Which aspects has the word

The
modern approach to word studies is based on distinguishing between
the external
and
the
internal structures
of the word.

By
external
structure of the word we
mean its morphological
structure.
For example, in the word post-impressionists
the
following morphemes can be distinguished: the prefixes post-,
im-, the
root press,
the
noun-forming suffixes —ion,
—ist,
and the grammatical suffix of plurality -s.
All these morphemes constitute the external structure of the word
post-impressionists.

The
internal
structure of the word, or
its meaning,
is
commonly referred to as the word’s semantic
structure. This
is the word’s main aspect. Words can serve the purposes of human
communication solely due to their meanings.

The
area of lexicology specializing in the semantic studies of the word
is called semantics.

Another
structural aspect of the word is its unity.
The word possesses both external (or formal) unity and semantic
unity. Formal unity of the word is sometimes interpreted as
indivisibility. The example of post-impressionists
has
already shown that the word is not indivisible. Yet, its component
morphemes are permanently linked together in opposition to
word-groups, both free and with fixed contexts, whose components
possess a certain structural freedom, e.g. bright
light, to take for granted.

The
formal unity of the word can best be illustrated by comparing a word
and a word-group comprising identical constituents. The difference
between a
blackbird and
a black bird is
explained by their relationship with the grammatical system of the
language. The word blackbird,
which
is characterized by unity, possesses a single grammatical framing:
blackbird/s.
The
first constituent black
is
not subject to any grammatical changes. In the word-group a black
bird each
constituent can acquire grammatical forms of its own: the
blackest birds I’ve ever seen. Other
words can be inserted between the components: a
black night bird.

The
same example may be used to illustrate what we mean by semantic
unity.

In
the word-group a black
bird each
of the meaningful words conveys a separate concept: bird
– a
kind of living creature; black
– a
colour.

The
word blackbird
conveys
only one concept: the type of bird. This is one of the main features
of any word: it always conveys one concept, no matter how many
component morphemes it may have in its external structure.

A
further structural feature of the word is its susceptibility
to
grammatical employment. In speech most words can be used in different
grammatical forms in which their interrelations are realized.

All
that we have said about the word can be summed up as follows.

The
word
is
a speech unit used for the purposes of human communication,
materially representing a group of sounds, possessing a meaning,
susceptible to grammatical employment and characterized by formal and
semantic unity.

1. The main problems of lexicology

Two
of these have been already underlined. The
problem of word-building is
associated with prevailing morphological word-structures and with
processes of making new words. Semantics
is
the study of meaning. Modern approaches to this problem are
characterized by two different levels of study: syntagmatic
and
paradigmatic.

On
the syntagmatic
level, the
semantic structure of the word is analysed in its linear
relationships with neighbouring words in connected speech. In other
words, the semantic characteristics of the word are observed,
described and studied on the basis of its typical contexts.

On
the paradigmatic
level, the
word is studied in its relationships with other words in the
vocabulary system. So, a word may be studied in comparison with other
words of similar meaning. E.g. work
n – labour
n.
Work работа,
труд; 1
the
job that a person does especially in order to earn money. This word
has many meanings (in
Oxford Dictionary – 14),
many synonyms and idioms [`idiemz]: creative
work творческая
деятельность; public
work общественные
работы;
his life`s work дело
его жизни; dirty
work (difficult,
unpleasant) 1
чёрная работа; 2
грязное
дело, подлость.
Nice
work! Отлично!
Здорово!
Saying (поговорка):
All
work and no play makes Jack a dull boy (мешай
дело с бездельем, проживёшь век с
весельем)
–
it is not healthy to spend all your time working; you need to relax
too.

Labour:
“work”
и “labour” не взаимозаменимы; labour
– 1 work,
especially physical work: manual
labour,
a
labour camp
– исправительно-трудовой
лагерь; 2
people
who work: a
shortage of labour; cheap labour; skilled labour –
квалифицированные
рабочие, Labour
Party; labour relations; a labour of
Sisyphus;
Sisyphean
labour [,sisi‘fi:en]
сизифов труд; тяжёлый и бесплодный труд
– of a task impossible to complete. From the Greek myth in which
Sisyphus was punished for the bad things he had done in his life with
the never-ending task of rolling a large stone to the top of a hill,
from which it always rolled down again.

