linguistic dictionaries are limited to
some special branch of knowledge
like
medicine, business, chemistry, or to some special kinds of lexical
units, such
as dialectal words, foreign words, neologisms, obsolete and archaic
words,
or phraseological verbs and idioms, for example, Dictionary
of American Slang by
Richard A. Spears, The
Basic Words by
C.K.Ogden, American
Dialect Dictionary by
II.
Wentworth,
the Oxford
Dictionary of Computing for Learners of English, or
the Oxford
Dictionary of Business English for Learners of English.

As mentioned above, there
arc numerous dictionaries of the same type compiled and published
by different people and different companies. For example, some
well-known dictionaries
by different companies arc restricted to English idioms as Oxford
Dictionary of
English Idioms (by
A.P. Cowie, R. Mackin, I.R. McCraig) with 7,000 references, Cambridge
International Dictionary of Idioms with
7,000 references, Longman
Idioms Dictionary
(by
Addison Wesley/Longman) with 5,000 references, Collins
Cobuild Dictionary
of Idioms with
4000 references, Chambers
Dictionary of Idioms, and
Penguin
Dictionary of English Idioms. They
differ not only in the number and character of
idioms included in the dictionary but also in the manner of their
presentation, interpretation,
and some of them include exercises aiding assimilation and correct
usage.

3.
Depending on the linguistic
information they
provide all dictionaries may be s p с с i a 1
i z e d or non-specialized.
Specialized
dictionaries may specialize in phonetic information,
like English
Pronouncing Dictionary by
Daniel Jones, Longman
Pronunciation
Dictionary by
J.C. Wells, or in etymological data, for example, The
Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology by
C.T. Onions, in usage as docs Longman
Guide
to English Usage by
J. Whitcut and S. Greenbaurn, in frequency as the General
Service
List of English Words by
M.A. West, in word collocations like The
BBI Combinatory
Dictionary of English by
Morton Benson, Evelyn Benson and Robert Ilson, or
The
LTP Dictionary of Selected Collocations, where,
for example, the section ‘Noun’ gives
about 50,000 collocations for 2,000 most essential nouns.
Dictionaries also may specialize in semantic relations of words as A
WordNet
Electronic Database which
includes
word nodes and indicates their synonymic, antonymic, hyponymic,
meronymic, taxonymic
and other relations.

149

4.
Depending on the number
of languages used
in the entries, a linguistic dictionary may be
monolingual,
bilingual
and
polylingual.
Monolingual
dictionaries
are usually explanatory,
while
bilingual and polylingual are normally translation
dictionaries.
Yet, this correlation is not strict. Some of the monolingual
specialixed
dictionaries, like Roget’s
Thesaurus are
not explanatory at all, and some bilingual
dictionaries, like Англо-русский
фразеологический словарь by A.V. Kunin, can
hardly be called just translation dictionaries because they provide
many different explications
for lexical units.

5.
Depending on the time
period embraced as
well as the character
of treatment of lexical items, dictionaries
are divided into synchro
nic-
including
the words of a certain language
period, mainly modern English, like The
Concise Oxford English Dictionary, Longman Dictionary of Contemporary
English, Student’s Dictionary of Anglo-Saxon by
II.Sweet, and diachronic,
or
historical dictionaries that register chronological development
of a word over time (the Oxford
English Dictionary and
its shorter two-volume
version the Shorter
Oxford English Dictionary on Historical Principles).

6.
Dictionaries arc also classified according to the prospective
user (a
teacher, a lawyer, an
adult, a child, or a person with poor vision). For example, the
Longman
Business English
Dictionary is
for students and people working in business. It includes 13,000
entries
covering terms in accounting, marketing, finance and other fields.
The Longman
Dictionary
of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics is
written for students and teachers
of linguistics and language teaching.

There
is a special type of dictionaries for learners of English as a
foreign language that is usually
referred to as learners’
type of English dictionaries.

These
dictionaries are typically linguistic dictionaries that cater to the
needs of foreign language
learners’ of different age, interest and level of language
proficiency.

Linguistic
dictionaries of learners’ type vary
in number of words, information about them, the
manner in which this information is presented. But all of them arc
noteworthy for the thorougness of their entries, explicit
pronunciation, carefully chosen examples of usage, and
abundance of pictorial illustrations.

Here
arc some monolingual
dictionaries
of this type, listed according to the learner’s
proficiency level:

Elementary to intermediate:

The
Oxford
Basic English Dictionary (11,000
words and phrases) and the Oxford
Elementary
Learner’s Dictionary (15,000
references) have easy explanations of meaning and
use, include guides to grammar forms and provide vocabulary-building
notes.

150

The
topical Oxford
English Picture Dictionary for
beginners to intermediate by E.C.Parnwcll
explains over 2,000 words (mainly nouns).

The
Longman
Elementary Dictionary gives
the meaning of 2,000 basic English words. It is
aimed at young learners and is richly illustrated.

Intermediate:

The
Oxford
Wordpower Dictionary has
30,000 references. It is designed to help students make the
breakthrough from a basic survival vocabulary to greater fluency. It
pays special attention
to vocabulary-learning skills and includes a study section that
presents techniques
for learning and recording new words.

The
Longman
Active Study Dictionary has
over 45,000 references with clear definitions based
on the 2,000-word Longman Defining Vocabulary. It also has
corpus-based examples
of usage, vocabulary practice exercises, and usage notes to help
students to avoid
common errors.

Intermediate to advanced:

The
Oxford
Learner’s Wordfmder Dictionary is
designed to enrich and expand learners’ vocabularies.
It includes over 600 entries that group vocabulary around keyword
concepts.
It also has extensive coverage of synonyms, opposites, derived words
and common
phrases.

The
Longman
Essential Activator, like
many other Longman dictionaries, has extra information to help
students avoid making common mistakes registered in Longman Learner’s
Corpus.

Upper-intermediate to advanced (proficient):

The
Oxford
Advanced Learner’s Dictionary by
A.S. Hornby
is
the world’s leading dictionary
for learners of English. It includes 63,000 references, 90,000
examples, 11,600 idioms
and phrasal verbs. The vocabulary used for definitions includes 3,500
carefully chosen
words. The sixth edition is available both in a book and CD-ROM
format.

The
Longman
Dictionary of Contemporary English is
of the same type. In addition to the types of information presented
the dictionary by A.S. Ilornby it also lists 3,000 most frequently
written and spoken words. Definitions in this dictionaty arc easily
understood because
only 2,000 words make up its defining vocabulary. More than 25,000
fixed phrases
and collocations arc included. The dictionary is based on language
databases of six
corpora, including the British National Corpus (Written and Spoken)
and the Longman American
Corpus (Written and Spoken), so it has the most up-to-date coverage
of English.

