What word means to think about thinking - Word и Excel - помощь в работе с программами

One word that comes to mind is metacognition:

[Merriam-Webster]

: awareness or analysis of one’s own learning or thinking processes

• research on metacognition … has demonstrated the value of monitoring one’s own cognitive processes —Colette A. Daiute

The Study.com psychology course transcript «What is Metacognition in Psychology? — Definition & Examples» discusses this (emphasis in original):

Whether we’re driving our cars, reading a book, texting a friend, or eating at a burger joint, we’re using our brains. Our thought processes aren’t limited to the classroom, and we learn all the time, from everyday experiences as well as from teachers and professors. So what’s important about this learning? It’s called metacognition, or what you know about your own thoughts. Metacognition is a deeper level of thinking that includes your ability to think about your thinking; how you understand, adapt, change, control, and use your thought processes.

Charlie, a professor preparing to instruct on metacognition, has written some ideas on the board about when his students use metacognition:

Anytime you problem solve or apply strategies, like figuring out a tip at a restaurant or planning a road trip across the country.

To reflect on results from a learning experience, or evaluate them, such as when you receive a B on a test and do extra credit to push the grade to an A.

When you’re aware of ways that work for you to remember information, like dates or facts for a test.

In other words, as Charlie later explains to his students, you’re being metacognitive anytime you stop and think about yourself as a thinker. Charlie’s students are a little confused, so he offers additional explanations.

Although the psychology course transcript uses metacognitive as an adjective, it’s not found in Merriam-Webster. It is, however, found in Oxford.

But I have not found an actual verb form of the word.

Still, you might be able to rephrase your sentence to something like this:

I was involved in metacognition with respect to your suggestion.

Источник

Think of and Think about are two expressions that are often used in the same sense since there is not much of a difference between think of and think about. Both expressions, think of and think about, are created by adding prepositions of and about to the end of the verb think. Therefore, before understanding the expressions think of and think about we should first know some details about the word think. Now, the word think is used as a verb as well as a noun. The origin of the word think lies in the Old English word thencan. Moreover, there are a number of phrases in English language that use the word think such as think again, think aloud, think big, etc.

What does Think Of mean?

Think of is used to express remembrance. In other words, you can say that think of is used when you call something to mind. Look at the sentences given below.

I think of my car when I watch the races.

He thinks of his award whenever he sees another getting one.

In both the sentences, the usage of the expression think of is made to express the sense of remembrance. In the first sentence, the person remembered his own car when he watched the races. Alternatively, we could say the person calls the image of his car into his mind when he watches races. In the second sentence , the person remembered the award given to him whenever he saw another person getting a similar award.

Moreover, the expression think of lasts less time when you consider the duration of thought. In the examples, the first speaker does not keep on thinking about his car. Rather his car comes to his mind, and that thought goes away in a short time.

What does Think About mean?

The expression think about, on the other hand, expresses the sense of ‘interest due to affection or any other feeling’ as in the sentences,

I think about my sister whenever I see her.

He thinks about his home when he is away from it.

In both the sentences, the usage of the expression think about suggests the idea of ‘interest due to affection or any other feeling. In the first sentence, the person’s interest on her sister due to affection for her is suggested. In the second sentence, the person’s interest on his home is suggested by the usage of the expression think about.

When considering the duration of the thought it should be said that the expression though about suggests that the thought is a lengthy one. That means the thought that came to mind stays there for a while. You do not just remember you sister and forget her. Rather you keep on thinking about her for some time.

What is the difference between Think Of and Think About?

• Think of is used to express remembrance. In other words, you can say that think of is used when you call something to mind. The expression think about, on the other hand, expresses the sense of ‘interest due to affection or any other feeling.’ This is primarily the difference between the two expressions, namely, think of and think about.

• The expression think of is more momentary than think about in terms of duration of thought. In other words, the expression think about suggests that the thought is a lengthy one whereas the expression think of suggests that the thought is a short one. This is also an important difference between the two expressions think of and think about.

Источник

Thinking is the cognitive process, the use of everything from long-term memory to come to an end or solution to the problem.