Other
words of similar meaning (e.g. to
refuse v – to reject v),
of
opposite meaning (e.g. busy
adj – idle adj; to accept v – to reject v),
of
different stylistic characteristics (e.g. man
n – chap n – bloke n – guy n).
Man
–
chap
(coll.)
–
парень, малый; a
good chap
–
славный малый; old
chap – старина;
chap
– BrE,
informal,
becoming old-fashioned – used to talk about a man in a friendly
way: He
isn`t such a bad chap really. Bloke
(coll.)
тип,
парень: He
seemed like a nice bloke.
Guy
– coll.
US – малый;
tough
guy железный
малый; wise
guy умник;
guys
(informal,
especially US) a
group of people of either sex: Come
on, you guys!

Consequently,
the main problems of paradigmatic studies are synonymy,
antonymy, functional styles.

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1. SEMASIOLOGY

Lecture 6

2. 1. Types of meaning

Semasiology is the branch of Linguistics which studies
the meaning of words, called semantics.
The name comes from the Greek semasia “signification”
(from sema “sign” semantikos “significant” and logos
“learning”).

3. The main objects of semasiological study are:

Semantic development of English words its causes and
classification, relevant distinctive features and types of
meaning, polysemy and the sematic structure of the
English polysemantic words and compounds, semantic
grouping and connections in the vocabulary system.

4.

There are two main types of meaning grammatical
meaning and lexical meaning.
The grammatical meaning is the meaning of an
inflectional morpheme or of some other syntactic device,
as word order. It depends on its role in a sentence.
For example, the tense meaning in the word forms of the
verbs: worked, told, bought; the meaning of plurality:
analyses, boys, types; the case meaning of nouns:
women’s, the green grocer’s, the optician’s.

5.

The lexical meaning of the word is the meaning proper
to the given linguistic unit in all its forms. The word
forms of the verb: to talk, talks, talked, talking possess
different grammatical meanings, but in each form they
have one and the same semantic component denoting
«the process of speaking».

6. 2. The causes of semantic changes

The causes of semantic changes can be extra-linguistic and
linguistic.
By extra-linguistic causes we mean various changes in the
life of the speech community, changes in economic and social
structure, scientific concepts and other spheres of human
activities as reflected in word meaning.
For example, the word «pen» comes back to the Latin word
«penna» (a feather of a bird). As people wrote with goose
pens the name was transferred to steel pens which were later
on used for writing. Still later any instrument for writing was
called «a pen».

7.

The main form of linguistic cause is
discrimination/differentiation of synonyms which can be
illustrated by the semantic development of a number of
words.
The conflict of synonyms when a perfect synonym of a native
word is borrowed from some other language one of them may
specialize in its meaning, e.g. in old English the noun «tide»
was polysemantic and denoted «time», «season», «hour».
When the French words «time», «season»,
«hour» were borrowed into English they ousted the word
«tide» in these meanings. It was specialized and now means
(regular movement of sea towards and away from the land).

8. 3.Semantic structure of English words

Every word has two aspects the outer aspect (its sound form) and the inner
form (its meaning) which presents a structure called the semantic structure
of the word. It is known that most words convey several concepts and
possess the corresponding number of meanings. One and the same word in
different syntactical relations can develop different meanings, e.g. the verb
«treat» in sentences:
The wood is treated with chemicals.
She was treated for minor injuries.
They treated me to sweets.
He treats his son cruelly.
These payments will be treated as income.
He treated my words as a joke.
In all these sentences the verb «treat» has different meanings and we can
speak about polysemy.

9.

A word having several meanings is called polysemantic and
words having only one meaning are called monosemantic
these words are few in number, e.g. molecule, hydrogen,
oxygen. These words are mainly scientific terms.
The bulk of English words are polysemantic. The ability of
words to have more than one meeting is described by the term
polysemy.
Polysemy is a phenomenon which has an exceptional
importance for the description of a language system and for the
solution of practical tasks connected with an adequate
understanding of the meaning of a word and its use.

10.

