When did the word king being

• Anointing
• Big man (anthropology)
• Buddhist kingship
• Client king
• Coronation
• Designation
• Divine right of kings
• Germanic kingship
• Great King
• High King
• King consort
• King of Kings
• Petty king
• Queen
• Realm
• Royal and noble ranks
• Royal family
• Sacred king
• Tribal kingship

Titles translated as «king»

• Archon
• Basileus
• Lugal
• Kabaka
• Mepe (title)
• Malik/Melekh
• Mwami
• Negus
• Oba
• Raja
• Rex (king)
• Rí
• Tlatoani
• Shah
• Tagavor

1. ^ There have been rare exceptions, most notably Jadwiga of Poland and Mary, Queen of Hungary, who were crowned as King of Poland and King of Hungary respectively during the 1380s.
2. ^ The notion of a king being below an emperor in the feudal order, just as a duke is the rank below a king, is more theoretical than historical. The only kingdom title held within the Holy Roman Empire was the Kingdom of Bohemia, with the Kingdoms of Germany, Italy and Burgundy/Arles being nominal realms. The titles of King of the Germans and King of the Romans were non-landed titles held by the Emperor-elect (sometimes during the lifetime of the previous Emperor, sometimes not), although there were anti-Kings at various points; Arles and Italy were either held directly by the Emperor or not at all.

   The Austrian and Austro-Hungarian Empires technically contained various kingdoms (Hungary, Bohemia, Dalmatia, Illyria, Lombardy–Venetia and Galicia and Lodomeria, as well as the Kingdoms of Croatia and Slavonia which were themselves subordinate titles to the Hungarian Kingdom and which were merged as Croatia-Slavonia in 1868), but the emperor and the respective kings were the same person. The Russian Empire did not include any kingdoms. The short-lived First French Empire (1804–1814/5) included a number of client kingdoms under Napoleon I, such as the Kingdom of Italy, the Kingdom of Westphalia, the Kingdom of Etruria, the Kingdom of Württemberg, the Kingdom of Bavaria, the Kingdom of Saxony and the Kingdom of Holland. The German Empire (1871-1918) included the Kingdoms of Prussia, Bavaria, Württemberg and Saxony, with the Prussian king also holding the Imperial title.

3. ^ Pine, L.G. (1992). Titles: How the King became His Majesty. New York: Barnes & Noble. p. 86. ISBN 978-1-56619-085-5.
4. ^ History Crunch Writers. «Aztec Emperors (Huey Tlatoani)». History Crunch — History Articles, Summaries, Biographies, Resources and More. Retrieved 18 April 2021.
5. ^
   see e.g. M. Mitterauer, Why Europe?: The Medieval Origins of Its Special Path, University of Chicago Press (2010),
   p. 28.
6. ^ The distinction of the title of «king» from «sultan» or «emir» in oriental monarchies is largely stylistics; the Sultanate of Oman, the State of Qatar, the State of Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates are also categorised as absolute monarchies.

Look up cyning in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.

Wikiquote has quotations related to King.

Since the norman conquest, English has changed drastically from a purely germanic language to one where nearly 40% of its vocabulary is from Norman French. Of these, words of power make up the majority- absolute, dominion, ducal/duchy, etc. But there seems to be a pretty major exception: King, which is wholly germanic. when you look up the etymology, this is what you get:

Old English cyning**,** cyng**, of Germanic origin; related to Dutch** koning and German König**, also to kin.**

However, the monarchs (up until Henry VIII!) used things like Rex Anglium, Latin. Their French counterparts saw the evolution from Rex Francorum to Roi des Francais. A similar story in Spanish with Rey.

So, how come, despite the Latin/romance-speaking rulers, who certainly passed down more than a few other words relating to governance and weapons, this german word that they didn’t seem to use survived?

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6. Martin Luther King, Jr.

    Martin Luther King, Jr., was a black
clergyman from Atlanta, Georgia. When King was a child, he learned that black
people and white people did not mix in public places. Black people sat in
different parts of restaurants and movie theaters. Black people sat at the back
of the bus. Black and white children went to different schools. This kind of
separation is called segregation.

    King loved to study. He was a good
student and went to college at a young age. He was only fifteen years old. When
he finished college, he began to fight segregation. He did not believe in
violence. He believed in peace. He helped black people to protest in peace.
They went on marches in peace.