In everyday language, we have been using the term “thinking” with a wide variety of meanings. The phrase thinks better means for a more favorable opinion, think twice to reconsider, or think again, think up to invent, contrive plan, etc. Webster’s New World Dictionary (1988) defines the word think, as the general word which means to exercise mental faculties to form ideas arrive at conclusions, etc.

Thinking is also synonymously used with the words reason, cogitate, and reflect. The word reason implies a logical sequence of thought, starting with what is known or assumed and advancing to a definite conclusion through the interference drawn. For example, he reasoned that she would accept the proposal. Cogitate is used sometimes humorously to describe a person who is, or appears to be thinking hard. For example, I was cogitating, not daydreaming. Reflect implies turning one’s thoughts back on a subject, or a series of unbroken thoughts.

Thinking is an incredibly complex process and must difficult concept in psychology to define and explain. Philosopher has argued for a generation about the meaning of thinking. In the field of psychology, thinking refers to the active mental process. Psychologists defined thinking as the manipulation (handle) of the mental representation of information.

A mental representation may take the form of a word, a visual image, a sound, a data any other sensory modality stored in memory. Thinking transforms a particular representation of information into a new and different form, allowing us to answer questions, solve problems or reach goals.

Thinking can be defined in many ways:

Thinking Is A Symbolic Process

Thinking is defined as the memory representations or symbols for a purpose. While executing mental actions and implementing decisions, individuals take the help of visual representations or mental images of persons or objects. The mental images or visual representations may be in the form of past knowledge, understanding of signs, symbols, concepts, ideas, visual pictures, words, languages, numbers, and diagrams rather than the overt activity.

The systematic arousal of symbols helps organize thinking. For example, if we have to carry a large table through a narrow doorway, we rotate a visual image of the table in our mind, determining that the table won’t fit if it is not turned sideways. Davis, S.F., and Palladino (2004) define”thinking as a mental process involving manipulation of information in the form of images or concepts that is inferred from our behavior”.

Thinking Is A Higher Mental Process

Thinking comes under cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology is a branch of psychology that deals with higher mental processes which examine thinking, knowing and reasoning, problem-solving, decision making, and understanding the world, communicating our thoughts to others, using our memory and current experience. It is only through thinking that we encode, process, store, retrieve and analyze information.

Thinking makes human beings higher organisms than animals. It makes a person capable of winning the Novel prize, exploring the universe, solving complex problems instantly, or mentally be retarded. It is a process that remains until death. People think even in dreams and sleep.

Thinking Is A Sub-Vocal Talking

Thinking is a private process, the inner workings of an individual as well as a mechanical activity of the person. Thinking is neither an activity confined to the head nor directly observable. It involves implicit or inner behavior, mental images, and some slight muscular movements.

We can not think only in verbal and mathematical symbols but also in gestures of the arm, hands, and heads, as well as in a wide variety of expressive movements, such as shrug of the shoulders, arrowed eyebrows, a smile, etc. thus the whole organism is involved in thinking. If we watch children solve a puzzle, we can observe their movements. From these movements, we can determine what they are thinking. Thus, it is called sub-vocal talking.

Thinking Is Fulfilling A Need or Problem Solving

It is always initiated by a problem and ends with its solution. It is evident when we produce new meanings, beliefs, and plans to solve problems or make decisions. Some problems are easy to solve while others require great effort, concentration, patience, and thought. Some may be unsolvable but still, we think. The thinking goes on to trace out the required route to reach the goal, mentally removing obstacles. This process helps to understand the nature of the problem, identify the needed information to solve it, and then generate a list of solutions.

Thinking can be seen in the “aha” (I got the answer) experience when people find the solution to a problem suddenly that had been in their mind for hours or days, later, thus fulfilling the need of an individual. Warren, H.C. and L. Carmichael (1930) define thinking as “it is a symbolic, initiated by a problem or task which the individual is facing, involving some trial and errors but under the directing influence of that problem and ultimately leading to a conclusion or solution of the problem.