Different meanings of a polysemantic word may come together
due to the proximity of notions which they express.
For example, the word blanket has the following meanings: a
woolen covering used on beds, a covering for keeping a horse
warm, a covering of any kind (a blanket of snow), covering all
or most cases used attributively, e.g. we can say (A blanket
insurance policy).

11. Levels of analysis of the semantic structure of a polysemantic word

The semantic structure of a polysemantic word can be
distinguished between two levels of analysis.
On the first level the semantic structure is presented by
different meanings as the main or primary meaning stands in
the centre and the secondary meanings proceed out of it like
rays. Each second remaining can be traced to the primary
meaning. This type of the semantic structure of a polysemantic
word is called as radial polysemy and can be presented on the
diagram.

12.

airline
airbag
airmail
AIR
airman
airlift
aircraft
airport
airspeed

13.

From the diagram above it is observed that all secondary meanings
of the key word «air» are connected with the primary meaning in
the center and motivated by it.
The second level of analysis is determined as the semantic
components within each separate meaning, where some semantic
structures are arranged on different principles, they are not
correlated with each other and have variable meanings. This type of
a polysemantic word can be called the chain of polysemy.
In the following list of meanings of the adjectives dull and high one
can hardly find a generalized meaning covering and holding together
the rest of the semantic structure.

14.

15.

As you see from this table the adjectives dull and high with
the different nouns forming new word-groups which are
distinguished into separate meanings.
In most cases in the semantic development of a word both
ways: radial polysemy and chain polysemy are combined.

16. 4.Nature of semantic changes

A necessary condition of any semantic change is some
connection, some association between the old meaning and
new one.
There are two kinds of association involved in various
semantic changes — metaphor and metonymy.

17. Metaphor

The word «metaphor» came from the Greek language metaphero (to carry over,
to transfer) — meta (between) and phero (to bear, to carry).
A metaphor is a transfer of the meaning based on comparison and an association
of similarity of two objects, phenomena. Metaphor can be based on different
types of similarity:
Similarity or shape, e.g. head (of a cabbage), the neck (of the bottle), teeth (of
a saw, a comb);
Similarity of position, e.g. foot (of a page, of a mountain), head (of a chair,
the procession);
Similarity of function, behavior, e.g. a lady-killer — a man who is attractive
and successful with women and can fascinate them, a whip (an official in the
British Parliament whose duty is to see that members were present at the
voting)
Similarity of color, e.g. orange, hazel, chestnut, the gilded youth, a sunny
smile, black gold, black economy.

18. Metaphor

Many metaphors are based on parts of a human body, e.g. the leg
of a table, an eye of a needle, arms and mouth of a river, head of
an army.
A special type of metaphor is when proper names become
common nouns, e.g. philistine- a mercenary person, vandals destructive people, a Don Juan — a lover of many women, etc.
When new words are needed in order to describe things that did not
exist before, they are often created by means of metaphor. With the
growth of computer technology, we need words to describe many
new objects and activities — and most of these new words have been
produced metaphorically: surfing, net, home, page, mailbox,
mouse, virus, window.

19. Metonymy

Metonymy is a transfer of the meaning on the basis of contiguity. It is a
change of names between things that are known to be in some way and
associating two referents, one of which can have resembles the other. There
are different types of metonymy:
The material of which an object is made may become the name of the
object, e.g. a glass, board, iron etc.;
The name of the place may become the name of the people or of an
object placed there, e.g. the House – members of Parliament, Fleet Street
– bourgeois press, the White House – the Administration of the USA, etc.;
Names of musical instruments may become names of musicians, e.g.
the violinist, the saxophonist, the pianist, etc.;

20. Metonymy

The name of some person may become a common noun, e.g.
“boycott” was originally the name of an Irish family who were so
much disliked by their neighbours that they did not mix with them,
“sandwich” was named after Lord Sandwich who was a gambler.
He did not want to interrupt his game and had his food brought to
him while he was playing cards between two slices of bread not to
soil his fingers;
Names of inventors very often become terms to denote things
they invented, e.g. “watt”, “om”, “roentgen” etc.;
Some geographical names can also become common nouns
through metonymy, e.g. Holland (linen fabrics), Brussels (a
special kind of carpets), china (porcelain), astrakhan (a sheep fur)
etc.