    King also wanted equality for
everybody. He wanted black and white men and women to have an equal chance in
the United States. This is called the civil rights movement. In 1963, King was
the leader of the civil rights march on Washington, D.C. Thousands of people
listened to his famous speech. It begins, «I have a dream.»

    In 1964, Martin Luther King, Jr., was
the youngest person to get the Nobel Peace Prize. This award is for people who
try to make peace in the world. In 1968, an assassin killed King. He was only
thirty-nine years old. His birthday, January 15, is a national holiday in the
United States.

QUESTIONS

1. What was the Martin’s huge discovery when he was a child?
a. Black people didn’t go to the theatre.
b. It was a strict separation between black and white people.
c. White people didn’t study at school.

2. At what age did Martin finish his studying?
a. At 15
b. At 16
c. At 17

3. What could not King accept?
a. Cruelty
b. Equality
c. Weakness

4. Where did King make his famous speech beginning “I have a dream”?
a. At college.
b. In Washington D.C.
c. On the stage, when he got the Nobel Prize.

5. What was special about King’s getting the Nobel Prize?
a. He was the oldest person.
b. He was the first who had ever gotten it.
c. He was the youngest person to get it.

6. What date, connected with Martin, became a national holiday in the USA?
a. The day of his death.
b. The day of his most famous march.
c. The day of his birth.

7. What is the antonym for the word ‘violence’ (paragraph 2)?
a. Kindness
b. Cruelty
c. Aggressiveness
d. Strength

ANSWERS

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2 Kings 22 – King Josiah Finds the Book of the Law

Audio for 2 Kings 22:

A. The beginnings of Josiah’s reforms.

1. (1-2) A summary of the reign of Josiah, the son of Amon.

Josiah was eight years old when he became king, and he reigned thirty-one years in Jerusalem. His mother’s name was Jedidah the daughter of Adaiah of Bozkath. And he did what was right in the sight of the LORD, and walked in all the ways of his father David; he did not turn aside to the right hand or to the left.

a. Josiah was eight years old when he became king: Unusually, this young boy came to the throne at eight years of age. This was because of the assassination of his father.

i. “At last, after more than three hundred years, the prophecy of ‘the man of God out of Judah’ is fulfilled (1 Kings 13:2).” (Knapp)

b. He did what was right in the sight of the LORD: This was true of Josiah at this young age; but it is really more intended as a general description of his reign rather than a description of him at eight years of age.

2. (3-7) Josiah tells Hilkiah to repair the temple.

Now it came to pass, in the eighteenth year of King Josiah, that the king sent Shaphan the scribe, the son of Azaliah, the son of Meshullam, to the house of the LORD, saying: “Go up to Hilkiah the high priest, that he may count the money which has been brought into the house of the LORD, which the doorkeepers have gathered from the people. And let them deliver it into the hand of those doing the work, who are the overseers in the house of the LORD; let them give it to those who are in the house of the LORD doing the work, to repair the damages of the house— to carpenters and builders and masons— and to buy timber and hewn stone to repair the house. However there need be no accounting made with them of the money delivered into their hand, because they deal faithfully.”

a. In the eighteenth year of King Josiah: According to 2 Chronicles 34, this repair of the temple was preceded by a definite commitment to God when Josiah was 16, and then some four years later by an iconoclastic purge attacking idolatry in Judah.

i. “The Chronicler (2 Chronicles 34-35) appears to present a two-stage sequence of events: (i) the purification of religious practices in Judah, Jerusalem and Naphtali in Josiah’s twelfth year, and (ii) a continuing reformation stimulated by the discovery of the Book of the Law in the eighteenth year. But this may be a presentation to fit in with the Chronicler’s particular emphases.” (Wiseman)

ii. “If Josiah had not yet seen a copy of this book, (which is not impossible,) yet there was so much of the law left in the minds and memories of the people, as might easily persuade and direct him to all that he did till this time.” (Poole)

iii. It is possible that Josiah was motivated to rebuild the temple after hearing (or remembering) that this was what King Jehoash did many years before (2 Kings 12).

b. Let them give it to those who are in the house of the LORD doing the work, to repair the damages of the house: Josiah understood that the work of repair and rebuilding the temple needed organization and funding. He paid attention to both of these needs when he commanded Hilkiah to begin the work on the temple.

i. According to Jeremiah 1:1-2, the prophet Jeremiah was the son of this particular priest Hilkiah. Jeremiah began his ministry during the reign of King Josiah.