Elements of Thought

Thinking uses tools and instruments of various kinds. These are the elements that help to work our thinking effectively. Some of these are mental images, concepts, and propositions.

Mental Images

Mental images are mental pictures of our past experiences. Whenever we think of certain objects or events we visualize them in their absence. Images can be auditory, olfactory, visual, gustatory, cutaneous, or kinesthetic. For example, you can recall the mental pictures of the picnic with your friends where you listened to good music (auditory), enjoyed delicious foods (gustatory), smelled the flower around the picnic spot (olfactory), good sceneries (visual), danced with your friends each other’s hands (cutaneous), and so on.

Mental imagery is greatly used in sports and music. Athletes use them while in a training phase. Sports psychologists have advocated visual imagery as a practice technique to enhance performance in sports and in rehabilitating injuries. Research evidence shows that mental practice can activate brain structure which aids in performance. Thus images help us to plan a course of action if we scan information stored in memory. It also helps on a task for better results.

Although images play an important role in thinking but not all involve images. Images may not be necessary for abstract thinking. Much of it involves the formation and use of concepts.

Concepts

Concepts are the mental representation of a class of objects, people, events, and things that share common characteristics. e.g. animals, furniture, vegetables, etc. Cauliflower, beans, and cabbages are examples of the concepts of vegetables. Red, green, and white are the concepts of colors. The flower is a concept but an individual flower is not a concept. The word mother is a concept but my mother is not a concept. Similarly, the sun, and moon, are not concepts.

Concepts help to reduce our mental efforts and make communication easier with relative ease. They organize complex phenomena into simpler, easily understandable, and usable categories and help to solve our problems.

Propositions

Thinking involves languages, percepts, and symbols to give meaning to our thinking process. Propositions describe the mental manipulation of these cognitive skills (languages, mental images, concepts) for meaningful relationships to what we are thinking. Propositions form mental models which guide our knowledge structure with objects places and events of the world around us.

While an incorrect model leads to errors in thinking and inactions. For example, the sentence “I missed you” conveys intimacy between two best friends. If your mental model is wrong about that friend you may think negatively about her/him. This proportion creates a link between our mental processes.

