What word means love of words

4. A cardiac patient has a heart ailment. TRUE FALSE 5~ A person with a bad «bite» may profit TRUE FALSE from orthodontia. TRUE FALSE 6. Neuralgia is a disease of the bones. TRUE FALSE TRUE FALSE 7. A neurosis is the same as a psychosis. TRUE FALSE 8. Neuritis is i.nflamma.ti911 of the nerves. TRUE FALSE 9. Psychiatry is a medical specialty that TRUE FALSE TRUE FALSE deals with mental, emotional, and TRUE FALSE personality disturbances. 10. A cardiograph is a device for recording heartbeats. 11. Psychiatric treatment is designed to relieve tensions, fears, and insecurities. 12. A doctor who specializes in pediatrics has very old patients. 13. A geriatrician has very young patients. KEY: 1-F, 2-T, 3-T, 4-T, 5-T, 6-F, 7-F, S:….T, 9-T, 10-T, 11-T, 12-F, 13-F Can you recall the words? 1. Q _ _ _ _ _ __ 2. N_ _ _ _ _ __ 1. specialist who straightens teeth 3. Q _ _ _ _ __ 2. nervepain 3. medical specialty dealing with 4. p_ _ _ _ _ __ bones and joints 5. N_ _ _ _ _ __ 4. medical specialty dealing with 6. N_ _ _ _ _ __ emotional disturbances and 7. p_ _ _ _ _ __ mental illness 8. ‘-‘——~ 5. inflammation of the nerves 9. Q_ _ _ _ ___.. 6. emotional or personality 72 disorder 7. mentallyunbalanced 8. pertaining to the heart 9. specialty dealing with medical problems of the elderly

10. instrument that records heart 10. c.______ action 11. -C_ _ _ _ __ 11. record produced by such an instrument KEY: I-orthodontist, 2-neuralgia, 3-orthopedics, 4-psychiatry, 5-neuritis, 6-neurosis, 7-psychotic, 8-<:ardiac, 9-geriatrics, 10-<:ardiograph, 11-<:ardiogram CHAPTER REVIEW . A. Do you recognize the words? 1. Specialist in female ailments: (a) obstetrician, (b) gynecologist, (c) dermatologist 2. Specialist in children’s diseases: (a) orthopedist, (b) pediatrician, (c) internist 3. Specialist in eye diseases: (a) cardiologist, (b) opthalmologist, (c) optician 4. Specialist in emotional disorders: (a) neurologist, (b) demagogue, (c) psychiatrist 5. Pertaining to medical treatment of the elderly: (a) neurological, (b) obstetric, (c) geriatric 6. Straightening of teeth: (a) orthodontia, (b) orthopedic, (c) optometry 7. Personality disorder: (a) neuritis, (b), neuralgia, (c) neurosis 8. Mentally unbalanced: (a) neurotic, (b) psychotic, (c) cardiac 9. Principles of teaching: (a) demagoguery, (b) pedagogy, (c) psychosis KEY: i-b,2-b,3-b,4-<:,5-<:,6-a, 7-<:,8-b,9-b 73

B. .Can you recognize roots? ROOT MEANING EXAMPLE 1. internus internist 2. paidos (ped-) pediatrician 3. pedis pedestrian 4. agogos pedagogue 5. demos demagogue 6. derma dermatologist 7. hypos hypodermic 8. ophthalmos ophthalmologist 9. oculus monocle JO. opsis, optikos optician 11. metron optometrist 12. orthos orthopedist 13. odontos orthodontist 14. kardia cardiologist 15. logos anthropologist 16. neuron neurologist 17. a/gos neuralgia 18. psyche psychiatrist 19. iatreia psychiatry 20. geras geriatrics KEY: 1-inside, 2-child, 3-foot. 4-leading, 5-people, 6-skin, 7-under, 8-eye, 9-eye, 10-view, vision, sight, 11-measure- rnent, 12-straight, correct, 13-tooth, 14-heart, 15-science, study, 16-nerve, 17-pain, 18-mind, 19-medical healing, 20-old age TEASER QUESTIONS FOR lHE AMATEUR ETYMOLOGIST 1. Thinking of the roots odontos and paidos (spelled ped- in English), figure out the meaning of pedodontia: — — — — 74

2. Recall the roots kardia and algos. What is the meaning of cardialgia’! 3. Of odontalgia’! 4. N ostos is the Greek word for a return (home). Can you com- bine this root with algos, pain, to construct the English word meaning homesickness’! — — — — — — — — — — — — — (Answers in G_hapter 18) TWO KEYS TO. SUCCESS: SELF-DISCIPLINE AND PERSISTENCE You can achieve a superior vocabulary in a phenomenally short time-given self-discipline and persistence. The greatest aid in building self-discipline is, as I have said, a matter of devising a practical and comfortable schedule for your- self and then keeping to that schedule. . Make sure to complete at least one session each time you pick up the book, and always decide exactly when you will continue with your work before you put the book down. There may be periods of difficulty-thenJs the time to exert the greatest self-discipline, the most determined persistence. For every page that you study will help you attain a mastery over words; every day that you work will add to your skill in un- derstanding and .using words. (End of Session 6) 75

—-Brief Intermission Twu—— RANDOM NOTES ON MODERN USAGE English grammar is confusing enough as it is-what makes it dou- bly confounding is that it is slowly but continually changing. • This means that some of the strict rules you memorized so pain- fully in your high school or college English courses may no longer be completely valid. Following such outmoded principles, you may think you are speaking «perfect» English, and instead you may sound stuffy and pedantic. The problem boils down to this: If grammatical usage is gradu- ally becoming more liberal, where does educated, unaffected, in- formal speech end? And where does illiterate, ungrammatical speech begin? The following notes on current trends in modem usage are in- tended to help you come to a decision about certain controversial expressions. As you read each sentence, pay particular attention to the italicized word or words. Does the usage square with your own language patterns? Would you be willing to phrase your thought in just terms? Decide whether the sentence is right or wrong, then compare your conclusion with the opinion given in the explanatory paragraphs that follow the test. 76