3. (8-10) The Book of the Law is found and read.

Then Hilkiah the high priest said to Shaphan the scribe, “I have found the Book of the Law in the house of the LORD.” And Hilkiah gave the book to Shaphan, and he read it. So Shaphan the scribe went to the king, bringing the king word, saying, “Your servants have gathered the money that was found in the house, and have delivered it into the hand of those who do the work, who oversee the house of the LORD.” Then Shaphan the scribe showed the king, saying, “Hilkiah the priest has given me a book.” And Shaphan read it before the king.

a. I have found the Book of the Law in the house of the LORD: According to Deuteronomy 31:24-27, there was to be a copy of this Book of the Law beside the ark of the covenant, beginning in the days of Moses. The word of God was with Israel, but it was greatly neglected in those days.

i. This neglect could only happen because Judah was in prolonged disobedience to God.

· Deuteronomy 17:18-20 tells us that each king was to have a personal copy of the law, and he was to read it.

· Deuteronomy 31:9-13 tells us that the entire law was to be read to an assembly of the nation once every 7 years at the Feast of Tabernacles to keep the law before the people.

· The Levites, scattered among the country, also had the implied responsibility to teach the law to the people of Israel.

ii. The first we know of a public reading of the law is in Joshua 8:34. The next we hear of it is during the reign of Jehoshaphat (2 Chronicles 17:7-9), more than 500 years later. Then, in the reign of Josiah there was another public reading of the law (2 Chronicles 34:30), more than 250 years after Jehoshaphat. Of course, there might have been public readings of the law as commanded here which are not recorded; but the fact that some are recorded probably means they were unusual, not typical.

iii. Some believe that the particular portion of the law that was found and read before King Josiah was the Book of Deuteronomy. “The identification with Deuteronomy rests on the dependence of some of Josiah’s actions on the book (e.g. 2 Kings 22:9, cf. Deuteronomy 18:6-8; and the impact of the prophecies predicting exile; the support Deuteronomy 17:14 gives to nationalistic aspirations, etc.).” (Wiseman)

iv. “Was this the autograph of Moses? It is very probable that it was; for in the parallel place, 2 Chronicles 34:14, it is said to be the book of the law of the Lord by Moses. It is supposed to be that part of Deuteronomy (28, 29, 30, and 31,) which contains the renewing of the covenant in the plains of Moab, and which contains the most terrible invectives against the corrupters of God’s word and worship.” (Clarke)

b. And he read it: It seems remarkable that this was even worthy of mention – that the high priest found the word of God and a scribe read it. Yet the word of God was so neglected in those days that this was worthy of mention.

i. Shaphan simply told the king, “Hilkiah the priest has given me a book.” “Shaphan did not despise the book, but he had not yet, like many a modern scribe, realized the importance of that blessed volume. Then – after ‘money,’ and ‘overseers,’ and ‘workmen,’ have all been mentioned – ‘then Shaphan the scribe told the king, saying, ‘Hilkiah the priest hath given me a book’ – only a book!” (Knapp)

c. Shaphan read it before the king: Here the word of God spreads. It had been forgotten and regarded as nothing more than an old, dusty book. Now it was found, read, and spread. We should expect some measure of spiritual revival and renewal to follow.

i. Throughout the history of God’s people, when the word of God is recovered and spread, spiritual revival follows. It can begin as simply as it did in the days of Josiah, with one man finding and reading and believing and spreading the Book.

ii. Another example of this in history is the story of Peter Waldo and his followers, sometimes known as Waldenses. Waldo was a rich merchant living in the 12^th century who gave up his business to radically follow Jesus. He hired two priests to translate the New Testament into the common language and using this, he began to teach others. He taught in the streets or wherever he could find someone to listen. Many common people came to hear him and started to radically follow Jesus Christ. He taught them the text of the New Testament in the common language and was rebuked by church officials for doing so. He ignored the rebuke and continued to teach, eventually sending his followers out two by two into villages and market places, to teach and explain the scriptures. The scriptures were memorized by the Waldenses, and it was not unusual for their ministers to memorize the entire New Testament and large sections of the Old Testament. The word of God – when found, read, believed, and spread – has this kind of transforming power.

iii. “It is interesting to note the popularity of animal names for persons in this period. ‘Shaphan’ means ‘rock badger’ and ‘Achbor’ means ‘mouse.’ ‘Huldah’ the name of the prophetess introduced in the next section, means ‘mole.’” (Dilday)

B. King Josiah is confronted with the Book of the Law.

1. (11) The initial reaction to the discovery of the Book of the Law.