Источник

think: θɪŋk гл.
1) а) думать, мыслить Syn : cogitate, deliberate, meditate, muse, ponder, reason, reflect, ruminate, speculate б) размышлять, обдумывать (about, of — о ком-л., чем-л.) ;
в) думать, полагать, считать, иметь (какое-л.) мнение to think fit, think good ≈ счесть возможным, уместным I think no harm in it. ≈ Я не вижу в этом вреда. What do you think of this singer? ≈ Что ты думаешь об этом певце?
2) а) понимать, представлять себе I can’t think how you did it. ≈ Не могу себе представить, как вы это сделали. I cannot think what he means. ≈ Не могу понять, что он хочет сказать. б) ожидать, предполагать в) мечтать, постоянно думать;
придумывать, находить (of) I cannot think of the right word. ≈ Не могу придумать подходящего слова.
3) вспоминать, восстанавливать в памяти I think how we were once friends. ≈ Я вспоминаю о том, как мы когда-то дружили. I can’t think of his name. ≈ Не могу припомнить его имени. ∙ think about think again think away think aloud think back think before think fit think for think of think nothing of think on think out think over think through think to think up think upon he thinks he is it разг. ≈ он о себе высокого мнения I think little/nothing of 30 miles a day ≈ делать 30 миль в день для меня сущий пустяк I don’t think (прибавляется к ирон. утверждению) ≈ нечего сказать;
ни дать ни взять to think the world of ≈ быть высокого мнения о think better of
размышление — to have a long * about smth. как следует поразмыслить о чем-л. мысль;
мнение думать, размышлять;
мыслить — to * clearly ясно мыслить — to * aloud думать /размышлять/ вслух — to * (twice) before doing smth. подумать (дважды) , прежде чем сделать что-л. — to * hard подумать как следует — to learn to * in English научиться думать по-английски;
усвоить английский образ мыслей — to * to oneself for a moment задуматься на минутку — I’ll * about /of/ it я подумаю об этом — * of what I’ve told you подумайте над моими словами — don’t * of him any more выкиньте его из головы — this has set me *ing это заставило меня задуматься — I did it without *ing я сделал это не подумав — just * a minute! подумай немного! — * again! не торопись, подумай еще! — it’s so noisy here I can’t * здесь так шумно, я не могу сосредоточиться — the reader will have much to * about читателю будет о чем подумать — he’s not so handsome, (when you) come to * of it если подумать — не такой уж он красавец — did you * to bring any money? (а) тебе не пришло в голову взять денег? — I’m glad to * (that) I have been of use to you мне приятно думать, что я был вам чем-то полезен — I’ve been *ing that… мне пришло в голову, что… — he *s he knows everything он воображает, будто знает все (на свете) — what will people *? что люди подумают? — I no longer knew what to * я не знал, что и (по) думать;
я терялся в догадках — he says all he *s он говорит все, что думает;
что он думает, то и говорит думать, иметь в голове — to * black thoughts лелеять черные мысли — to * scorn of smb. (устаревшее) думать с презрением о ком-л.;
презирать кого-л. — he thought base thoughts в голову ему приходили грязные мысли полагать, считать;
предполагать — I * it will rain я думаю, что будет дождь — I thought I heard a knock мне показалось, что стучат (в дверь) — do you * you could do it? ты полагаешь, что сможешь это сделать? — then you * that… значит, ты считаешь /думаешь/, что… — it’s better, don’t you *, to get it over with? как, по-твоему, не лучше ли сразу с этим покончить? — are you coming with us? — I don’t * I am вы идете с нами? — Пожалуй, нет — I * with /like/ you я согласен с вами — I rather * so мне так кажется — I don’t * so я этого не думаю — I (should) hardly * so не думаю;
мне это кажется невероятным — thought proper for government publications считавшийся подходящим для правительственных изданий — to * smb. the best contemporary novelist считать кого-л. лучшим современным романистом — I thought her charming я нашел ее очаровательной — I think it possible я это допускаю, я считаю это возможным — do as you * fit поступай, как знаешь /как считаешь нужным/ — they * their teacher a fine man они считают своего учителя прекрасным человеком — to * smb. of little account не ценить кого-л., относиться с пренебрежением к кому-л. — he is conventionally thought to be a romantic thing его обычно считают романтиком иметь (какое-л.) мнение — to * much /well, highly, a great deal/ of smb., smth. быть высокого мнения о ком-л., чем-л.;
высоко ценить кого-л., что-л. — to * badly of smb., smth. быть дурного мнения о ком-л., чем-л. — to * little /nothing/ of smth. быть дурного мнения о ком-л., чем-л.;
ни во что не ставить;
считать пустяком — I * nothing of thirty miles a day делать тридцать миль в день для меня сущий пустяк — to * dirty about smb. (просторечие) плохо думать о ком-л., ни в грош не ставить кого-л. — to * of smb. as one’s inferior считать кого-л. ниже себя — he is well thought of он на хорошем счету представлять себе, воображать — to * of smb. as still a boy представлять себе кого-л. все еще мальчиком — * of him not guessing it! а он так и не догадался, вы можете себе представить? — what do you *? (разговорное) и что бы вы думали? — only *!, just * of that!, to * of it! подумать только!;
представляете? — you can’t *! подумайте!;
вы и представить себе не можете! — I can’t * where he is не представляю себе, где он может быть;