TEST YOURSELF RIGHT WRONG 1. If you drink too many vodka martinis, RIGHT WRONG you will surely get sick. RIGHT WRONG RIGHT WRONG 2. Have you got a dollar?. RIGHT WRONG 3. No one loves you except I. RIGHT WRONG 4. Please lay down. 5. Who do you love? RIGHT WRONG 6. Neither of these cars are worth the RIGHT WRONG money. RIGHT WRONG 7. The judge sentenced the murderer to be RIGHT WRONG hung. 8. Mother, can I go out to play? RIGHT WRONG 9. Take two spoonsful of this medicine RIGHT WRONG every three hours. RIGHT WRONG 10. Your words seem to infer that Jack is a RIGHT WRONG liar. RIGHT WRONG 11. I will be happy to go to the concert with you. 12. It is me. 13. Goslow. 14. Peggy and Karen. are alumni of the same high .school 15. I would like to ask you a question. 1. If you drink too many vodka martinis, you will surely get sick. RIGHT. The puristic objection is that get has only one mean- ing-namely, obtain. However, as any modem dictionary will at- test, get has scores of different meanings, one of the most respecta- ble of which is become. You can get tired, get dizzy, get drunk, Qr get sick—and your choice of words will offend no one but a pedant. 77

2. Have you got a dollar? RIGHT. If purists get a little pale at the sound of «get sick,» they turn chalk wliite when they hear have got as a substitute for have. But the fact is that have got is an established American form of expression. Jacques Barzun, noted author and literary critic, says: «Have you got is good idiomatic English-I use it in speech without thinking about it and would write it if colloqui- alism seemed appropriate to the passage.» 3. No ones loves you except I. WRONG. In educated speech, me follows the preposition ex- cept. This problem is troublesome because, to the unsophisticated, the sentence sounds as if it can be completed to «No one loves you, except I do,» but current educated usage adheres to the tech- nical rule that a preposition requires an objective pronoun (me). 4. Please lay down. WRONG. Liberal as grammar has become, there is still no sanction for using lay with the meaning of recline. Lay means to place, as in «Lay your hand on mine.» Lie is the correct choice. 5. Who do you love? RIGHT. «The English language shows some disposition to get rid of whom altogether, and unquestionably it would be a better language with whom gone.» So wrote Janet Rankin Aiken, of Co- lumbia University, way back in 1936. Today, many decades later, the «disposition» has become a full-fledged force. The rules for who and whom are complicated, and few edu- cated speakers have the time, patience, or expertise to bother with them. Use the democratic who in your everyday speech whenever it sounds right. 6. Neither of these cars are worth the money. WRONG. The temptation to use are in this sentence is, I admit, practically irresistible. However, «neither of» means «neither one or• and is, therefore, is the preferable verb. 7. The judge sentenced the murderer to be hung. WRONG. A distinction is made, in educated speech, between hung and hanged. A picture is hung, but a person is hanged-that is, if such action is intended to bring about an untimely .demise. 8. Mother, can I go out to play? 78

RIGHT. If you insist that your child say may, and nothing but may; when asking for permission, you may be considered puristic. Can is not discourteous, incorrect, or vulgar-and the newest edi- tions of the authoritative dictionaries fully sanction the use of can in requesting rights, privileges, or permission. 9. Take two spoonsful of this medicine every three hours. WRONG. There is a strange affection, on the part of some peo- ple, for spoomful and cupsful, even though spoonsful and cupsful do not exist as acceptable words. The plurals are spoonfuls and cupfuls. I am taking for granted, of course, that you are using one spoon and fiUing it twice. If, for secret reasons of your own, you prefer to take your medicine in two separate spoons, you may then prop- erly speak of «two spoons full (not spoonsful) of medicine.» 10. Your words seem to infer that Jack is a Jiar. WRONG. Infer does not mean hint or suggest. Imply is the proper word; to infer is to draw a conclusion from another’s words. 11. I will be happy to go to the concert with you. RIGHT. In informal speech, you need no longer worry about the technical and unrealistic distinctions between shall and will. The theory of modern grammarians is that shall-will differences were simply invented out of whole cloth by the textbook writers of the 1800s. As the editor of the scholarly Modern Language Forum at the University of California has stated, «The artificial distinction between shall and will to designate futurity is a super- stition that has neither a basis in historical grammar nor the sound sanction of universal usage.» 12. It is me. RIGHT. This «violation» of grammatical «law» has been com- pletely sanctioned by current usage. When the late Winston Churchill made a nationwide radio address from New Haven, Connecticut, many, many years ago, his opening sentence was: «This is me, Winston Churchill.» I imagine that the purists who were listening fell into a deep state of shock at these words, but of i:purse Churchill was simply using the kind of down-to~earth Eng- lish that had long since become standard in informal educated speech. 79

13. Go slow. RIGHT. «Go slow» is not, and never has been, incorrect English-every authority concedes that slow is an adverb as well as an adjective. Rex Stout, well-known writer of mystery novels and creator of ·Detective Nero Wolfe, remarked: «Not only do I use and approve of the idiom Go slow, but if I find myself with people who do not, I feave quick.» 14. Peggy and Karen are alumni of the same high school. WRONG. As Peggy and Karen are obviously women, we call them alumnae (~-LUM’-nee); only male graduates are alumni (~-LUM’-ni). 15. I would like to ask you a question. RIGHT. In current American usage, would may be used with l, though old-fashioned rules demand l should. Indeed, in modem speech, should is almost entirely restricted to expressing probability, duty, or responsibility. As in the case of the charitable-looking dowager who was approached by a seedy character seeking a handout. «Madam,» he whined, «I haven’t eaten in five days.» «My good man,» the matron answered with great concern, «you should force yourself!» 80

5 HOW TO TALK ABOUT VARIOUS PRACTITIONERS (Sessions7-JO) TEASER PREVIEW What practitionim • is a student of human behavior? o follows the techhiques devised by Sigmund Freud? · • straightens teeth? • measwes vision? • gr1n~ lenses? • treats minor ailments ofthe feet? • analyzes handwriting? o deals with the problems of aging? • uses manipulation and massage as curative techniques? ·81

SESSION 7 An ancient Greek mused about the meaning of life, and philoso- phy was born. The first Roman decided fo build a road instead of cutting a path through the jungle, and engineering came into exist- ence. One day in primitive times, a human being Jent to another whatever then pass.ed for money and got back his original invest- ment plus a little more-and banking had started. Most people Spend part of every workday at some gainful em- ployment, honest or otherwise, and in so doing often contribute their little mite to the progress of the world. We explore in this chapter the ideas behind people’s occupa- tions-and the words that translate these ideas into verbal sym- bols. IDEAS 1. behavior By education and training, this practitioner is an expert in the dark mysteries of human behavior-what makes peopl.e act as they do, why they have certain feelings, how their personalities were formed-in short, what makes them tick. Such a professional , is often employed by industries, schools, and institutions to devise ‘ means for keeping workers productive and happy, students well- adjusted, and inmates contented. With a state license, this person may also do private or group therapy. A psychologist 2. worries, fears, conflicts This practitioner is. a physician, psychiatrist, or psychologist who has been specially trained in the techniques devised by Sig- 82