Now it happened, when the king heard the words of the Book of the Law, that he tore his clothes.

a. When the king heard the words of the Book of the Law: The hearing of God’s word did a spiritual work in King Josiah. It was not merely the transmission of information; the hearing of God’s word had an impact of spiritual power on Josiah.

b. He tore his clothes: The tearing of clothing was a traditional expression of horror and astonishment. In the strongest possible way, Josiah showed his grief on his own account and on account of the nation. This was an expression of deep conviction of sin, and a good thing.

i. Revival and spiritual awakening are marked by such expressions of the conviction of sin. Dr. J. Edwin Orr, in The Second Evangelical Awakening in Britain, recounted some examples from the great movement that impacted Britain and the world in 1859-1861:

· “At the commencement of the prayer-meeting, a sturdy looking man (who had been coming to the chapel every night but going away hardening his heart) jumped on to a form, and speaking out before all the people, said, ‘Do you know me?’ The praying men answered, ‘Yes.’ ‘What am I then?’ he said. They replied, ‘A backslider.’ ‘Well, then,’ said he, ‘I will be a backslider no longer; all of you come to Jesus with me,’ and he fell in an agony of prayer for God to have mercy on him; indeed the anguish and desire of his soul was too much for him, for he swooned away on the floor before us all. His wife was one of the first converted the previous week, and only that evening had sent up a request that God would save her husband, who was a poor miserable backslider. About thirty that night professed to obtain mercy…”

· In the town of Coleraine, Northern Ireland, a schoolboy was under so much conviction of sin that he couldn’t continue on in class. The teacher sent him home in the company of another boy, who was already converted. On the way home the two boys noticed an empty house and stopped there to pray. The unhappy boy found peace and returned to the classroom immediately to tell the teacher: “I am so happy: I have the Lord Jesus in my heart!” His testimony had a striking effect on the class, and boy after boy slipped outside the classroom. The teacher peeked out the window and saw boys kneeling in prayer all around the schoolyard. The teacher was so convicted that he asked the first converted boy to minister to him. Finally the whole school was in such a state that the administrators sent for pastors to come and minister to the students, teachers, and parents, and people received ministry at the school until 11:00 that night.

· A high-ranking army officer described the conviction of sin in his Scottish town: “Those of you who are at ease have little conception of how terrifying a sight it is when the Holy Spirit is pleased to open a man’s eyes to see the real state of heart… Men who were thought to be, and who thought themselves to be good, religious people… have been led to search into the foundation upon which they were resting, and have found all rotten, that they were self-satisfied, resting on their own goodness, and not upon Christ. Many turned from open sin to lives of holiness, some weeping for joy for sins forgiven.”

ii. This conviction of sin is the special work of the Holy Spirit, even as Jesus said in John 16:8: “And when He has come, He will convict the world of sin.”

2. (12-13) King Josiah seeks the LORD.

Then the king commanded Hilkiah the priest, Ahikam the son of Shaphan, Achbor the son of Michaiah, Shaphan the scribe, and Asaiah a servant of the king, saying, “Go, inquire of the LORD for me, for the people and for all Judah, concerning the words of this book that has been found; for great is the wrath of the LORD that is aroused against us, because our fathers have not obeyed the words of this book, to do according to all that is written concerning us.”

a. Go, inquire of the LORD for me: It wasn’t that King Josiah knew nothing of God or how to seek him. It was that he was so under the conviction of sin that he did not know what to do next.

b. For great is the wrath of the LORD that is aroused against us: Josiah knew that the kingdom of Judah deserved judgment from God. He could not hear the word of God and respond to the Spirit of God without seriously confronting the sin of his kingdom.

3. (14-17) God’s word to the kingdom of Judah: Judgment is coming.