ума не приложу, куда он исчез /пропал/ — I can’t bear to * what might happen я боюсь думать о том, что может случиться /произойти/ — * what a sacrifice he has made подумайте, на какие жертвы он пошел — you can’t * how surprised he was вы не можете себе представить, до чего он был удивлен воображать, рисовать в (своем) воображении — we * the ocean as a whole океан представляется нам единым целым придумывать, находить — to * a way out of trouble найти выход из трудного положения (of) придумывать, додумываться — to * of a way out of a difficulty найти выход из трудного положения — who first thought of the plan? кому первому пришел в голову этот план? иметь в виду, намереваться;
замышлять — to * of marrying /to marry/ smb. собираться /намереваться/ жениться на ком-л. — he *s to deceive me он думает /хочет/ обмануть меня — I only thought to help you я хотел только помочь вам — I must be *ing of giong мне пора собираться — I shouldn’t /I should never/ * of doing such a thing (эмоционально-усилительно) я бы ни за что не сделал этого ожидать, предполагать, рассчитывать — I didn’t * to see you я не ожидал /не рассчитывал/ увидеть вас — who would have thought to meet you here кто бы подумал /кто бы мог предполагать/, что я встречу вас здесь? — they * to escape punishment они рассчитывают, что им удастся избежать наказания — I little thought I would see him again никак не ожидал /вот уж не думал/, что вновь его увижу подозревать, ждать — to * no evil /no harm/ не заподозрить злого умысла, не ждать ничего плохого (for) (устаревшее) подозревать, предполагать — things are worse than you * for дела обстоят хуже, чем вы думаете /полагаете/ вспоминать — to * of old times вспоминать былое — I can’t * of his name at the moment я не могу сейчас припомнить его имени — try to * how the accident happened постарайтесь припомнить, как произошел несчастный случай постоянно думать, мечтать — to * airplanes all day long бредить самолетами дни напролет — he *s nothing but sports он ни о чем кроме спорта не думает /не может думать/;
он помешался на спорте заботиться, беспокоиться — to * only of oneself думать только о себе — you must think of others вы должны подумать и о других;
не забывайте о других доводить себя раздумьями до какого-л. состояния — I thought myself silly я столько думал, что теперь уже ничего не соображаю /дошел до отупения/ — he thought himself into a fever он настолько переутомил мозг, что заболел /слег/ в грам. знач. прил.: (разговорное) умственный;
интеллектуальный, философский > to * long (диалектизм) изнывать, томиться > to * fit /good, proper/ to do smth. решиться сделать что-л. (обыкн. какую-л. глупость) > to * better of smth. передумать, переменить мнение о чем-л. > to * better of smb. быть лучшего мнения о ком-л. > to * big (сленг) далеко метить, иметь честолюбивые планы > I don’t *! не думаю;
ничего подобного, что за вздор, что за ерунда;
(ироничное) нечего сказать, ничего не скажешь, ничего себе > an amiable young man, I don’t * приятный молодой человек, нечего сказать > he *s he is it он о себе высокого мнения, он нос задирает
to ~ better of быть лучшего мнения (о ком-л.) ;
he thinks he is it разг. он о себе высокого мнения
~ понимать, представлять себе;
I can’t think how you did it не могу себе представить, как вы это сделали
~ вспоминать;
I think how we were once friends я вспоминаю о том, как мы когда-то дружили;
I can’t think of his name не могу припомнить его имени
~ придумывать, находить (of) ;
I cannot think of the right word не могу придумать подходящего слова
I cannot ~ what he means не могу понять, что он хочет сказать
think: I don’t think (прибавляется к ирон. утверждению) нечего сказать;
ни дать ни взять
~ вспоминать;
I think how we were once friends я вспоминаю о том, как мы когда-то дружили;
I can’t think of his name не могу припомнить его имени
I ~ little (или nothing) of 30 miles a day делать 30 миль в день для меня сущий пустяк
~ считать, полагать;
to think fit (или good) счесть возможным, уместным;
I think no harm in it я не вижу в этом вреда
think: I don’t think (прибавляется к ирон. утверждению) нечего сказать;
ни дать ни взять ~ вспоминать;
I think how we were once friends я вспоминаю о том, как мы когда-то дружили;
I can’t think of his name не могу припомнить его имени ~ (thought) думать, обдумывать (about, of — о ком-л., чем-л.) ;
мыслить ~ думать ~ ожидать, предполагать;
I thought as much я так и предполагал ~ понимать, представлять себе;
I can’t think how you did it не могу себе представить, как вы это сделали ~ постоянно думать, мечтать;
think out продумать до конца;
think over обсудить, обдумать ~ придумывать, находить (of) ;
I cannot think of the right word не могу придумать подходящего слова ~ размышлять ~ считать, полагать;
to think fit (или good) счесть возможным, уместным;
I think no harm in it я не вижу в этом вреда
to ~ better of быть лучшего мнения (о ком-л.) ;
he thinks he is it разг. он о себе высокого мнения to ~ better of передумать;
отказаться от намерения (сделать что-л.)
~ считать, полагать;
to think fit (или good) счесть возможным, уместным;
I think no harm in it я не вижу в этом вреда
~ up амер. выдумать, сочинить, придумать;
to think much of быть высокого мнения;
высоко ценить
to ~ well (highly, badly) (of smb.) быть хорошего (высокого, дурного) мнения (о ком-л.) ;
to think no end (of smb.) очень высоко ценить (кого-л.)
~ постоянно думать, мечтать;
think out продумать до конца;
think over обсудить, обдумать
~ up амер. выдумать, сочинить, придумать;
to think much of быть высокого мнения;
высоко ценить
to ~ well (highly, badly) (of smb.) быть хорошего (высокого, дурного) мнения (о ком-л.) ;
to think no end (of smb.) очень высоко ценить (кого-л.)