called «the unconscious.» By reviewing the experiences, traumas, feelings, and thoughts of your earlier years, you come to a better understanding of your present worries, fears, conflicts, repres- sions, insecurities, and nervous tensions-thus taking the first step in coping with them. Treatment, consisting largely in listening to, and helping you to interpret the meaning of, your free-flowing ideas, is usually given in frequent sessions that may well go on for a year or more. A psychoanalyst 3. teeth This practitioner is a dentist who has taken postgraduate work in the straightening of teeth. An orthodontist 4. eyes This practitioner measures your vision and prescribes the type of glasses that will give you a new and more accurate view of the world. · An optometrist 5. glasses This practitioner grinds lenses according to the specifications prescribed by your optometrist or ophthalmologist,. and may also deal in other kinds of optical goods. An optician 6. bones and blood vessels This practitioner is a member of the profession that originated in 1874, when Andrew T. Still devised a drugless technique of curing diseases by massage and other manipulative procedures, a technique based on the theory that illness may be caused by the undue pressure of displaced bones on nerves and blood vessels. 83

Training is equal to that of physicians, and in most states these practitioners may also use the same methods as, and have the full rights and privileges of, medical doctors. An osteopath 7. joints and articulations The basic principle of this practitioner’s work is the mainte- nance of the structural and functional integrity of the nervous sys- tem. Treatment consists of manipulating most of the articulations of the body, especially those connected to the spinal column. Li- censed and legally recognized in forty-five states, this professional has pursued academic studies and training that parallel those of the major healing professions. A chiropractor 8. feet This practitioner treats minor foot ailments—coms, calluses, bunions, fallen arches, etc., and may perform minor surgery. A podiatrist 9. writing This practitioner analyzes handwriting to determine character, personality, or aptitudes, and is often called upon to verify the au- thenticity of signatures, written documents, etc. A graphologist 10. getting old This social scientist deals with the financial, economic, sexual, social, retire~ent, and other non-medical problems of the elderly. A gerontologist 84

USING THE WORDS Can you pronounce the words? si-KOL’-~jist 1. psychologist si-ko-AN’-a-list 2. psychoanalyst awr-tha-DON’-tist 3. orthodontist op-TOM’-a-trist 4. optometrist op-TISH’-an 5. optician OS’-tee-~path 6. osteopath KI’-ra-prak’-tar 7. chiropractor pa-DI’-a-trist 8. podiatrist graf-OL’-a-jist 9. graphologist jair’-an-TOL’-a-jist 10. gerontologist Can you work with the words? INTERESTS PRACTITIONERS a. vision b. «the unconscious» 1. psychologist c. bones and blood vessels 2. psychoanalyst d. lenses and optical instruments 3. orthodontist e. feet 4. optometrist f. teeth 5. optician g. problems of aging 6. osteopath h. joints of t11e spine 7. chiropractor i. handwriting 8. podiatrist j. behavior 9. graphologist 10. gerontologist KEY: 1-j, 2-b, 3-f, 4-a, 5-d, 6-c, 7-h, 8—e, 9-i, 10-g Do you understand the words? TRUE FALSE 1. A psychologist must also be a 85 physician.

2. A psychoanalyst follows Freudian TRUE FALSE techniques. TRUE FALSE 3. An orthodontist specializes in FALSE TRUE straightening teeth. FALSE 4. An optometrist prescribes and fits TRUE FALSE TRUE glasses. FALSE 5. An optician may prescribe glasses. TRUE FALSE 6. An osteopath may use massage and TRUE FALSE other manipulative techniques. TRUE 7. A chiropractor has a medical degree. FALSE 8. A podiatrist may perform major TRUE surgery. 9. A graphologist analyzes character from handwriting. J0. A gerontologist is interested in the non-medical problems of adolescence. KEY: 1-F, 2-T, 3-T, 4-T, 5-F, 6-T, 7-F, 8-F, 9-T, 10-F Can you recall the words? 1. p_ _ _ _ _ __ 2. Q _ _ _ _ _ __ 1. delves into the unconscious 2. uses either massage and 3. p_ _ _ _ _ __ 4. Q_ _ _ _ _ __ manipulation or other standard 5. Q,_ _ _ _ _ __ medical procedures to treat 6. Q,_ _ _ _ _ __ illness 7. G_ _ _ _ _ __ 3. takes care of minor ailments of 8. ..___ _ _ _ __ the feet 4. straightens teeth 86 5. analyzes handwriting 6. grinds lenses and sells optical goods 7. deals with the non-medical problems of aging 8. manipulates articulations connected to the spinal column

9. studies and explains human 10.Q_ _ _ _ __ behavior 10. measures vision and prescribes glasses KEY: I-psychoanalyst, 2-osteopath, 3-podiatrist, ~rthodontist, 5-graphologist, 6-optician, 7-gerontologist, 8-chiroprac- tor, 9-psychologist, 10-optometrist (End of Session 7) SESSION 8 ORIGINS AND RELATED WORDS 1. the mental life Psychologist is built upon the same Greek root as psychi- atrist-psyche, spirit, soul, or mind. In psychiatrist, the combin- ing form is iatreia, medical healing. In psychologist, the combin- ing form is logos, science or study; a psychologist, by etyn1ology, is one who studies the mind. The field is psychology (si-KOL’-~jee), the adjective psycho- logical (si’-k~LOJ’-a-kal). Psyche (SI’-kee) is also an English word in its own right..:._it designates the mental life, the spiritual or non-physical aspect of one’s existence. The adjective psychic (SI’-kik) refers to phe- nomena or qualities that cannot be explained in purely physical terms. People may be called psychic if they seem to possess a sixth sense, a special gift of mind reading, or any mysterious aptitudes that cannot be accounted for logically. A person’s dis- turbance is psychic if ii is emotional or mental, rather than physi- cal. 87