Longman
Lexicon of Contemporary English by
Tom McArthur includes
a detailed and

well-grounded taxonomy of semantic fields, clearly worked out
definitions and an

alphabetical index. It is both an explanatory dictionary and a
thesaurus.

151The
Longman Language Activator is
especially good for self-study and preparing for an examination like
the Cambridge Certificate in Advanced English. It takes students from
a key word through words and phrases they may need to express
themselves accurately and appropriately
in every situation.

Bilingual
and
Polylingual
Learners’Dictionaries
Bilingual
dictionaries are in special demand among beginning foreign language
learners.

The
most important and widely used English-Russian dictionaries in the
CIS countries are Англо-русский
словарь by
V.K. Muller, which includes about 70,000 references, Большой
англо-русский словарь in
two volumes (edited under the direction of I.R. Galperin
and K.M. Mednikova) with 160,000 references.

The
recent English-Russian bilingual dictionary under the editorship of
Y.D. Apresyan Новый
большой англо-русский словарь (1997,
second edition) includes more than 250, 000 references. It pays
special attention to finding ways of rendering semantic equivalence
between two correlative naming units in English and Russian.

Making
the list of complete and reliable Russian-English dictionaries one
should mention, first
of all, the
Русско-английский
словарь with
50,000 words compiled under the general
direction of A.I. Smimitsky, edited by O.S. Akhmanova.

A new generation of
bilingual dictionaries tries to combine accurate and up-to-date
translations
with the features of a monolingual learners’ dictionary. The
necessity of such a
combination was pointed out by the Soviet linguist L.V. Shcherba as
long ago as the 40’s
/Щерба 1958:88/. The major emphasis in these dictionaries is
placed now not just on correct
understanding of English words but also on learning how to use them.
Carefully chosen words are backed up by corpus-based examples,
pronunciation and illustrations. Notes
in the user’s own language help explain the grammar, usage, and
vocabulary. There are
also cultural notes, study pages and appendices on areas of
particular interest to different
groups of students.

A
polylingual learners’ dictionary Pocket
English-Belarusian-Russian Dictionary (Юшэнны
англа-беларуска-pycKi слоушк) is
compiled and edited by T.N. Susha and Л.К.
Shchuka at Minsk State Linguistic University and published by
Vysheyshaya Shkola in
1995. It includes 10,000 English naming units (words, collocations,
phrasal verbs and idioms)
and their equivalents in Belarusian and Russian as well as a list of
geographical names,
most common abbreviations and some extralinguistic information.

There
are a number of electronic bilingual dictionaries. The Abbyy
Lingvo 6.0 is
useful for
any foreign language learner and especially professionals as it is
rather a system of 14 dictionaries.
One of its LingvoUniversal (English-Russian Dictionary) includes
100,000 entries, the other LingvoUniversal (Russian-English
Dictionary) includes 70,000 entries.

152

The rest are specialized
dictionaries in business English, management, polytechnical terms,
and oil and gas refinement terminology. It also provides a sound
track for 5,000 most
frequently used English words.

Besides
purely linguistic dictionaries there arc many encyclopedias for
English learners that
combine encyclopedic and linguistic information, like the Oxford
Advanced Learner’s
Encyclopedic Dictionary with
93,000 references, among them 4,650 entries on people,
institutions, literature, and art, 94 feature articles on British and
American life, special
notes on literary and cultural connotations, or the Longman
Dictionary of English Language
and Culture with
80,000 words and phrases and over 15,000 cultural references.

Further reading:

Ступин. Л.П.
Словари
современного английского языка. —
Ленинград: Изд-во

Ленин!
радского университета, 1973. Суша
Т.Н. Лингвистические
основы лексикографии/На англ, языке —
Минск: МГЛУ,

1999.
Щерба
Л.В. Опыт
общей теории лексикографии//Избранные
работы акад. Л.В.

Щербы,
т.1. -Ленинград: Изд-во Ленинградского
ун-та, 1958. Burchfield,
Robert. The
English Language. — Oxford, New York: OUP, 1985. Hartmann,
R.R.K. (ed.).
Lexicography: principles and practice. — London: Academic

press, 1983.

Kraske,
Robert. The
Story of the Dictionary. — N.Y.: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1975.
WordNet:
An Electronic Lexical Database (Ed.
by Christian Fellbaum). — Cambridge,

MA: The MIT Press, 1998.

153

Chapter
10. THE MENTAL LEXICON AND THE ENGLISH VOCABULARY ACQUISITION

«When
we survey the variety ojconceptual structures that the
English language expresses we see that they are far too heterogeneous
to submit to any simple formula. No single
blueprint can adequately characterize the internal structure
of every semantic field; the architecture of the lexicon
is at least as diverse as the architecture of houses, skyscrapers,
bridges, gardens. If we wish to discover generalizations
about semantic structures, the best place to look would be in the
ways lexical concepts can be put together
rather than in the shapes of the finished products
«.

George
Miller and Philip N. Johnson-Laird, Language
and Perception, 1976:271.

The mental lexicon. The individual vocabulary of an adult. The
acquisition of the lexicon. The mental lexicon of a bilingual.

The mental lexicon]

The
word ‘lexicon’ long time has been associated with lexicography. It
was viewed as a large
dictionary that contains orthographical representation of an enormous
number of words related, first of all, alphabetically. The list of
words included much information about
their meaning, grammatical characteristics and probably pronunciation
that helps, however,
to establish other kinds of word-relations.

Lexicologists
paid special attention to semantic relations of words in a vocabulary
system arid
traditionally described them as paradigmatic and syntagmatic,
antonymic, and synonymic
(sec Chapter 7).

Since
knowledge of a language and its vocabulary is stored in our heads,
research on the ways
this storage is done and exercised was relegated to psychologists.

But modern linguistics is
marked by a fusion of theoretical general linguistics and psychology,
and the term ‘lexicon’ becomes more and more associated with the
mental lexicon.
One of the steps necessary for translating conceptual knowledge into
linguistic knowledge
is retrieving appropriate lexical units from our mental lexicon.

The
mental lexicon is
a lexical system representation in our mind.

Linguistics
has yet to provide a single undisputed working model of the mental
lexicon due
to its complexity. Now linguistics can only offer different
suggestions concerning its

154

most
abstract aspects, for example, the place of the mental lexicon in the
general model of language
capacity, structure oflexicon, character and number of items included
and types of
information about them.

ЛИ
scholars agree that our minds should contain the same types of
information about the word:
phonological, orthographical, morphological, semantic and syntactic,
and all of them are somehow linked. Otherwise the word would not be
understood, retrieved or properly
used.