Полезное

Смотреть что такое «think» в других словарях:

think — think1 [thiŋk] vt. thought, thinking [< ME thenchen, to think, confused with thinchen, to seem < OE thencan < PGmc * thankjan, to think: for IE base see THANK] 1. to form or have in the mind; conceive [thinking good thoughts] 2. to hold… … English World dictionary
THINK — (englisch für denken) bezeichnet: Think (Band), eine US amerikanische Band Think Global AS, ein norwegisches Unternehmen, das das Elektroauto Think City herstellt Think, ein Top Ten Song von Aretha Franklin Think ist der Markenname für ein… … Deutsch Wikipedia
think — ► VERB (past and past part. thought) 1) have a particular opinion, belief, or idea about someone or something. 2) direct one s mind towards someone or something; use one s mind actively to form connected ideas. 3) (think of/about) take into… … English terms dictionary
Think — Think, v. t. [imp. & p. p. {Thought}; p. pr. & vb. n. {Thinking}.] [OE. thinken, properly, to seem, from AS. [thorn]yncean (cf. {Methinks}), but confounded with OE. thenken to think, fr. AS. [thorn]encean (imp. [thorn][=o]hte); akin to D. denken … The Collaborative International Dictionary of English
think — UK US /θɪŋk/ verb [I or T] (thought, thought) ► to have a particular idea, belief or opinion: think (that) »Some analysts think that rates will continue to rise. »I think the figures speak for themselves. »Have you seen the new ad? What do you… … Financial and business terms
think — 1 Think, conceive, imagine, fancy, realize, envisage, envision are comparable when they mean to form an idea or notion of something in the mind. Think, the most general and least explicit word of this group, may imply nothing more than the… … New Dictionary of Synonyms
Think — (englisch für denken) bezeichnet: Think (Band), eine US amerikanische Band Think Global AS, ein norwegisches Unternehmen, das das Elektroauto Think City herstellt Think, ein Top Ten Song von Aretha Franklin Think! ist eine Schuhmarke der… … Deutsch Wikipedia
Think — «Think Ox», Женева, 2008 «… пространственная рама с двумя отсеками для батарей, … Для Женевы на нее поставили „однообъемник“. Существуют варианты „купе“ и „спорткар“.» [1] PIV3 … Википедия
THINK C — was an extension of ANSI C for Mac OS developed by THINK Technologies; although named Lightspeed C in the original mid 1986 release, it was later renamed Think C due to a lawsuit . THINK Technologies was later acquired by Symantec Corporation and … Wikipedia
THINK C — THINK C расширение ANSI C для Mac OS, разработанное компанией THINK Technologies. При первоначальном релизе в середине 1986 года называлось Lightspeed C, но позже было переименовано в THINK C. Позднее THINK Technologies была куплена… … Википедия
Think of U — Single par Crystal Kay extrait de l’album Almost seventeen Face A Think of U Face B Attitude Sortie 28 novembre 2001 … Wikipédia en Français

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A brief introduction to one of the fundamenal questions for Artifical Intelligence research, by Tomas Campbell.