Psyche combines with the Greek pathos, suffering or disease, to form psychopathic (si-ka-PATH’-ik), an adjective that describes someone suffering from a severe mental or emotional disorder. The noun is psychopathy (sI’-KOP’~thee).* The root psyche combines with Greek soma, body, to form psy- . chosomatic (si’-ko-s::i-MAT’-ik), an adjective that delineates the powerful influence that the mind, especially the unconscious, has on bodily diseases. Thus, a person who fears the consequence of being present at a certain meeting will suddenly develop a bad cold or backache, or even be injured in a traffic accident, so that his appearance at this meeting is made impossible. It’s a real cold, it’s far from ari imaginary backache, and of course one cannot in any sense doubt the reality of the automobile that injured him. Yet, according to the psychosomatic theory of medicine, his un- conscious made him susceptible to the cold germs, caused the backache, or forced him into the path of the car. A psychosomatic disorder actually exists insofar as symptoms are concerned (headache, excessive urination, pains, paralysis, heart palpitations), yet there is no organic cause within the body. The cause is within the psyche, the mind. Dr. Flanders Dunbar, in Mind and Body, gives a clear and exciting account of the in- terrelationship between emotions and diseases. Psychoanalysis (si’-ko-a-NAL’-a-sis) relies on the technique of deeply, exhaustively probing into the unconscious, a technique de- veloped by Sigmund Freud. In oversimplified terms, the general principle of psychoanalysis is to guide the patient to an awareness of the deep-seated, unconscious causes of anxieties, fears, conflicts, and tension. Once fourtd, exposed to the light of day, and thoroughly understood, claim the psychoanalysts, these causes may vanish like a light snow that is exposed to strong sunlight Consider an example: You have asthma, let us say, and your • Psychopathy is usually characterized by antisocial and extremely ego- centric behavior. A psychopath (Sl’-ka-path’), sometimes called a psycho- pathic personality, appears to be lacking an inner moral censor, and often commits criminal acts, without anxiety or guilt, in order to obtain im- mediate gratification of desires. Such a person may be utterly lacking in sexual restraint, or addicted to hard drugs. Some psychologists prefer the label sociopath (SO’-shee-a-path’ or SO>-see-:>-path’) for this type of per- sonality to indicate the absence of a social conscience. 88

doctor can find no physical basis for your ailment. So you are re- ferred to a psychoanalyst (or psychiatrist or clinical psychologist who practices psYchoanalytically oriented therapy). With your therapist you explore your past life, dig into your un- conscious, and discover, let us say for th~ sake of argument, that your mother or father always used to set for you impossibly high goals. No matter what you accomplished in school, it was not good enough-in your mother~s or father’s opinion (and such opinions were always made painfully clear to you), you could do better if you were not so lazy. As a child you built up certain re- sentments and anxieties because you seemed unable to please your parent-and (this will sound farfetched, but it is perfectly possi- ble) as a result you became asthmatic. How else were you going to get the parental love, the approbation, the attention you needed and that you felt you were not receiving? In your sessions with your therapist, you discover that your asthma is emotionally, rather than organically, based-your ail- ment is psychogenic (sI’-ko-JEN’-ik), of PsYChic origin, or (the terms are used more or less interchangeably although they differ somewhat in definition) psychosomatic, resulting from the interac- tion of mind and body. (Psychogenic is built on psyche plus Greek genesis, birth or origin.) And your treatment? No drugs, no surgery-these may help the body, not the emotions. Instead, you «work out» (this is the term used in psychoanalytic [si-ko-an’-a-LIT’-ik] parlance) early trauma in talk, in remembering, in exploring, in interpreting, in reliving childhood experiences. And if your asthma is indeed psychogenic (or psychosomatic), therapy will very likely help you; your attacks may cease, either gradually or suddenly. Freudian therapy is less popular today than formerly; many newer therapies-Gestalt, bioenergetics, transactional analysis, to name only a few-claim to produce quicker results. In any case, psychotherapy (si-kO-THAIR’-a-pee)_ of one sort or another is the indicated treatment for PsYChogenic (or psycho- somatic) disorders, or for any personality disturbances. The prac- titioner is a psychotherapist (si-ko-THAIR’-a-pist) or therapist, for short; the adjective is psychotherapeutic (si-ko-thair’-a- PYOO’-tik). 89

REVIEW OF ETYMOLOGY ROOT, SUFFIX MEANING ENGLISH WORD 1. psyche spirit, soul, mind 2. iatreia medical healing 3. -ic adjective suffix 4. soma body 5. genesis· birth, origin 6. pathos .suffering, disease USING THE WORDS Can you pronounce the words? si-KOL’-~jee 1. psychology si’-k~LOJ’-a-k:il 2. psychological Sl’-kee 3. psyche SI’-kik 4. psychic sI-k~PATH’-ik 5. psychopathic si-KOP’-:i-thee 6. psychopathy 7. psychopath SI’-k~path 8. psychosomatic sI’-ko-s~MAT’-ik 9. psychoanalysis si’-ko-~NAL’-:i-sis 10. psychoanalytic iI-ko-an’-~LIT’-ik 11. psychogenic 12. psychotherapy si-ko-JEN’-ik 13. psychotherapist 14. psychotherapeutic si-ko-THAIR’-~pee sI-ko-THAIR’-~pist si-ko-thair’-:i-PYdb’-tik Can you work with the words? a. -mental or emotional disturb- ance 1. psychol~gy 90

2. psyche b. psychological treatment 3. psychic 4. psychopathy based on Freudian teclm.iques 5. psychosomatic 6. psychoanalysis c. general term for psycho- 7. psychogenic 8. psychotherapy logical treatment 9. psychopath d. originating in the mind or emotions e. one’s inner or mental life, or self-image f. study of the human mind and behavior g. describing the interaction of mind and body h. pertaining to the mind; ex- trasensory i. person lacking in social con- science or inner censor KEY: 1-f, 2-e, 3-h, 4-a, 5-g, 6-b, 7-d, 8-c, 9-i Do you understand the words? TRUE. FALSE l. Psychological treatment aims at TRUE FALSE sharpening the intellect. TRUE FALSE 2. Psychic phenomena can be explained on rational or physical grounds TRUE FALSE 3. Psychopathic persona1ities are normal TRUE FALSE and healthy. TRUE FALSE 4. A psychosQmatic symptom is caused by TRUE FALSE organic disease. 5. Every therapist uses psychoanalysis. 6. A psychogenic illness originates in the mind or emotions. . 7. A psychotherapist must have a medical degree. — 91

8. Psychoanalytically oriented therapy TRUE FALSE uses Freudian techniques. TRUE FALSE 9. A psychopath is often a criminal. KEY: 1-F, 2-F, 3-F, 4-F, 5-F, 6-T, 7-F, 8-T, 9-T Can you recall the words? 3. p 4. P~~~~~~- 1. one’s inner or mental life, or self-image 5. P~~~~~~- 6. P~~~~~~- 2. the adjective that denotes the interactions, especially in 8. P~~~~~~- illness, between mind and body 9. P_ _ _ _ __ 3. mentally or emotionally disturbed 4. study of behavior 5. extrasensory 6. treatment by Freudian techniques 7. pertaining to the study of behavior (adj.) 8. of mental or emotional origin 9. general term for treatment of emotional disorders 10. antisocial person KEY: 1-psyche, 2-psychosomatic, 3-psychopathic, 4-psychol- ogy, 5-psycbic, 6-psychoanalysis, 7-psychological, 8-psy- chogenic, 9-psychotherapy, IO-psychopath (End of Session 8). 92