Within the general model of
language capacity the mental lexicon should be directly related first
of all to lexicalizcd conceptual structures, because words without
meaning make
no sense. It should also be connected with syntactic and phonological
structures.

In order to perform its
generative character without which there is no acquisition and growth
of the vocabulary, the mental lexicon should also be connected with
rules governing
correct formation of conceptual, syntactic and phonological
structures.

Schematically it may be
represented in the following pattern worked out by
Jackendoff/Jackendoff
1997:39/:

As
it is presented in the scheme, language has three basic components,
with the lexicon being
attached to all of them.

Due to the lexicon all these
components of the mental grammar match. Interruptions in mapping
between the components and/or lexicon create problems in language
comprehension
or use. 1’he lexicon also has information about specific restrictions
the word
may have. The mental lexicon thus happens to be a deposit of all
knowledge
about the
meaning, grammar and phonology of the word. Thus, boundaries among
lexicon, grammar and phonetics are quite artificial, created just for
the sake of analytical convenience.

155

The
crucial questions are what is presented in the mental lexicon and how
it is structured to
provide reliable storage and retrieving from the memory.

It
should also be mentioned that traditional linguists have created a
successful science by ignoring
the numerous interactions between linguistic knowledge and world
knowledge as well
as the psychological and neurological structures providing it. They
have also developed
a methodology that works well for phonology, syntax, morphology and
certain areas
of semantics. But understanding and describing new, psychological
areas of lexical semantics
requires special methods of investigation that are still
in the process of developing.
Modern psycholinguistics makes a
wide
use of psychological methods, like free
association tests, and time measuring tests on word recognition as
well as traditional linguistic
analyses.

It has been established that
words in the mental lexicon are usually kept without inflections.
Inflectional suffixes are added to stems later, in speech. But
derivational affixes
are in the mental lexicon, at least as parts of derived words that
are stored there.

Nevertheless,
scholars still debate the
number and character of units stored in the mental lexicon.

One
theory argues that only simple
words and
their multiple properties are stored in our mental
lexicon. Among these properties arc: how a word is pronounced, what
part of speech it belongs to, what other words it is related to, and
how it is spelled. These properties
make up separate entries in our mental lexicon, and each of them
makes up a separate
interface and has a different access. That is with access to a word’s
acoustic property
we are able to find a rhyming word for it or to list some other words
with similar sound
structures just by using the lexicon’s phonetic interface. With
access to the part-of-speech
meaning of a word we may retrieve thousands of words with the same
lexical-grammatical
meaning from our memory. Tapping into semantic interface of a word,
we may
activate and retrieve lots of words semantically related to it. So,
in our mind there are multiple
vocabularies each of them with different units as their nearest
neighbours.

According
to this theory, derived lexical units and rules of word-formation are
outside the mental
lexicon. The mental lexicon is the place for just simple, non-derived
words. Derivatives may be somewhere else, for example, they may be
part of grammar or of some
other component of the language faculty.

But
it is also known, and it was mentioned in the previous chapters, that
all derived
and !

compound
words as
well as phraseological
units have
a special idiomatic component that <

can not be deduced from the formal structure of a lexical unit. This
fact provides the !

grounds
for believing that they should also be memorized and listed in the
mental lexicon.

Moreover, the rules of
word-formation listed in morphology are too general to be adequately
applied to a concrete word to form an accepted derivative. It makes
more sense
to
enlist the rules of word-formations with
all their exceptions and idiosyncrasies in

156

the
mental lexicon. That will add to the model of the mental lexicon its
active generative character
that we observe when we produce and interpret new words.

Not all derived and compound
words and word combinations should be listed in the mental
lexicon but only those that cannot be decomposed without changing the
meaning of
a lexical unit.

Thus, in the mental lexicon
alongside simple words there may be some derived and compound
ones and even sentences and some texts. There should also be some
rules
on
how
these complex units may be decomposed into simple ones or how a great
number of well-formed
derived words and even phrases with all their idiosyncratic
properties can be easily
produced or reproduced in speech.

Thousands of words,
morphemes and phraseological units as well as rules of their
formation
should be stored in our mind in some order, otherwise a momentary
successful retrieval and recognition would be impossible. The
question, however, is how?

There
arc many reasons to believe that there are radical differences in
quantity, character and
organization between words stored in alphabetically organized
dictionaries and the words
stored in our minds.

No person knows and uses all
the words that a large dictionary may contain (see ‘The individual
vocabulary of an adult’ below). Vice versa, each person has much more
information about each word that any dictionary may contain. The
information about meaning of the word presented in a dictionary is
scarce, dry and meager in comparison with the conceptual information.
For example, we know which word stands for prototypical item and
which for peripheral (cf: sparrow,
penguin, ostrich are
all birds,
but
only sparrow
is
the most typical of them). We may recognize different pronunciations
of
a word produced by different speakers while a dictionary may give
only one variant. Information
about combinability of a word is undcrrepresented in any dictionary:
a native speaker
knows much more information about lexical and grammatical
restrictions on word
usage which is quite scarce in a dictionary.

Linguists and psychologists collected much data about storing lexical
items and rules in

our
mind. Retrieval
of words from
memoiy and checking the activation
zones in
our mind

by modern equipment give a lot of information about the structure of
the mental lexicon.

Thus, it has been proven that different groups of words are stored
differently and are

placed in different cortex /ones. That is why some fields for some
reason may be

damaged without involving the others. After strokes people may
remember the names of

such concepts as ‘sphinx’ and ‘abacus’ but not remember the names of
fruit and

vegetables /Aitchison 1994:84/. Verbs and nouns, functional and
notional words are

stored separately in the mental lexicon, too.

Slips
of the tongue are
also an important source of this information. For example, since we
do
not have slips of the tongue for the words that follow each other in
a dictionary, like

157

decrease
and
decree,
there
are grounds to believe that in speech production the phonetic
interface is not as close to conceptual structures as, for example,
the semantic one, where the
relatedncss of such words as forks
and
knives,
and
shirts
and
skirts
cause
quite frequent
slips of the tongue.

So,
the mental lexicon may be viewed as
a structure with a number of distinct modules for
different types of information. There are separate modules for
syntactic, phonological, morphological
and semantic presentations; content words are supposed to be kept
separately
from functional words, verbs to be kept separately from nouns and
derivational affixes
separately from inflectional ones.

Yet,
the mental lexicon is not only a complex structure of information but
it is also a
complex
system where
all these types of information arc somehow connected.