So Hilkiah the priest, Ahikam, Achbor, Shaphan, and Asaiah went to Huldah the prophetess, the wife of Shallum the son of Tikvah, the son of Harhas, keeper of the wardrobe. (She dwelt in Jerusalem in the Second Quarter.) And they spoke with her. Then she said to them, “Thus says the LORD God of Israel, ‘Tell the man who sent you to Me, “Thus says the LORD: ‘Behold, I will bring calamity on this place and on its inhabitants— all the words of the book which the king of Judah has read— because they have forsaken Me and burned incense to other gods, that they might provoke Me to anger with all the works of their hands. Therefore My wrath shall be aroused against this place and shall not be quenched.’”’”

a. Huldah the prophetess: We know little of this woman other than this mention here (and the similar account recorded in 2 Chronicles 34:22). With the apparent approval of King Josiah, Hilkiah the priest consulted this woman for spiritual guidance. It wasn’t because of her own wisdom and spirituality, but that she was recognized as a prophetess and could reveal the heart and mind of God.

i. There were certainly other prophets in Judah. “Though the contemporary prophet Jeremiah is not mentioned, he commended Josiah (Jeremiah 22:15-16), and the prophet Zephaniah (Zephaniah 1:1) was at work in this reign.” (Wiseman) Yet for some reason – perhaps spiritual, perhaps practical – they chose to consult Huldah the prophetess.

ii. “We find from this, and we have many facts in all ages to corroborate it, that a pontiff, a pope, a bishop, or a priest, may, in some cases, not possess the true knowledge of God; and that a simple woman, possessing the life of God in her soul, may have more knowledge of the divine testimonies than many of those whose office it is to explain and enforce them.” (Clarke)

b. I will bring calamity on this place and on its inhabitants: Josiah knew that Judah deserved judgment, and that judgment would indeed come. Judah and its leaders had walked against the LORD for too long, and would not genuinely repent so as to avoid eventual judgment.

c. All the words of the book: God’s word was true, even in its promises of judgment. God’s faithfulness is demonstrated as much by His judgment upon the wicked as it is by His mercy upon the repentant.

4. (18-20) God’s word to King Josiah: The judgment will not come in your day.

“But as for the king of Judah, who sent you to inquire of the LORD, in this manner you shall speak to him, ‘Thus says the LORD God of Israel: “Concerning the words which you have heard—because your heart was tender, and you humbled yourself before the LORD when you heard what I spoke against this place and against its inhabitants, that they would become a desolation and a curse, and you tore your clothes and wept before Me, I also have heard you,”says the LORD. Surely, therefore, I will gather you to your fathers, and you shall be gathered to your grave in peace; and your eyes shall not see all the calamity which I will bring on this place.”’” So they brought back word to the king.

a. Because your heart was tender: Josiah’s heart was tender in two ways. First, it was tender to the word of God and was able to receive the convicting voice of the Holy Spirit. Second, it was tender to the message of judgment from Huldah in the previous verses.

b. You shall be gathered to your grave in peace: Though Josiah died in battle, there are at least three ways that this was true.

· He died before the great spiritual disaster and exile came to Judah.

· He was gathered to the spirits of his fathers, who were in peace.

· He died in God’s favor, though by the hand of an enemy.

c. Your eyes shall not see all the calamity which I will bring on this place: This was God’s mercy to Josiah. His own godliness and tender heart could not stop the eventual judgment of God, but it could delay it. Inevitable judgment is sometimes delayed because of the tender hearts of the people of God.

i. God delayed judgment even in the case of Ahab, who responded to a word of warning with a kind of repentance (1 Kings 21:25-29).

©2018 David Guzik – No distribution beyond personal use without permission

§ Henry VIII was a wasteful and cruel monarch in comparison with his father. When Henry VIII became king at the age of 18, he was slim, athletic and handsome. He spoke several languages, liked to dance and was very musical. As an old man, he was a terrifying figure. He was impatient, unpredictable, and suffered from fits of depression. And he was so fat that a special machine had to take him upstairs.

§ Henry’s second wife Anne Boleyn was arrested on charges of being a witch – she had six fingers on her left hand. His fifth wife Katherine Howard was only about 16 when she married Henry. He was 49!

§ By the time Henry VIII died, he had more than 60 houses. More than 1,000 meals were served there every day. Hampton Court has the oldest and largest grape vine in the world, planted in 1768. It’s also famous for its maze. Nearly a third of a million people pass through it every year… or don’t!

§ His obsession was to have a male heir.