It is commonly said of philosophy that it is a timeless subject; the problems being discussed now are little different from those which concerned the Ancient Greeks more than two thousand years ago. While the essential uncertainty of man’s condition in the universe remains the same, it is worth remembering that philosophy, as with all other subjects, is a product of society. Philosophical discussions do not take place in some sort of abstract vacuum and different societies over the centuries and across the globe have all tackled fundamental questions from radically different perspectives. Practical philosophy is only as static and unchanged as the society around us and the issues which bother philosophers should bother us all.

A good example of how changes in society shape philosophy can be found in the recent scientific development known as Artificial Intelligence. Artificial Intelligence, or AI, is a branch of computer and cognitive science dedicated to the creation of autonomous, independent thought by digital machines. Although still in its infancy (the term AI was only coined in 1957), advances in this technology over the last thirty years have been startling. In a short space of time, AI has become a subject which demands the utmost attention from contemporary philosophers, and needs to be discussed in these pages, for it has enormous ethical, social and philosophical implications. For the moment we will limit ourselves to one of the questions central to AI: is it theoretically possible for a computer to think?

Any discussion on artificial thought must focus on our definition of the word ‘thinking’, something which it is notoriously hard to agree upon. While all of us experience consciousness and are sure that we do think, actually describing what it is can be very difficult. Even with recent advances in science, thinking remains something of a mystery: ask any neuro-scientist what consciousness is and you will be subjected to some distinctly unscientific language and rather vague mumblings. The traditional answer of AI researchers is to brush aside these awkward problems and to use a broad definition of thinking based entirely on what they assume to be the qualities exhibited by a thinking agent. In other words, anything can be described as thinking if it displays the ability to make plans, to learn, weigh up information and to make decisions. If an agent was to give the appearance of doing all these things then, the argument runs, it would be useful and make sense to describe it as thinking, even if it was not actually a human being.

This argument for a descriptive definition of thinking does have its merits. After all, it is only by appearances that I assume my fellow human beings are all thinking creatures, I have no idea what is really going on in anyone else’s mind. It is on this basis that the goal of AI research has for a long time been to manufacture a machine capable of passing the famous Turing Test. This test was outlined by the brilliant mathematician Alan Turing long before AI became a serious academic science in its own right. In keeping with the descriptive definition of thinking, it is a test which is based on observable behaviour. A computer and a human sit in one room answering questions posed by an interviewer in another room who only communicates by typing messages on a keyboard to them both. If the interviewer is unable to distinguish between the computer’s and the human’s answers, then the computer would have passed the test and could usefully be described as a thinking identity. It is worth pointing out that, as yet, no programmer has devised a computer which has passed the test, despite the incentive of a large cash prize.

With this definition of thinking established among proponents of AI, we need to understand on what basis they regard computers as the means of achieving their goal. A computer is a machine which manipulates binary symbols; it does this by electronically switching circuits between an On and an Off state, represented as 1 and 0 in binary code. These symbols are used to represent the external world; when I type my name TOM on a keyboard, the computer is switching electric gates on and off to store binary code corresponding to the letters T, O and M. From the humblest word processor to an aeroplane’s flight control computer, it is simply a matter of manipulating these binary symbols according to the specific functions required. It follows that a super-powerful computer, admittedly beyond the scope of anything in existence at the moment, will be able to build up an accurate internal representation of its environment in binary code. With sufficiently sophisticated programming it should then be able to interact with that environment in an apparently purposeful way. For those that see little similarity between this and thinking, AI proponents point out that the human brain is simply an incredibly complicated symbol manipulator itself, containing billions of interconnected neurons which pulsate between On and Off states as electrical discharges travel across the brain. Every time you waggle your finger, thousands of neurons are firing on and off in a part of your brain, these binary symbols of reality being manipulated in order to perform physical functions.