21. 5. The main Semantic Aspects of Compounds

The structural meaning of compounds is formed on the base of the
the order and arrangement of the constituents of a compound word.
A change in the order and arrangement of the same components of
the word gives us the compounds with different lexical meanings,
e.g. finger-ring denotes a ring which is worn on finger, whereas the
compound word ring-finger means the finger next to the little
finger, especially of the left hand, on which the wedding ring is
worn.
So, these words contain two root morphemes, the combined lexical
meaning of which can be changed account for the difference in the
arrangement of the component morphemes.

22.

The semantic structure of compound words can be
changed in a result of rearrangement of their distributional
patterns, e.g. dog house – it is a special house for a dog
(конура), house-dog – it is a kind of a dog living near the
house or in the house and protecting the house and
housekeeper. The shift in order and place of the constituent
parts of a compound can destroy its meaning.

23. The semantic structure of compounds

The semantic structure of compounds can be divided into two
groups:
a) Non-idiomatic compounds
b)Idiomatic compounds
Non-idiomatic compounds represent meanings which can be
described as the sum of their constituent meanings, e.g. classroom,
bedroom, raincoat, nightdress, dancing-hall, changing-room.

24.

The compounds which meanings do not correspond to the separate
meanings of the constituent parts are called idiomatic compounds.
They are divided into two types:
Partial (non complete) changed meaning;
Total (complete) changed meaning.
In the first type of compounds one of the components has changed its
meaning. In this type of compound words we see the process of
alternation of meaning.
E.g. a blackbird, a blackboard, chatter-box, blackberries.
For example, the compounds a blackbird, a bluebird convey only one
concept: the type of bird.
The compound word blue-baby is about a child who has a weak heart or
something wrong with heart whose skin is slightly blue.

25.

The second type of compounds it is a process of complete change of
meaning or the key semantic aspect has been lost, e.g. a ladybird, tallboy,
bluestockings, bluebottle, butter-fingers, lady-killer, lady-finger.
A ladybird is not a bird, but insect;
A tallboy is not a boy, but a piece of furniture;
Bluestockings – an old fashioned word is about a well-educated woman who
is more interested in ideas and studying, who dedicates her life to science
Bluebottle- is not a bottle, it is a large fly with a blue body
Butter-fingers is a clumsy person often has accidents.
Lady-finger – a small long thin cake made with eggs, sugar and flour.

26. Seminar task:

1. Explain the different meanings and the different usages, giving Russian/Kazakh
equivalents of:
Smart, adj.
Smart clothes, a smart answer, a smart house, a smart garden, a smart officer, a smart blow, a
smart punishment.
Stubborn, adj.
A stubborn child, a stubborn look, a stubborn horse, a stubborn resistance, a stubborn fighting, a
stubborn cough, a stubborn depression.
Blank, adj.
Blank wall, blank verse, blank sheet, blank form, blank years, blank face, blank look.
Root, n.
The root of the tooth, the root of the matter, square root, cube root, family roots.
Perform, v.
To perform one’s duty, to perform an operation, to perform a dance, to perform a play.

27. Seminar task:

2. Arrange the compounds into 2 groups: a) idiomatic,
b) non-idiomatic. Say whether the semantic change
within idiomatic compounds is partial or total.
Light-hearted, butterfly, flower-pot, backache, watermelon, cabman, blackberry, bluebell, wolf-dog, highway,
horse-marine, greengrocer, lazy-bones, blacklist, butterfinger, earth-quake, lady-killer, seaman, sun-flower,
ladybird, bluecoat, money-box, flower-bed, sunflowerseed, air-kiss, culture-vulture.

28. Seminar task:

3. Define the difference in meaning of the given
compounds, possessing the change of distributional patters.
(Do the given task according to the following example).
The change of the order of its components will change its
lexical meaning: vid-kid is “a kid who is a video fan” while
kid-vid means “a video film for kids”.
Pot-flower – flower-pot, fruit-market – market-fruit, boathouse – house-boat, school-grammar – grammar-school,
board-school – school-board.

29. SIW

Find 20 idiomatic compound words (partial and
total) and give the complete analysis and translation.