§ He had 6 wives (Catherine of Aragon, Anne Boleyn (Elizabeth), Jane Seymour (an heir), Anne of Cleves, Kathryn Howard, Katherine Parr)

§ Reformation (Defender of the Faith, Clement VII, Supreme Head of the Church, Anglican Church) a religious and political movement inspired by a wish to reform the Roman Catholic Church, resulted in the establishment of the Protestant Church

§ Strengthening of the navy with faster ships and better crews; unification of Wales and England in 1536 by the 1^st Act of Union; utopian vision of Thomas More; poetry and music of the Tudor Court.

39. Why did the English people dislike Mary I?

~ was determined to re­turn England back to the Pope, as she was a fanatic Roman Catholic.

~ Parliament had to accept Philip (of Spain) as King of England for Mary’s lifetime

~ Her marriage was very unpopular and caused several uprisings.

~ She crushed the rebels and pursued an aggressive policy against protestants: more than 300 people were burned

~ England was no better than a province of Spain

40. What is the Renaissance? When did it begin in Britain? What spheres of life did the Renaissance influence?

Renaissance – is a French word meaning ‘rebirth’, and it is used to describe the period of European history from about 1340 to 1600. The R was the period when the Middle Ages came to an end and the Modern World began. During that time great changes took place in literature, painting, sculpture, architecture and science. Until that time, men’s chief concern was God. The man of the R. saw himself in the centre of all things. They thought less of death and more of life. This made them eager to fond out all they could, opening up completely new possibilities. People became less attached to the Church and more to their own country. This feeling was particularly strong in England and France. England felt the effects of the R. later than much of Europe because of its insular position.

41. Why was the reign of Elizabeth I called ‘the Golden Age’? What were the prominent writers, poets, painters, philosophers and scientists of that period?

Sir Thomas More, William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, Francis Bacon, Sir Walter Raleigh.

Indeed she saw a flower of a Renaissance in England. Elizabeth gave her name to the his­torical period, her reign (1558-1603) was the most colourful and splendid in English history. She was the embodi­ment of everything English and the English had found themselves as a nation. During that time great changes took place in literature, painting, sculpture, architecture and science. The artistic and literally movements of the R. was full of love of life and respect for freedom of the human mind. ‘Virgin Queen’

42. Why did Elizabeth support many English seamen that caused trouble to Spanish ships? Who were the most famous seamen of the time?

A group of English, Dutch and Portuguese pirates who have joined against Spain were called the Buccaneers. The West Indies were the centre of the Buccaneers and the island of Tortuga (Venezuele) was their headquarters. These sea men were not only pirates but also adventurous, travelers, trades, explorers. E1 encouraged the sea-dogs as they were called; the Piracy was common around the coast of the Br. Isles in the 16^th century. Although the ships were privately owned, the treasure was shared with the queen. The Spanish ambassadors were constantly asking to put a stop to the piracy, but she claimed they were acting on their own accord. The most famous seamen: Sir John Hawkins (slave trader), Sir Francis Drake (the 1^st Eng. man to sail around the world), Sir Martin Frobisher (tried to discover the N-W passage to China), Sir Walter Raleigh (courtier, introduced smoking), Sir Henry Morgan (lieutenant governor of Jamaica).

43. What was the result of the sea battle between the Armada and the English fleet?

The Spanish Armada (1588) – a Spanish fleet designed to carry an army to invade England, to overthrow Queen Elizabeth I and to return England to Catholicism. English ships attacked Spanish ships as they returned from America loaded with silver and gold. England defeated S.A.; many ships were sunk but most were scattered by the winds and racked on the rock of Scotland and Ireland. Only 86 out 130 survived. The Armada was rather awk­ward against the quick English ships. The Armada was defeated by the English ships and the storm in the English Channel. But that was not the end of the war with Spain. Peace was made only after the death of Elizabeth.

44. What were the reasons for the conflict of the Stuarts with the Parliament?

1. The 1^st Stuart Kings quarreled violently and often with Parliament. The 1^st signs of trouble between crown and P. came in 1601 when the Commons were angry over Elizabeth’s policy, but P. did not demand any changes because it didn’t want to upset the queen whom it feared and respected.
2. The King’s obsession with a union between England and Spain. James was determined to marry his son Charles to the Spanish Princess.
3. The King was even determined to return the country to Catholicism.
4. Like E., James tried to rule without P. as much as possible. He insisted that he alone had the right to make any decisions. James ignored the Magna Carta.
5. J. was successful in ruling while Br. Remained at peace.