For those involved in AI research, thinking amounts to nothing more than the manipulation of symbols. Whether these symbols are made of silicon or protein is beside the point; what matters is that thinking is a physical process which can be, in theory at least, described and replicated. This hypothesis is an extremely provocative one which, if its implications are fully followed through, appears to claim that we ourselves are nothing but biological computers, manipulating symbols in much the same way that computers operate. It is a proposition which has been strongly criticised from many different perspectives. I will briefly mention two philosophical traditions which may have problems with the very idea of intelligent computers.

Firstly, a challenge to the concept of artificial thought can be made by those with transcendental beliefs. The philosophical tradition known as dualism claims that there is a separation between the mind and body, and that the mind is entirely non-physical in nature. It is an idea which has had powerful proponents over the years, most famously Descartes. For dualists the mind is elevated above material phenomena; it is a transcendental entity, and no amount of physical engineering could ever hope to create thinking.

In direct conflict with dualist beliefs, there is the philosophical tradition known as materialism. For materialists, what we call consciousness is merely the product of biochemical reactions in the brain. Or, in the words of a Virginia Woolf character, “The mind is meat” and hence inseparable from our bodily flesh. Today, living in a post-Darwinian society, many would sympathise with this view and regard the human mind as a product of evolution. We are all primates, simply with larger and more sophisticated brains than our monkey relatives; any notion of some supernatural mind is the height of human arrogance. It is this materialist perspective which all AI researchers must adopt if they are to have any hope of creating thought since, by its very definition, the transcendental mind cannot be physically created. Yet it is quite possible to reconcile materialist beliefs with a strong refutation of AI. From a materialist viewpoint, it can be argued that thinking is a biological phenomenon and the term can only be used accurately if it is describing a living organism. The mind, as we experience it, can only function meaningfully in relation to its physical body and a computer has as much chance of thinking as it does of breathing. In particular, the capacity to think evolved alongside our capacity to feel emotions. The two phenomena are deeply interconnected biological processes and an agent can only be described as thinking if it does so within an emotional context. Human thought has developed alongside emotions such as love, jealousy, anger and sadness because they serve a definite purpose in assisting our survival and the successful reproduction of our genetic code. For humans, there can be no such thing as consciousness completely divorced from its emotional feelings; it is simply not the way that our brains function.

For both the transcendental and materialist conceptions of what it is to think, it is clear that the descriptive definition used by AI proponents is inadequate on a philosophical level because it does not fully express what we ourselves experience in thinking. While it is still a possibility that computers might be able to learn, reason and generally behave as intelligent beings, it does not follow that we should ever describe their behaviour as thinking. The important distinction needs to be made that, where as it may be useful to describe a computer as thinking, it is not necessarily accurate. After all, we all understand and regularly use sentences such as “My car decided to break down at exactly the wrong moment” but no one who reads this really believes that my car made the conscious decision to stop working; it is simply a means of conveying what happened in a slightly colourful and metaphorical manner. In the same way, although we might describe a computer as having a mind of its own or being extremely clever, this does not mean that such a description is accurate; we should not make the mistake of believing our own metaphors. Even if we reject the idealist position, the point remains that a computer will never be able to think because it is not an evolved organism with its own cognitive and emotional interdependency. However much we talk about cars, computers and calculators as thinking entities, to extend the term to anything nonbiological may be a philosophical error.

AI News

• A team of British AI researchers from Sheffield University has won this year’s Loebner Prize for the most human computer.

Hugh Loebner, an American academic, put up a prize of $100,000 for the first computer to pass the Turing Test. In the meantime, a smaller prize is awarded annually at a contest held in New York to determine the ‘most human computer’

The Sheffield team’s program, called Converse, gossiped with the contest judge about Bill Clinton’s attitude towards lesbians.

• The world chess champion Garry Kasparov was beaten by a new IBM supercomputer “Deep Blue” in a tournament held in New York’s Equitable Center. This is the first time that a computer has beaten a world chess champion. The games were relayed live on the Internet.

There was controversy about the second game in the tournament. Kasparov resigned, convinced that checkmate was imminent. However, later analysis showed that he could have forced perpetual check and therefore drawn the game.

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