The
degree
of connection between
different interfaces and between lexical units in the semantic
semantic interface of the mental lexicon is different: some links are
particularly strong,
like conneetionss between co-ordinates and collocational links; some
links are somewhat
weaker, like the connections between some of hyponyms and hyperonyms.

Nevertheless,
hierarchical relations are the most important types of word relations
for the assembling
the words into a structured whole. One theory assumes that a hyponym
inherits
the properties of its superordinates. To understand and remember a
hyponym we do
not need to mcmori/c all the features characteristic of a hypcronym,
we need to remember
only the
distinguishing features of
hyponyms. So, the inheritance system saves memory
space.

Numerous
studies of hierarchical taxonomies of words proved that on the
folk-level they
typically
have no more than
five levels
(see /Cruise 1991:145/) and frequently have fewer. These
levels are commonly labelled as follows:

The
most significant level of a taxonomy is called generic.
This
is the level of names of common
things and creatures: rose,
cat, oak, apple, car, cup. It
is the most numerous level,
and it is the level whose units are learned first. It is the level,
the units of which are predominantly simple, native and the most
frequently used names make up prototypical members
of the category.

158

There
are also connections between words of different lexical-semantic
fields (interfield
relations).
Some
of them, usually referred to as entailment,
or presupposition are
strong. Here are some examples of this type of semantic relations
between groups of different
lexical-semantic fields.‘Killing’
entails
‘dying’,
if
there is a ‘killing event’, then there
is also a ‘dying event’. Or, if
John is selling
his
piano it
means that John
owns
a
piano.
‘Sight
presupposes
eye,
education presupposes
learning,
journalist presupposes
press.

Some
inter-field relations may be weaker than that but they also may be
easily computed by reasoning. Conventional polysemes as well as
morphologically derived words where the
source and target names belong to different semantic fields make
these connections stronger.

Thus,
the lexical units, and first of all, words, form in our mind a kind
of a word-web,

where words are linked on various semantic, phonetic and syntactic
grounds. And now we

shall consider how people acquire this word-web. ‘

[2. The individual vocabulary of an adulll

It
was mentioned above that the English lexicon consists of a million
or, according to some
estimates, even up to three million words. Nobody, however, knows all
the words in a
language, though it is interesting to know how many words an
individual knows.

An
Englishman named D’Orsay produced a study based on the everyday
speech of a group
of fruit pickers, in which he came to a rather startling conclusion
that the vocabulary
of the illiterate and semiliterate does not exceed 500 words. Some
other studies
of subway conversations estimate the vocabulary of the average person
to be of about
1,000/Pei, 1967:116/.

Still
another estimation places the average adult vocabulary at between
35,000 and 70,000 words.
There is also an opinion that an
adult individual knows more
than one-fifth of the total number of words in a language, i.e. about
200.000
words. Hundreds
of thousands of words,
though they are listed in the large dictionaries, belong to special
scientific, professional,
or trade vocabularies and are not used or even recognized by the
average speaker.
It may also be forgotten that speakers naturally tend to acquire and
use those words which naturally fit into the picture of their
everyday lives. An illiterate peasant knows
the names of plants, shrubs, trees, insects, animals, and farm tools
of which a highly
educated and cultured city dweller may be almost totally ignorant.
Education and culture
have a great deal to do with vocabulary range, but not inevitably so.
Illiterate speakers
sometimes reveal an amazing range of spoken vocabulary.

159

The
discrepancy in the estimates of the mental lexicon may be partially
due to confusion between
use vocabulary and recognition vocabulary. For every word that we
constantly use
in our every day speech, there are perhaps ten words that we arc able
to recognize when
we hear them or see them in print. Some of these we are also able to
use when the occasion
calls for them. This would mean that even the child or adult having a
normal use vocabulary
of 1,000 words would «know» 11,000.

Greater
precision can, of course, be achieved in the matter of vocabulary
range for literary purposes.
But even here we run into striking discrepancies. One authority, for
example, estimates
that Shakespeare used 16,000 different words in his works, another
20,000, while
a third places the figure at 25,000. Racine is said to have used only
6,000 different words,
Victor Hugo 20,000. For newspaper usage we arc informed that a single
issue of the
French Le
Temps contained
3,800 different words /Pei 1967:118/.

The
question of vocabulary possession is complicated by the complexity of
the word itself,
by the difficulty of its definition. Moreover, one word may include
several naming units
when
it is polysemous. So, to estimate the mental lexicon’s volume one
should count naming
units, not words, as it is done traditionally. But such calculations
may become even
more problematic due to difficulties of sense differentiation.

f he acquisition of the lexicon)

The average time it takes a
child to learn the first 10 to 50 words is quite long: 4.8 months.
It means that the rate of the first words acquisition is about 10 new
words a month.

By
18 months children can use about 50 words and understand about five
times as many. Within
these 50 words there are nominals and action words, modifiers and
function words,
the words for personal and social relations. There are individual
differences in early
lexical development. Some children learn more object labels to talk
about familiar environment,
some children learn more pronouns and function words to to talk about
themselves
and others /Nelson 1981/.

After
that age a ‘vocabulary
explosion’ takes
place. By the age of two children’s spoken

vocabulary exceeds 200 words. By the age of seven children know about
1300 words and

schoolchildren learn thousands of new words per year. It is estimated
that the average

Oxford undergraduate has a vocabulary of about 75,000 words.

Many
reputable linguists have challenged these estimates. A very careful
study made by a ^roup
of psychologists presents the following figures: an average four-year
old child cnows over 5,000 words; at six, he reaches a vocabulary of
14,000 words; at eight, of 26,000
words; at ten, of 34,000. They claim that a college-educated adult’s
mental lexicon nay be up to 250,000 of words /Katamba 1994:228/.

160

Again,
estimations vary widely due to methodological difficulties and
different understandings
of the term ‘word’.

Learning
vocabulary means not only memorizing labels for certain concepts but
also acquiring
the rules according to which so many of these labels are created.
Children acquire
the derivational system of the language by the age of four, and from
that time their
vocabulary grows intensively thanks to the correct application of
derivational rules and
derivational morphemes. The majority of words they learn after that
age are derived words.

Measuring
the rate of children’s word-acquisition is the easiest thing in the
theory of the lexicon acquisition. A far more difficult thing is to
explain HOW it happens, and that is left
to theoreticians.

In
theoretical linguistics the problem of vocabulary acquisition is
quite new. Little has been
done to reveal the nature of word learning so far, and there are more
questions than answers
in this field. But all the linguists whose concern is the lexicon
point out that there is
a great need for such a theory. The ideas of complexity and
idiosyncratic nature of the lexicon,
of the innate linguistic ability and categorization principles are
definitely not enough
to explain children’s process of vocabulary acquisition.