SESSION 9 ORIGINS AND RELATED WORDS 1. the whole tooth Orthodontist, as we discovered in Chapter 4, is built on orthos, straight, correct, plus odontos, tooth. A pedodontist (pee’-do-DON’-tist) specializes in the care of children’s teeth-the title is constructed from paidos, child, plus odontos. The specialty: pedodontia (pee’-do-DON’-sha); the ad- jective: pedodontic (pee’-do-DON’-tik). A periodontist (pair’-ee-0-DON’-tist) is a gum specialist—=-the term combines odontos with the prefix peri-, around, surrounding. (As a quick glance in the mirror will tell you, the gums surround the teeth, more or less.) Can you figure out the word for · the specialty? For the adjective? _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ __ An endodontist (en’-do-DON’-tist) specializes in work on the pulp of the tooth and in root-canal therapy-the prefix in this term is endo-, from .Greek endon, inner, within. Try your. hand again ·at .constructing words. What is the specialty? . And the adjective? The prefix ex-, out, combines with odontos to form exodontist (eks’-0-DON’-tist). What do you suppose, therefore, is the work in which this practitioner specializes? — — — — — — — — — — And the terin for the specialty? ———-~ For the adjective?——‘———‘-~—- 93

2. measurement The optometrist, by etymology, measures vision-the term is built on opsis, optikos, view, vision, plus metron, measurement. Metron is the root in many other words: 1. thermometer (th::ir-MOM’-G-t::ir)-an instrument to meas- ure heat (Greek therme, heat). 2. barometer (bG-ROM’-G-ter)-an instrument to measure atmospheric pressure (Greek baros, weight); the adjective is bar- ometric (bair’-G-MET’-rik). 3. sphygmomanometer (sfig’-mo-m::i-NOM’-::i-t::ir)-a device for measuring blood pressure (Greek sphygmos, pulse). 4. metric system-a decimal system of weights and measures, long used in other countries and now gradually being adopted in the United States. 3. bones, feet, and hands Osteopath combines Greek osteon, bone, with pathos, suffering, disease. Osteopathy (os’-tee-OP’-::i-thee), you will recall, was originally based on the theory that disease is caused by pressure of the bones on blood vessels and nerves. An osteopathic (os’-tee-::i- PATH’-ik) physician is not a bone specialist, despite the mislead- ing etymology-and should not be confused with the orthopedist, who is. The podiatrist (Greek pous, podos, foot, plus iatreia, medical healing) practices podiatry (p::i-DI’-G-tree). The adjective is po- diatric (po’-dee-AT’-rik). The root pous, podos is found als(}in: 1. octopus (OK’-b-p::is), the eight-armed (or, as the etymol- ogy has it, eight-footed) sea .creature (Greek okto, eight). 2. platypus (PLAT’-::icp::is), the strange water mammal with a duck’s bill, webbed feet, and a beaver-like tail that reproduces by laying eggs (Greek platys, broad, flat-hence, by etymology, a flatfoot!). 3. podium (PO’-dee-::im), a speaker’s platform, etymologically a place for the feet. (The suffix -ium often signifies «place where,» as in gymnasium, stadium, auditorium, etc.) 94

4. tripod (TRI’-pod), a three-legged (or «footed») stand for a camera or other device {tri-, three). 5. chiropodist (ka-ROP’-a-dist}, earlier title for a podiatrist, and still often used. The specialty is chiropody (h-ROP’-a-dee). Chiropody combines .podos with Greek cheir, hand, spelled chiro- in English words. The term was coined in the days before labor-saving machinery and push-button devices, when people worked with their hands and developed calluses on their upper ex- tremities as well as on their feet. Today most of us earn a liveli- hood in more sedentary occupations, and so we may develop calluses on less visible portions of our anatomy. Chiropractors heal with their hands-the specialty is chiro- practic (ki’-ro-PRAK’-tik). Cheir (chiro-), hand, is the root in chirography (ki-ROG’-ra- fee). Recalling the graph- in graphologist, can you figure out by etymology what chirography i s ? · _ — — — — — — — — — — — An expert in writing by hand, or in penmanship (a lost art in these days of electronic word-processing),t would be a chitog- rapher (ki-ROG’-ra-far); the adjective is chitograp~ic (ki’-ro- GRAF’-ik). If the suffix -maney comes from a Greek word meaning fore- telling or prediction, can you decide what chiromaney (KI’-ro- man’-see) must b e ? — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — The person who practices chiromancy is a chiromancer (Ki’-ro- man’-sar); the adjective is chiromantic (ki’-ro-MAN’-tik). REVIEW OF ETYMOLOGY PREFIX, ROOT, MEANING ENGLISH WORD SUFFIX 95 straight, correct 1. orthos tooth 2. odontos child 3. paidos (ped-) adjective suffix 4. ~ic .. around, surrounding inner, within 5. peri- 6. endo- t But see calligraplzer in the next session.

7. ex- out 8. opsis, optikos vision 9. metron measurement 10. therme· heat 11. baros weight 12. sphygmos pulse 13. osteon. — bone 14. pathos suffering, disease 15. pous, podos foot 16. okto eight 17. platys broad, fiat 18. -ium place where 19. tri- three 20. cheir (chiro-) hand 21. mancy prediction 22. iatreia medical healing USING THE WORDS Can you pronounce the words? (I) 1. pedodontist pee’-do-DON’-tist 2. pedodontia pee’-d5-DON’-sha 3. pedodontic pee’-do-DON’-tik 4. periodontist pair’-ee-5-DON’-tist 5. periodontia pair’-ee-5-DON’-sha 6. periodontic pair’-ee-5-DON’-tik 7. endodontist en’-do-DON’-tist 8. endodontia en’-do-DON’-sha 9. endodontic en’-d5-DON’-tik 10. exodof!(ist eks’-5-DON’-tist 11. exodontia eks’-0-DON’-sha 12. exodontic eks’-5-DON’-tik 13. thermometer thQr-‘MOM’-Q-tar 14. barometer ba-ROM’-a-tar 15. barometric bair’-Q-MET’-rik 16. sphygmomanometer sfig’-mo-ma-NOM’-a-mr — 96