1. Ch I was quarreling even more bitterly with P. then his father, mainly over money. When MPs refused to vote to give him money to pay for his governmental policies, Ch I, dismissed P. and ruled 11 years on his own.
2. The period of personal government came to an end when the king became involved in a war with Scotland in 1639 and the Irish rebelled in 1641. Ch realised he couldn’t manage without P. anymore.
3. The MPs came to London and were very critical of the king’s 11-years’ rule. They drew a long series of demands for reform and executed the ministers. In his turn Ch tried to arrest 5 MPs. The conflict between the monarchy and P. — the Civil War (1642-1646).

45. How did the Civil War develop and end?

The 2 opposite sides were The Cavaliers (King) and The Roundheads (P.)

The Roundheads (short hair) controlled East Anglia and the S-E including London. This army at 1^st consisted of armed groups of apprentices [ə’prentɪs]. It controlled the most important national and international sources of wealth.

The Cavaliers had no ways of raising money. They were supported by the House of Lords and the few of the Commons. They controlled most of the North and West of the country.

No more than 10% of the population became involved in the war.

At 1^st the King’s army was successful but P’s troops led by Sir Thomas Fairfax and Oliver Cromwell eventually won. Ch was put on trial.

46. What social groups supported Oliver Cromwell? What new kind of army did he create?

It was supported by armed groups of apprentices, the navy, merchants, population of London and some noblemen. Oliver Cromwell, a farmer in the past and a great military leader who had organ­ized the New Model Army (the first regular force made up of educated men who wanted to fight for their beliefs).

On December 16th in Westminster Oliver Cromwell publicly accepted the title of Lord Protector of a United Common­wealth of England, Scotland, Ireland and the colonies. — Protectorate [prə’tektərɪt]

He didn’t dare to take up the title of King, as there was opposition to that in the Army.

47. What was Charles I accused and found guilty of?

The charges against him were that he was ‘a tyrant, traitor, murderer and public enemy’. Found guilty of ‘making was against his kingdom and the P.’ On the 30^th January in 1649 Charles was executed in public in the center of London outside his own home Whitehall Palace. (2 shirts, the crowd moaned, some people fainted)

48. How did O. Cromwell govern the country?

After the Civil War from 1649-1660 Br was governed as a republic. Oliver Cromwell was a strict Puritan educated at Cambridge and elected to P. for Cambridge city. He proved to be a religious radical, social conservative and pro soldier. Cromwell created a severe government. People were forbidden to celebrate Christmas and Easter or to play games on a Sunday. His efforts to govern the country though the army were extremely unpopular, and the Republic was not a success. When he died, the Protectorate collapsed. The monarchy was restored in 1660 and the period known as Interregnum was over.

49. Why did Scotland agree to the union with England in 1707? What was the new official name of the united state?

Queen Ann (1702-1714) — the last Stuart monarch. The Act of Union (1707) which finally fully united Scotland with England and created Great Britain. Although the Scottish were reluctant to lode freedom, they had to agree Scotland needed to remove limits of trade with England from which it suffered economically. + there was danger that an English army would march into Scotland. From that moment Scotland didn’t have its P. but was represented in the new government of Great Br. Scotland, however, kept its own legal and judicial systems and its own church.

50. What military heroes glorified Great Britain in the Napoleonic Wars?

Admiral Nelson (won several important victories over the French. His most famous battle was the battle of Trafalgar (Southern Spain, 1805)

Arthur Wellington (finally defeated Napoleon at Waterloo (near Brussels 1815)

Thomson

Admiral St. Vincent

51. Why was colonizing foreign lands important? What colonies did Britain have in North America, in the West Indies and India?

G.B. was the greatest colonial power of that time with all its territorial possessions which covered a quarter of the world. It was called The British Empire. Colonizing foreign lands was important territorial, strategic [strə’tiːʤɪk], economic development. Colonies provided a huge domestic market.