Scholars
discuss the problem of ability to segment varying sound wave into
words, and there
is a belief that children can do it because of rhythmic alternation.

Concept
and word acquisition requires the ability to catcgori/e, and scholars
question whether
children’s mental representations are the same as adults’ ones.

Techniques
for deciding what a word may mean are under consideration. There are
some theories
on that, and one of them states that for a child a new word stands
for the whole thing,
not its parts.

Scholars argue about the
links between syntax and lexicon in the process of word-acquisition.
Some scholars believe that children make use of syntactic structures
in which the
words occur. These structures narrow the range of possible
interpretations.

The
question of the degree of brain activization is also discussed. The
recent interactive
activation
theory
suggests that the mind is an enormously powerful network in which any
word
which resembles the one heard is automatically activated, and that
each of these triggers its own neighbours, so that activation
gradually spreads like ripples on a pond. The opposite view on word
acquisition stresses the effectiveness of the mind and «the
least
efforts principle» that would never allow for such a procedure.

The
problem of vocabulary acquisition has been approached from a variety
of perspectives:
linguistic, psycholinguistic, sociolinguistic, neurolinguistic. Each
of them brings
something new to the understanding of the phenomenon. But due to this
diversity it

161

is
sometimes difficult for scholars to communicate with one another,
because they come from different traditions, use different
methodology and work on different data. Theories on
vocabulary acquisition are still in the process of developing.

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Семинар 6 Combinability. Word Groups

KEY TERMS

Syntagmatics — linear (simultaneous) relationship of words in speech as distinct from associative (non-simultaneous) relationship of words in language (paradigmatics). Syntagmatic relations specify the combination of elements into complex forms and sentences.

Distribution — The set of elements with which an item can cooccur

Combinability — the ability of linguistic elements to combine in speech.

Valency — the potential ability of words to occur with other words

Context — the semantically complete passage of written speech sufficient to establish the meaning of a given word (phrase).

Clichе´ — an overused expression that is considered trite, boring

Word combination — a combination of two or more notional words serving to express one concept. It is produced, not reproduced in speech.

Collocation — such a combination of words which conditions the realization of a certain meaning
TOPICS FOR DISCUSSION AND EXERCISES
1. Syntagmatic relations and the concept of combinability of words. Define combinability.
Syntagmatic relation defines the relationship between words that co-occur in the same sentence. It focuses on two main parts: how the position and the word order affect the meaning of a sentence.

The syntagmatic relation explains:

• The word position and order.

• The relationship between words gives a particular meaning to the sentence.

The syntagmatic relation can also explain why specific words are often paired together (collocations)

Syntagmatic relations are linear relations between words

The adjective yellow:

1. color: a yellow dress;

2. envious, suspicious: a yellow look;

3. corrupt: the yellow press
TYPES OF SEMANTIC RELATIONS

Because syntagmatic relations have to do with the relationship between words, the syntagms can result in collocations and idioms.
Collocations
Collocations are word combinations that frequently occur together.

Some examples of collocations:

• Verb + noun: do homework, take a risk, catch a cold.
• Noun + noun: office hours, interest group, kitchen cabinet.
• Adjective + adverb: good enough, close together, crystal clear.
• Verb + preposition: protect from, angry at, advantage of.
• Adverb + verb: strongly suggest, deeply sorry, highly successful.
• Adjective + noun: handsome man, quick shower, fast food.

Idioms

Idioms are expressions that have a meaning other than their literal one.

Idioms are distinct from collocations:

• The word combination is not interchangeable (fixed expressions).
• The meaning of each component is not equal to the meaning of the idiom

It is difficult to find the meaning of an idiom based on the definition of the words alone. For example, red herring. If you define the idiom word by word, it means ‘red fish’, not ‘something that misleads’, which is the real meaning.

Because of this, idioms can’t be translated to or from another language because the word definition isn’t equivalent to the idiom interpretation.
Some examples of popular idioms:

• Break a leg.
• Miss the boat.
• Call it a day.
• It’s raining cats and dogs.
• Kill two birds with one stone.

Combinability (occurrence-range) — the ability of linguistic elements to combine in speech.

The combinability of words is as a rule determined by their meanings, not their forms. Therefore not every sequence of words may be regarded as a combination of words.
In the sentence Frankly, father, I have been a fool neither frankly, father nor father, I … are combinations of words since their meanings are detached and do not unite them, which is marked orally by intonation and often graphically by punctuation marks.
On the other hand, some words may be inserted between the components of a word-combination without breaking it.

Compare,

a) read books

b) read many books

c) read very many books.

In case (a) the combination read books is uninterrupted.In cases (b) and (c) it is interrupted, or discontinuous(read… books).

The combinability of words depends on their lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical meanings. It is owing to the lexical meanings of the corresponding lexemes that the word wise can be combined with the words man, act, saying and is hardly combinable with the words milk, area, outline.

The lexico-grammatical meanings of -er in singer (a noun) and -ly in beautifully (an adverb) do not go together and prevent these words from forming a combination, whereas beautiful singer and sing beautifully are regular word-combinations.

The combination * students sings is impossible owing to the grammatical meanings of the corresponding grammemes.

Thus one may speak of lexical, grammatical and lexico-grammatical combinability, or the combinability of lexemes, grammemes and parts of speech.
The mechanism of combinability is very complicated. One has to take into consideration not only the combinability of homogeneous units, e. g. the words of one lexeme with those of another lexeme. A lexeme is often not combinable with a whole class of lexemes or with certain grammemes.
For instance, the lexeme few, fewer, fewest is not combinable with a class of nouns called uncountables, such as milk, information, hatred, etc., or with members of ‘singular’ grammemes (i. e. grammemes containing the meaning of ‘singularity’, such as book, table, man, boy, etc.).
The ‘possessive case’ grammemes are rarely combined with verbs, barring the gerund. Some words are regularly combined with sentences, others are not.

It is convenient to distinguish right-hand and left-hand connections. In the combination my hand (when written down) the word my has a right-hand connection with the word hand and the latter has a left-hand connection with the word my.

With analytical forms inside and outside connections are also possible. In the combination has often written the verb has an inside connection with the adverb and the latter has an outside connection with the verb.

It will also be expedient to distinguish unilateral, bilateral and multilateral connections. By way of illustration we may say that the articles in English have unilateral right-hand connections with nouns: a book, the child. Such linking words as prepositions, conjunctions, link-verbs, and modal verbs are characterized by bilateral connections: love of life, John and Mary, this is John, he must come. Most verbs may have zero

(Come!), unilateral (birds fly), bilateral (I saw him) and multilateral (Yesterday I saw him there) connections. In other words, the combinability of verbs is variable.