Can you pronounce the words? (II) 1. osteopathy os’-tee-OP’-a-thee 2. osteopathic os’-tee-a-PATH’-ik 3. podiatry pa-DI’-a-tree 4. podiatric po’-dee-AT’-rik 5. octopus OK’-ta-pas .6. platypus PLAT’-a-pas 7. podium P6′-dee-am 8. tripod TRI’-pod 9. chiropodist ka-ROP’-a-dist 10. chiropody ka-ROP’-a-dee 11. chiropractic kI’-ro-PRAK’-tik 12.. chirography kI-ROG’-ra-fee 13. chirographer kI-ROG’-ra-far 14. chirographic ki’-ra-GRAF’-ik 15. chiromancy KI’-ra-man’-see 16. chiromancer KI’-ra-man’-sar 17. chiromantic ki’-ra-MAN’-tik Can you work with the words? (I) 1. orthodontia a. dental specialty involving the pulp and root canal 2. pedodontia b. instrument that measures at- 3. periodontia mospheric pressure 4. endodontia c. specialty arising from the 5. exodontia theory that pressure of the 6. barometer bones on nerves and blood vessels may cause disease 7. sphygmomanometer 8. osteopathy d. specialty of child dentistry 9. podiatry e. blood-pressure apparatus f. treatment of minor ailments of the foot g. instrument to measure heat h. specialty of tooth extraction i. specialty of tooth straight- ening 97

10. thermometer j.. specialty of the gums KEY: 1-i, 2-d, 3-j, 4-a, 5-h, 6-b, 7-e, 8.,.-e, 9-f, 10-g Can you work with the words? Ill! 1. octopus a. speaker’s platform 2. platypus b. maintenance of integrity of 3. podium the nervous system by ma- 4. chiropody nipulation and massage 5. chiropractic c. palm reading 6. chirography d. eight-armed sea creature e. handwriting 7. chiromancy f. treatment of minor ailments of the foot g. egg-laying mammal · with webbed feet KEY: 1-d, 2-g, 3-a, 4-f, 5-b, 6-e, 7-c Do you understand the words? TRUE FALSE TRUE FALSE 1. Orthodontia is a branch of dentistry. 2. Doctors use sphygmomanometers to TRUE FALSE check blood pressure. TRUE FALSE 3. Osteopathic physicians may use TRUE FALSE standard medical procedures. TRUE FALSE 4. Chiropractic deals with handwriting. TRUE FALSE 5. Chiropody and podiatry are TRUE FALSE TRUE FALSE synonymous terms. TRUE FALSE 6. A podium is a place from which a 98 lecture might be delivered. 7.. A pedodontist is a foot doctor. 8. A periodontist is a gum specialist. 9. A endodontist does root-canal therapy. 10. An exodontist extracts teeth.

11. A barometer measures heat. TRUE FALSE 12. An octopus has eight arms. TRUE FALSE 13. A platypus is a land mammal. TRUE FALSE 14. A tripod has four legs. TRUE FALSE 15. A chirographer is an expert at TRUE FALSE penmanship. TRUE FALSE 16. A chiromancer reads palms. KEY: 1-T, 2-T, 3-T, 4-F, 5-T, 6-T, 7-F, 8-T; 9-T, l~T, 11-F,12-T,13-F,14-F, 15-T,16-T Do you recall the words? Ill 1. P—~— 1. pertaining to child dentistry 2. P — — — — ‘ — — — — (adj.) 3. s._______ 2. pertaining to treatment of the foot (adj.) 4. T_ _ _ _ __ 5. O·——‘— 3. blood-pressure apparatus 4. three-legged stand 6. …___ _ _ _ __ 7. P_,__ _ _ _ __ 5. pert:aining to the treatment of 8. p_ _ _ _ _ __ diseases by manipulation to relieve pressure of the bones on nerves and blood vessels (adj.) 6. pertaining to handwriting (adj.) 7. gum specialist 8. treatment of ailments of the foot 9. stand for a speaker 10. dentist specializing in treating the. pulp of the tooth or in doing root-canal therapy KEY: 1-pcdodontic, 2-podiatric, 3-sphygmomanometer, 4-tri- pod, 5-osteopathic, 6..:.Chirographic, 7-periodontist, 8-po- diatry or chiropody, 9-podiurn, l~ndodontist · 99

Can you recall the words? (II) L ….,___ _ _ _ _ __ 1. pertaining to the specialty of 2. B.________ tooth extraction (adj.) 3. c._______ 2. pertaining to the measurement 4. c._______ of atmospheric pressure (adj.) 5. c._______ 3. palm reading (noun) 4. handwriting 6. P — — — — = — — — — 5. the practice of manipulating 7. Q,________ 8. T________ bodily articulations to relieve ailments 6. egg-laying mammal 7. eight-armed sea creature 8. instrument to measure heat KEY: 1-exodontic, 2-barometric, 3-chiromancy, 4-chirography, 5-chiropractic, 6-platypus, 7-octopus, 8-thermometer (End of Session 9) SESSION 10 ORIGINS AND RELATED WORDS 1. writing and writers The Greek verb graphein, to write, is the source of a· great many English words. We know that the graphologist analyzes handwriting, the term combining graphein with logos, science, study. The specialty is graphology (gr:i-FOL’-:i-jee), the adjective graphological (graf’-:i- LOJ’-:i-k:il) . Chirographer is built on graphein plus cheir (chiro-), hand. 100

IDEAS 1. you don’t fool even some of the people Everybody kD.ows your propensity for avoiding facts. You have built so solid and unsavory a reputation that only a stranger is likely to be misled-and then, not for long. A notorious liar 2. to the highest summits of artistry YouJ? ability is top-drawer-rarely does anyone lie as convinc- ingly or as artistically as you do. Your skill has, in short, reached the zenith of perfection. Indeed, your mastery of the art is so great that your lying is almost always crowned with success-and you have no trouble seducing an unwary listener into believing that you are telling gospel truth. A consummate liar 3. beyond redemption or salvation You are impervious to correction. Often as you may be caught in your fabrications, there is no reforming you-you go right on ly- ing despite~ the punishment, embarrassment, or unhappiness that your distortions of truth may bring upon you. An incorrigible liar 4. too old to learn new tricks You are the victim of firmly fixed and deep-rooted habits. Tell- ing untruths is as frequent and customary an activity as brushing your teeth in the morning, or having toast and coffee for break- fast, or lighting up a cigarette after dinner (if you are a smoker). And almost as reflexive. An inveterate liar 150

SESSION 14 It was the famous Greek philosopher and cynic Diogenes ·who went around the streets of Athens, lantern in hand, looking for an honest person. This was over two thousand years ago, but I presume that Diogenes would have as little success in his searcl). today. Lying seems to be an integral weakness of mortal character-I doubt that few human beings would be so brash as to claim that they have never in their lives told at least a partial untruth. Indeed, one philologist goes so far as to theorize that language must have been invented for the sole purpose of deception. Perhaps so. It is cer- tainly true that animals seem somewhat more honest than humans, maybe because they are less gifted mentally. Why do people lie? To increase their sense of importance, to es- cape punishment, to gain an end that \ivould otherwise be denied them, out of long-standing habit, or sometimes because they actu- ally do not know the differepce between fact and fancy. These are the common reasons for falsification. No doubt there are other, fairly unique, motives that impel people to distort the truth. And, to come right down to it, can we always be certain what is true and what is false? If lying is a prevalent and all-too-human phenomenon, there would of course be a number of interesting words to describe different types of liars. · Let us pretend (not to get personal, but only to help you be- come personally involved in the ideas and words) that you are a liar. The question is, what kind of liar are you? l49