1. In North America Britain possessed Virginia, Maryland and New England.

2. In India the British became the masters of Bengal [beŋ’gɔːl] in North-East Province.

3. in the West Indies: the island groups extended across a Caribbean from Florida to Venezuela were Barbados [bɑː’beɪdɔz], Dominica [ˌdɔmɪ’niːkə], Jamaica…

52. What did the British government and the American colonies quarrel over?

In the middle 18 century 13 American colonies objected to the taxations imposed on them by the Britain’s Parliament. The resentment was expressed by the Boston Massacre a confrontation between troops and a crowd in Br. The Boston Tea Party in 1773 — the distraction of imported tea in the harbour of Boston. The Parliament undertook repressions though the opposition of Whigs were against this disastrous policy.

53. When did the American War of Independence begin? What was the result of the war?

In 1775 The American Revolution broke out resulting in the Declaration of 13 American Colonies and independent nation of the USA. George Washington — the 1^st President.

54. What new ideas did the War of Independence bring? What were the revolutionary changes in art in the 18th century?

1. The Union Flag / the Union Jack

2. In 1807 slave trade was abolished

3. The King built a magnificent library and the great collections of pictures

4. A brilliant gallery of writers and poets wrote their works (William Wordsworth, G. Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats)

5. Painting was equal to the achievements to literature

· The writers and artists looked for inspiration to nature to emotions to the spirit of freedom. It was a revolution in the arts which was a part of social, cultural, political changes in the world.

55. What branches of industry were progressing in the Industrial Revolution of the 18th century?

1. A change from domestic production to production in factories under capitalist control, an introduction of water and steam power to drive machines or inventions that transformed several major industries.

2. The textile industry was notable series of inventions which together with the factory of organization and capitalist control insured the rapid growth to become the leader of industrial sector.

3. Mechanical inventions also revolutionized agriculture, mining, shipbuilding, iron and steel industries.

4. New industrial working class appeared. Mechanization lead to the growth of the social inequality, the wealth of the fuel and the misery and poverty of the majority were increasing equally rapidly.

56. What do you know about Chartism?

In 1838 the first petition was drawn up by leaders of first association of work­ers, which was called thePeople’s Char­ter. It included six main demands for changes: 1) the vote for all males,2) an equal amount of people should vote in each district, 3)vot­ing by secret ballot [‘bælət],4) salary for MPs, 5)men shouldn’t need to be property owners if they wished to stand for Parliament,6) annual Parliaments. All these reforms seemed revolutionary at that time. The Chartist movement was sup­ported by the working people, but it had its ups and downs. The first Charter was rejected by Parliament, the leaders were arrested. Even so the first 4 Charter’s demands became law within the next 70 years.

57. What disasters did Ireland suffer in 1845, 1846 and 1847? What country did many Irish emigrate to?

Queen V’s reign was overshadowed by full crisis in Ireland. For 3 years: 1845, 1846, 1847 the potato crop which was the main food of the poor failed. Ireland suffers the worst disaster in his entire history. In these 3 years 1, 5 million people died from hunger at the same time Ireland had enough weed to feed the population but it was explored to England. V’s government failed to realize the seriousness of the problem. Many Irish people had little choice but to leave. Most settled in the US some settled in the towns and cities of Britain.

58. What were the greatest cultural achievements of the Victorian age?

Gothic Revival architecture became increasingly significant. The middle of the 19th century saw The Great Exhibition of 1851, the first World’s Fair, which showcased the greatest innovations of the century. At its centre was the Crystal Palace, a modular glass and iron structure – the first of its kind. The emergence of photography, showcased at the Great Exhibition, resulted in significant changes in Victorian art with Queen Victoria being the first British monarch to be photographed.

59. What moral values are called ‘Victorian’?

‘Victorian’ moral values are those values that still have special meaning in Britain. The Queen had given an example of family life and shared her moral religious values. There are primness, strictness, social formality, hard work, life within your income, a traditional morality based on the family, sex within marriage, patriotism.

60. When did the Windsor family come to power? What important events of the 20th century did they witness?

n Britain lost its economic advantages

n British people invested money abroad

n British workers produced less

n Britain was behind other countries in science and technology

n Britain no longer ruled the sea

n Britain was frightened of Germany’s modern navy

n World War I (the Great War) 1914 – 1918 (Germany and Austria-Hungary made a military alliance
Russia, France and Britain made one too) 750 000 killed, 2 000 000 wounded

n The Depression (1930 – 1933 a serious post-war economic crisis)

n World War II (1939 – 1945 Adolf Hitler, Winston Churchill: ‘blood, toil, tears and sweat’) 300 000 killed 60 000 civilians killed

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