One should also distinguish direct and indirect connections. In the combination Look at John the connection between look and at, between at and John are direct, whereas the connection between look and John is indirect, through the preposition at.
2. Lexical and grammatical valency. Valency and collocability. Relationships between valency and collocability. Distribution.
The appearance of words in a certain syntagmatic succession with particular logical, semantic, morphological and syntactic relations is called collocability or valency.

Valency is viewed as an aptness or potential of a word to have relations with other words in language. Valency can be grammatical and lexical.

Collocability is an actual use of words in particular word-groups in communication.
The range of the Lexical valency of words is linguistically restricted by the inner structure of the English word-stock. Though the verbs ‘lift’ and ‘raise’ are synonyms, only ‘to raise’ is collocated with the noun ‘question’.

The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is different, cf. English ‘pot plants’ vs. Russian ‘комнатные цветы’.
The interrelation of lexical valency and polysemy:

• the restrictions of lexical valency of words may manifest themselves in the lexical meanings of the polysemantic members of word-groups, e.g. heavy, adj. in the meaning ‘rich and difficult to digest’ is combined with the words food, meals, supper, etc., but one cannot say *heavy cheese or *heavy sausage;

• different meanings of a word may be described through its lexical valency, e.g. the different meanings of heavy, adj. may be described through the word-groups heavy weight / book / table; heavy snow / storm / rain; heavy drinker / eater; heavy sleep / disappointment / sorrow; heavy industry / tanks, and so on.

From this point of view word-groups may be regarded as the characteristic minimal lexical sets that operate as distinguishing clues for each of the multiple meanings of the word.
Grammatical valency is the aptness of a word to appear in specific grammatical (or rather syntactic) structures. Its range is delimited by the part of speech the word belongs to. This is not to imply that grammatical valency of words belonging to the same part of speech is necessarily identical, e.g.:

• the verbs suggest and propose can be followed by a noun (to propose or suggest a plan / a resolution); however, it is only propose that can be followed by the infinitive of a verb (to propose to do smth.);

• the adjectives clever and intelligent are seen to possess different grammatical valency as clever can be used in word-groups having the pattern: Adj. + Prep. at +Noun(clever at mathematics), whereas intelligent can never be found in exactly the same word-group pattern.

• The individual meanings of a polysemantic word may be described through its grammatical valency, e.g. keen + Nas in keen sight ‘sharp’; keen + on + Nas in keen on sports ‘fond of’; keen + V(inf)as in keen to know ‘eager’.
Lexical context determines lexically bound meaning; collocations with the polysemantic words are of primary importance, e.g. a dramatic change / increase / fall / improvement; dramatic events / scenery; dramatic society; a dramatic gesture.
In grammatical context the grammatical (syntactic) structure of the context serves to determine the meanings of a polysemantic word, e.g. 1) She will make a good teacher. 2) She will make some tea. 3) She will make him obey.
Distribution is understood as the whole complex of contexts in which the given lexical unit(word) can be used. Есть даже словари, по которым можно найти валентные слова для нужного нам слова — так и называются дистрибьюшн дикшенери
3. What is a word combination? Types of word combinations. Classifications of word-groups.
Word combination — a combination of two or more notional words serving to express one concept. It is produced, not reproduced in speech.

Types of word combinations:

1. Semantically:
   1. free word groups (collocations) — a year ago, a girl of beauty, take lessons;
   2. set expressions (at last, point of view, take part).
2. Morphologically (L.S. Barkhudarov):
   1. noun word combinations, e.g.: nice apples (BBC London Course);
   2. verb word combinations, e.g.: saw him (E. Blyton);
   3. adjective word combinations, e.g.: perfectly delightful (O. Wilde);
   4. adverb word combinations, e.g.: perfectly well (O, Wilde);
   5. pronoun word combinations, e.g.: something nice (BBC London Course).
3. According to the number of the components:
   1. simple — the head and an adjunct, e.g.: told me (A. Ayckbourn)
   2. Complex, e.g.: terribly cold weather (O. Jespersen), where the adjunct cold is expanded by means of terribly.

Classifications of word-groups:

1. through the order and arrangement of the components:

• a verbal — nominal group (to sew a dress);

• a verbal — prepositional — nominal group (look at something);

1. by the criterion of distribution, which is the sum of contexts of the language unit usage:

• endocentric, i.e. having one central member functionally equivalent to the whole word-group (blue sky);

• exocentric, i.e. having no central member (become older, side by side);

1. according to the headword:

• nominal (beautiful garden);

• verbal (to fly high);

• adjectival (lucky from birth);

1. according to the syntactic pattern:

• predicative (Russian linguists do not consider them to be word-groups);

• non-predicative — according to the type of syntactic relations between the components:

(a) subordinative (modern technology);

(b) coordinative (husband and wife).

4. What is “a free word combination”? To what extent is what we call a free word combination actually free? What are the restrictions imposed on it?
A free word combination is a combination in which any element can be substituted by another.

The general meaning of an ordinary free word combination is derived from the conjoined meanings of its elements

Ex. To come to one’s sense –to change one’s mind;

To fall into a rage – to get angry.

Free word-combinations are word-groups that have a greater semantic and structural independence and freely composed by the speaker in his speech according to his purpose.

A free word combination or a free phrase permits substitution of any of its elements without any semantic change in the other components.
5. Clichе´s (traditional word combinations).
A cliché is an expression that is trite, worn-out, and overused. As a result, clichés have lost their original vitality, freshness, and significance in expressing meaning. A cliché is a phrase or idea that has become a “universal” device to describe abstract concepts such as time (Better Late Than Never), anger (madder than a wet hen), love (love is blind), and even hope (Tomorrow is Another Day). However, such expressions are too commonplace and unoriginal to leave any significant impression.

Of course, any expression that has become a cliché was original and innovative at one time. However, overuse of such an expression results in a loss of novelty, significance, and even original meaning. For example, the proverbial phrase “when it rains it pours” indicates the idea that difficult or inconvenient circumstances closely follow each other or take place all at the same time. This phrase originally referred to a weather pattern in which a dry spell would be followed by heavy, prolonged rain. However, the original meaning is distanced from the overuse of the phrase, making it a cliché.