7 HOW TO TALK ABOUT LIARS AND LYING (Sessions 14-17) TEASER PREVIEW What kind of liar are you if you: o have developed a reputation for falsehood? o are particularly skillful? o cannot be refarmed? o have become habituated to your vice? • started to lie. from the moment of your birth? o always lie? o cannot distinguish fact from fancy? • sufjer no pangs of conscience? • are suspiciously smooth and fluent in your lying? • tell vicious lies? 148

6. Are you going to invite Doris and I to your party? WRONG. Some people are almost irresistibly drawn to the pro- noun I in constructions like this one. However, not only does such use of I violate a valid and useful grammatical principle, but, more important, it is rarely heard in educated speech. The mean- ing of the sentence is equally clear no matter which form of the pronoun is employed, of course, but the use of /, the less popular choice, may stigmatize the speaker as uneducated. Consider it this way: You would normally say, «Are you going to invite me to your party?» It would be wiser, therefore, to say, «Are you going to invite Doris and me to your party?» 147

opinions were unanimous; not a single dissenting voice, out of the twenty-three authors who answered, was raised against the usage. ..One writer responded: «It has been right for about 150 years ‘ Editors of magazines and newspapers questioned on the same point were just a shade more conservative. Sixty out of sixty-nine accepted the usage. One editor commented: «I think we do not have to be nice about nice any longer. No one can eradicate it from popular speech as a synonym for pleasant, or enjoyable, or kind, or courteous. It is a workhorse of the vocabulary, and prop- erly so.» The only valid objection to the word is that it is overworked by some people, bu.t this shows a weakness, in vocabulary rather than in grammar. As in the famous story of the editor who said to her secretary: «There are two words I wish you would stop using so much. One is ‘nice’ and the other is ‘lousy.'» «Okay,» said the secretary, who was eager to please. «What are they?» 4. He’s pretty sick today. RIGHT, One of the purist’s pet targets of attack is the word pretty as used in the sentence under discussion. Yet all modern dictionaries accept such use of pretty, and a survey made by a professor at the University of Wisconsin showed that the usage is established English. 5. I feel awfully sick. RIGHT. Dictionaries accept this usage in informal speech and the University of Wisconsin survey showed that it is established English. The great popularity of awfully in educated speech is no doubt due to the strong and unique emphasis that the word gives to an adjective-substitute very, quite, extremely, or severely-and you considerably weaken the force. On the other hand, it is somewhat less than cultivated to say «I feel awful sick,» and the wisdom of using awfully to intensify a pleasant concept («What an awfully pretty child»; «That book .is awfully interesting») is perhaps still debatable, though getting less and less so as the years go on. 146

usage without qualification. Of twelve dictionary editors, eleven accepted further, and in the case of the authors, thirteen out of twenty-three accepted the word as used. A professor of English at Cornell University remarked: «I know of no justification for any present-day distinctj.on between further and farther»; and a con- sulting editor of the Funk· and Wagnalls dictionary said, «There is nothing controversial here. As applied to spatial distance, further and farther have long been interchangeable.» Perhaps the comment of a noted author and columnist is most to the point: «I like both further and farther, as I have never been able to tell which is which or why one is any farther or further than the other.» 2. Some people adniit that their principle goal in life is to become wealthy. WRONG. In speech, you can get principal and principle con- fused as often as you like, and no one will ever know the difference-both words are pronounced identically. In writing, however, your spelling will give you away. There is a simple memory trick that will help you if you get into trouble with these two words. Rule and principle both end in -le-and a principle is a rule. On the other hand, principal con- tains an a, and so does main-and principal means main. Get these points straight and your confusion is over. Heads of schools are called prineipals, because they are the main person in that institution of learning. The money you have in the bank is your principal, your main financial assets. And the stars of a play are prineipals-the main actors. Thus, «Some people admit that their principal (main) goal in life is to become wealthy,» but «Such a principle (rule) is not guaranteed to lead to happiness.» 3. What a nice thing to say! RIGHT. Purists object to the popular use of nice as a synonym for pleasant, agreefible, or delightful. They wish to restrict the word to its older and more erudite meaning of exact or subtle. You will be happy to hear that they aren’t getting anywhere. When I polled a group of well-known authors on the accept- ability in everyday speech of the popular meaning of nice, their 145

rules, but only because they are rarely if .ever used by educated speakers. Correctness, in short, is determined by current educated usage. The following notes on current trends in modern usage are in- tended to help you come to a decision about certain controversial expressions. As you read each sentence, pay particular attention to the italicized word or words. Does the usage square with your own language patterns? Would you be willing to phrase your thoughts in just such terms? Decide whether the sentence is «right» or «wrong,» then compare your conclusions with the opin- ions given after the test. TEST YOURSELF 1. Let’s not walk any further right now. RIGHT WRONG 2. Some people admit that their principle RIGHT WRONG goal in life is to become wealthy. RIGHT WRONG 3. What a nice thing to say! RIGHT WRONG 4. He’s pretty sick today. RIGHT WRONG 5. I feel awfully sick. RIGHT WRONG 6. Are you going to invite Doris and I to your party? 1. Let’s not walk any further right now. RIGHT. In the nineteenth century, when professional grammari- ans attempted to Latinize English grammar, an artificial distinc- tion was drawn between farther and further, to wit: farther refers to space, further means to a greater extent or additional. Today, as a result, many teachers who are still under the forbidding in- fluence of nineteenth-century restrictions insist that it is incorrect to use one word for the other. To check on current attitudes toward this distinction, I sent the test sentence above to a number of dictionary editors, authors, and professors of English, requesting their opinion of the accepta- bility of further in, reference to actual distance. Sixty out of eighty- seven professors, over two thirds of those responding, accepted the 144