Some common examples of cliché in everyday speech:

• My dog is dumb as a doorknob. (тупой как пробка)
• The laundry came out as fresh as a daisy.
• If you hide the toy it will be out of sight, out of mind. (с глаз долой, из сердца вон)

Examples of Movie Lines that Have Become Cliché:

• Luke, I am your father. (Star Wars: The Empire Strikes Back)
• i am Groot. (Guardians of the Galaxy)
• I’ll be back. (The Terminator)
• Houston, we have a problem. (Apollo 13)

Some famous examples of cliché in creative writing:

• It was a dark and stormy night
• Once upon a time
• There I was
• All’s well that ends well
• They lived happily ever after

6. The sociolinguistic aspect of word combinations.
Lexical valency is the possibility of lexicosemantic connections of a word with other word

Some researchers suggested that the functioning of a word in speech is determined by the environment in which it occurs, by its grammatical peculiarities (part of speech it belongs to, categories, functions in the sentence, etc.), and by the type and character of meaning included into the semantic structure of a word.

Words are used in certain lexical contexts, i.e. in combinations with other words. The words that surround a particular word in a sentence or paragraph are called the verbal context of that word.
7. Norms of lexical valency and collocability in different languages.
The aptness of a word to appear in various combinations is described as its lexical valency or collocability. The lexical valency of correlated words in different languages is not identical. This is only natural since every language has its syntagmatic norms and patterns of lexical valency. Words, habitually collocated, tend to constitute a cliché, e.g. bad mistake, high hopes, heavy sea (rain, snow), etc. The translator is obliged to seek similar cliches, traditional collocations in the target-language: грубая ошибка, большие надежды, бурное море, сильный дождь /снег/.

The key word in such collocations is usually preserved but the collocated one is rendered by a word of a somewhat different referential meaning in accordance with the valency norms of the target-language:

• trains run — поезда ходят;
• a fly stands on the ceiling — на потолке сидит муха;
• It was the worst earthquake on the African continent (D.W.) — Это было самое сильное землетрясение в Африке.
• Labour Party pretest followed sharply on the Tory deal with Spain (M.S.1973) — За сообщением о сделке консервативного правительства с Испанией немедленно последовал протест лейбористской партии.

Different collocability often calls for lexical and grammatical transformations in translation though each component of the collocation may have its equivalent in Russian, e.g. the collocation «the most controversial Prime Minister» cannot be translated as «самый противоречивый премьер-министр».

«Britain will tomorrow be welcoming on an official visit one of the most controversial and youngest Prime Ministers in Europe» (The Times, 1970). «Завтра в Англию прибывает с официальным визитом один из самых молодых премьер-министров Европы, который вызывает самые противоречивые мнения».

«Sweden’s neutral faith ought not to be in doubt» (Ib.) «Верность Швеции нейтралитету не подлежит сомнению».

The collocation «documentary bombshell» is rather uncommon and individual, but evidently it does not violate English collocational patterns, while the corresponding Russian collocation — документальная бомба — impossible. Therefore its translation requires a number of transformations:

«A teacher who leaves a documentary bombshell lying around by negligence is as culpable as the top civil servant who leaves his classified secrets in a taxi» (The Daily Mirror, 1950) «Преподаватель, по небрежности оставивший на столе бумаги, которые могут вызвать большой скандал, не менее виновен, чем ответственный государственный служащий, забывший секретные документы в такси».
8. Using the data of various dictionaries compare the grammatical valency of the words worth and worthy; ensure, insure, assure; observance and observation; go and walk; influence and влияние; hold and держать.

Worth & Worthy
Worth is used to say that something has a value: • Something that is worth a certain amount of money has that value; • Something that is worth doing or worth an effort, a visit, etc. is so attractive or rewarding that the effort etc. should be made. Valency: Worth + N: worth a lot of money; Worth + Ving: worth making; [it] + V-ing: it would be worth asking him [it] + Ν V-ing: it’s not really worth me voting Worth + N + to N: worth money to me [it] + Ν + for Ν to-INF (rare): it would be worth for you to know	Worthy: • If someone or something is worthv of something, they deserve it because they have the qualities required; • If you say that a person is worthy of another person you are saying that you approve of them as a partner for that person. Valency: Attributive: worthy candidate, worthy cause; Predicative: equally worthy + to-INF: worthy to be + of N/V-ing: worthy of closer examination.

Ensure, insure, assure
Ensure means ‘make certain that something happens’. Valency: + Np: ensure fairness + (that)-CLp.it: Ensure that there is adequate humidity in heated rooms + Np + Ν: does not ensure women a place at center stage + Np + for Ν: to ensure good fishing for everyone.	Insure — make sure Valency: + Np: insure continuation; + (that)-CLp.it: insure that future generations; + Np + Νp: They will not insure us victory; + Np + for Ν: insure items for replacement.	Assure: • to tell someone confidently that something is true, especially so that they do not worry; • to cause something to be certain. Valency: +N: assure the owner; + (that)-CL: assure him (that) the car will be ready; + by N: has been assured by the reviews

Observance & Observation
Observance: • the act of obeying a law or following a religious custom: religious observances such as fasting • a ceremony or action to celebrate a holiday or a religious or other important event: [ C ] Memorial Day observances [ U ] Financial markets will be closed Monday in observance of Labor Day.	Observation: • the act of observing something or someone; • the fact that you notice or see something; • a remark about something that you have noticed. Valency: + of: observation of human behaviour; Under +: keeping under observation; For +: to be admitted for observation; + on/about: interesting observations on the nature; to make +: may I make an observation.

Go & Walk
	Walk can mean ‘move along on foot’: • A person can walk an animal, i.e. exercise them by walking. • A person can walk another person somewhere , i.e. take them there, • A person can walk a particular distance or walk the streets. Valency: + Np: walk the dog; +ADJ: made us walk tall again; + into Np: to walk into a controversy; +over Np: to walk over me; ADVP-prep: to walk away/through/away N + ADV: We had to walk three kilometers to the river. Np + ADV: Can I walk you home? ADJ + ADV: it was like walking barefoot in the sand

Influence & Влияние
Influence: • A person can have influence (a) over another person or a group, i.e. be able to directly guide the way they behave, (b) with a person, i.e. be able to influence them because they know them well. • Someone or something can have or be an influence on or upon something or someone, i.e. be able to affect their character or behaviour in some way Valency: the UN is having difficulty exerting its influence; [the] + to-INF: the influence to lead the world + on N/wh-CL: influence on the work of the late 19th-century French avant-garde. + over Ν: Union influence over Labour + upon Ν: Its influence upon female physiology + with Ν: to use their influence with the PLO leadership	Влияние — Действие, оказываемое кем-, чем-либо на кого-, что-либо. Сочетаемость: Прил +: значительное влияние + сущ: влияние среды Сущ +: сферы влияния; Гл +: оказывать влияние.

Hold & Держать
Hold: • to take and keep something in your hand or arms; • to support something; • to contain or be able to contain something; • to keep someone in a place so that they cannot leave. Valency: ADJ +: tight hold; V +: take/keep hold; + on: his hold on her; + OBJ + ADJ: hold the door open; + OBJ + N: hold him hostage	Держать — взять в руки/рот/зубы и т.д. и не давать выпасть Сочетаемость: Сущ +: ноги держат + сущ: держать себя в руках, держать дистанцию.

1. Contrastive Analysis. Give words of the same root in Russian; compare their valency:

Chance	Шанс
+ to-INF: a chance to win; + (that)-CL: a chance that BA might co-operate; + for N/V-ing: chance for peace/regaining; + of N/V-ing /of Ν V-ing: no chance of her accepting; + for Ν + to-INF: a chance for me to show	Прил +: большой шанс; + сущ: шанс спасения; Сущ +: множество шансов; + гл: шанс даётся Гл +: дать шанс, оценить свой шанс
Situation	Ситуация
As a noun: bland situation, sort of situation; + that-CL: the situation that I was pregnant; + wh-CL: the situation when you open the door; + of N/V-ing: a situation of anarchy; + with Ν: situation with your husband.	Прил +: чрезвычайная ситуация; + сущ: ситуация общения; Сущ +: изменение ситуации; Гл +: оценить ситуацию; + гл: ситуация повторилась.
Partner	Партнёр
с глаголом be, become, create: to become a partner существительным live, business: business partner	Прил +: деловой партнёр; + сущ: партнёр фирмы; Сущ +: смена партнёра; Гл +: найти партнёра; + гл: партнёр решает.
Surprise	Сюрприз
to experience surprise (сочетаемость существительных:) to show surprise (сочетаемость существительных:) to cause no surprise (сочетаемость существительных:) to surprise smb (Глагольные словосочетания) to take smb by surprise (Глагольные словосочетания)	Прил +: небольшой сюрприз; Сущ +: масса сюрпризов; Гл +: сделать сюрприз; + гл: сюрприз удался.
Risk	Риск
As a noun: good risk; + that-CL: the risk that goods go; + for Ν/[at] + for N/V-ing: the risk for the investor; + from N/V-ing: risk from pets; + in N/V-ing: risk in flying south; + of N/V-ing / of Ν V-ing: the risk of crushing; + to Ν: a risk to our health; +for N + to-INF: a risk for Jim to bury Mary there.	Прил +: большой риск; + сущ: риск заражения; Сущ +: группа риска; Гл +: учитывать риск; + гл: риск возрастает.
Instruction	Инструкция
on the instruction of smb (сочетаемость существительных:) сочетаемость глаголов to make, to create.	Прил +: подробная инструкция; + сущ: инструкция пользователя; Сущ +: получение инструкции; Гл +: следовать инструкции; + гл: инструкция требовала.
Satisfaction	Сатисфакция
with satisfaction (сочетаемость существительных:) to cause satisfaction (сочетаемость существительных:) unique satisfaction (сочетаемость существительных:) total satisfaction (сочетаемость существительных:) personal satisfaction (сочетаемость существительных:)	Прил +: полная сатисфакция; Гл +: получить сатисфакцию;
Business	Бизнес
[it/no] + to-INF: He’ll make it his business to find out; [it/no] + V-ing: no business poking their noses; + of N/V-ing: the business of intervention; + with Ν: business with the players	Прил +: семейный бизнес; + сущ: бизнес отца; Сущ +: развитие бизнеса; Гл +: вести бизнес; + гл: бизнес растёт.
Manager	Менеджер
to see the manager (Глагольные словосочетания) He was promoted to manager. (Глагольные словосочетания) to apply to the manager (Глагольные словосочетания) to approach the manager about this matter (Глагольные словосочетания) The guests asked for the manager. (Глагольные словосочетания)	Прил +: старший менеджер; + сущ: менеджер группы; Сущ +: должность менеджера; Гл +: стать менеджером; + гл: менеджер сообщил.
Challenge	Челлендж
challenge to smb (фразеологические сочетания прилагательных с предлогами: господство/ подчинение/давление) challenge to smb (фразеологические сочетания прилагательных с предлогами:угрозы/насмешка/донос) challenge to a fight (фразеологические сочетания прилагательных с предлогами:список глаголов, требующих за собой предлог) to accept smb’s challenge (Глагольные словосочетания) to challenge a report (сочетаемость существительных:)	Прил +: новый челлендж; Гл +: продолжить челлендж; Сущ +: день челленджа.

10. From the lexemes in brackets choose the correct one to go with each of the synonyms given below:

1. Write a short definition based on the clues you find in context for the italicized words in the sentence. Check your definitions with the dictionary.

Sentence	Meaning
The method of reasoning from the particular to the general — the inductive method — has played an important role in science since the time of Francis Bacon.	The way of learning or investigating from the particular to the general that played an important role in the time of Francis Bacon
Most snakes are meat eaters, or carnivores.	Animals whose main diet is meat
A person on a reducing diet is expected to eschew most fatty or greasy foods.	deliberately avoid
After a hectic year in the city, he was glad to return to the peace and quiet of the country.	full of incessant or frantic activity.
Darius was speaking so quickly and waving his arms around so wildly, it was impossible to comprehend what he was trying to say.	grasp mentally; understand.to perceive
The babysitter tried rocking, feeding, chanting, and burping the crying baby, but nothing would appease him.	to calm down someone
It behooves young ladies and gentlemen not to use bad language unless they are very, very angry.	necessary
The Academy Award is an honor coveted by most Hollywood actors.	The dream about some achievements
In the George Orwell book 1984, the people’s lives are ruled by an omnipotent dictator named “Big Brother.”	The person who have a lot of power
After a good deal of coaxing, the father finally acceded to his children’s request.	to Agree with some request
He is devoid of human feelings.	Someone have the lack of something
This year, my garden yielded several baskets full of tomatoes.	produce or provide
It is important for a teacher to develop a rapport with his or her students.	good relationship

Lexicology is the part of linguistics which studies

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Terms in this set (829)

Lexicology is the part of linguistics which studies

The vocabulary of a language

Lexicology is closely connected with

All the above mentioned branches of linguistics

Semasiology is the branch of Lexicology that deals with

The study of word meaning

Phraseology studies

Free word-combinations and phraseological units

Etymology investigates

The origin and history of a word and its true meaning

Lexicography deals with

The theory and practice of compiling dictionaries

A morpheme is

The smallest indivisible two-facet language unit

Semantically morphemes are classified as

Root and affixational morphemes

Structurally morphemes fall into

Free, semi-free, bound, semi-bound morphemes

The root of the word is

The basic part of a word to which affixes are added

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