—-B.rief Intermission Four—- HOW TO AVOID BEING A PURIST Life, as you no doubt realize, is complicated enough these days. Yet puristic textbooks and English teachers with puristic ideas are striving to make it still more· complicated. Their contribution to the complexity of modern living is the repeated claim that many of the natural, carefree, and popular expressions that most of us use every day are «bad English,» «incorrect grammar,» «vulgar,» or «illiterate.» In truth, many of the former restrictions and «thou shalt nots» of academic grammar are now outmoded-most educated speak- ers quite simply ignore them. Students in my grammar cfasses at Rio Hondo College are somewhat nonplused when they discover that correctness is not determined by textbook rules and cannot be enforced by school- teacher edict. They invariably ask: «Aren’t you going to draw the line somewhere?» It is neither necessary nor possible for any one person to «draw the line.» That is done—and quite effectively-by the people themselves, by the millions of educated people throughout the na- tion. Of course certain expressions may be considered «incorrect» or «illiterate» or «bad grammar»-not because they violate puristic 143

I suggest, first, half a dozen .older books (older, but still im- mensely valuable and completely valid) available at any large public library. The Human Mind, by Karl A. Menninger Mind and Body, by Flanders Dunbar The Mind in Action, by Eric Berne Understandable Psychiatry, by Leland E. Hinsie A General Introduction to Psychoanalysis, by Sigmund Freud Emotional Problems of Living, by 0. Spurgeon English and Gerald H.J. Pearson Next, I suggest books on some of the newer approaches in psy- chology. These are available in inexpensive paperback editions as well .as at your local library. I Ain’t Well-But I Sure Am Better, by Jess Lair, Ph.D.. The Disowned Self, by Nathaniel Brandon A Primer of Behavioral Psychology, by Adelaide Bry I’m OK-You’re OK, by Thomas A. Harris, M.D. Freedom to Be and Man the Manipulator, by Everett L. Shos- trum Games People Play, by Eric Berne, M.D. Love and Orgasm, Pleasure and The Language of the Body, by Alexander Lowen, M.D. The Transparent Self, by Sydney M. Jourard Don’t Say Yes When You Want to Say No, by Herbert Fen- sterheim and Jean Baer Gestalt Therapy Verbatim, by Frederick S. Perls Born to Win, by Muriel James and Dorothy Jongeward Joy and Here Comes Everybody, by William C. Schutz The Fifty-Minute Hour, by Robert Lindner (End of Session 13) 142

had an idea-and had to coin a whole new vocabulary to make his idea clear to the world. Those who are familiar with Freud’s theories know all the words that explain them-the unconscious, the ego, the id, the superego, rationalization, Oedipus complex, and so on. Splitting the atom was once a new idea-anyone famil- iar with it knew something about fission, isotope, radioactive, cyclotron, etc. Remember this: your vocabulary indicates the alertness and range·of your mind. The words you know show the extent of your understanding of what’s going on in the world. The size of your vocabulary varies directly with the degree to which you are grow- ing intellectually. You have covered so far in this book several hundred words. Having learned these words, you have begun to think of an equal number of new ideas. A new word is not just another pattern of syllables with which to clutter up your mind-a new word is a new idea to help you think, to help you understand the thoughts of others, to help you expre~ your own thoughts, to help you live a richer intellectual life. Realizing these facts, you may become impatient. You will begin to doubt that a book like this can cover all the ideas that an alert and intellectually mature adult wishes to be acquainted with. Your doubt is well-founded. One of the chief purposes of this book is to get you started, to give you enough of a push so that you will begin to gather momentum, to stimtilate you enough so that you will want to start gathering your own ideas. Where can you gather them? From good books on new topics. How can you gather them? By reading on a wide range of new subjects. — Reference has repeatedly been made to psychology, psychiatry, and psychoanalysis in these pages. If your curiosity has been piqued by these references, here is a good place to start. In these fields there is a tremendous and exciting literature-and you can read as widely and as deeply as you wish. What I would like to do is offer a few suggestions as to where you might profitably begin-how far you go will depend on your own interest. · 141

4. These three words, based on lingua, tongue, use prefixes we have discussed. Can you define each one? (a) monolingual (b) bilingual (c) trilingual Can you, now, guess at the meaning of multilingual? _ _ __ How about linguist? — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — What do you suppose the Latin root multus means? — — — — ~——-· (Think of multitude.) 5. With Anglophile as your model, can you figure out what country .and its pe-0ple, customs, etc. each of the following admires? (a) Francophile (b) Russophile (c) Hispanophile (d) Germanophile (e) Nipponophile (f) Sinophile 6. Using roots you have learned, and with bibliophile as your model, can you construct a word for: (a) one who loves males: (b) one who loves women: (c) one who loves children: (d) one who loves animals: (e) one who loves plants: (Answers in Chapter 18) WHERE TO GET NEW IDEAS People with superior vocabularies, I have submitted, are the people with ideas. The words they know a.re verbal symbols of the ideas they are familiar with-reduce one and you must reduce the other, for ideas cannot exist without verbalization. Freud once 140

3. astron astronomy 4. nautes astronaut 5. nomos metronome 6. autos autonomy 7. ge (geo-) geology 8. graphein biography 9. opsis, optikos autopsy 10. zoion zodiac 11. tome entomology 12. sectus insect 13. lingua linguistics 14. philein philanthropy 15. sophos philosophy 16. biblion bibliophile 17. Anglus Anglophile 18. socius sociology 19. logos biology 20. bios biopsy KEY: 1-mankind, 2-word, speech, 3-star, 4-sailor, 5-law, order, arrangement, 6-self, 7-earth, 8-to write, 9-view, vision, sight, 10-animal, 11-a cutting, 12-cut, 13-tongue, 14-to love, 15-wise, 16-book, 17-English, 18-companion, 19-science, study, 20-life TEASER QUESTION FOR THE AMATEUR ETYMOLOGIST 1. Recalling the’root sophos, wise, and thinking of the English word moron, write the name given to a second-year student in high school or college: . Etymo- IOgically, what does this word mean? — — — — — — — — — — 2. Based on the root sophos, what word means worldly-wise? , 3. Thinking of bibliophile, define bibliomaniac: — — — — — — 139

12-dichotomize, 13-epitome, 14-epitomize, IS-philan- thropic, 16-eccentric, 17-philanderer, 18-aphrodisiac or aphrodisiacal, 19-sociology, 20-asocial · CHAPTER REVIEW A. Do you recognize the words? 1. Student of the stars and other heavenly phenomena: (a) ge- ologist, (b) astronomer, (c) anthropologist 2. Student of plant life: (a) botanist, (b) zoologist, (c) biolo- gist 3. Student of insect life: (a) sociologist, (b) entomologist, (c) etymologist • 4. Student of the meaning and psychology of words: (a) philol- ogist, (b) semanticist, (c) etymologist 5. Analysis of living tissue: (a) autopsy, (b) biopsy, (c) au- tonomy 6. That which arouses sexual desire: (a) zodiac, (b) biblio- c phile, (~) aphrodisiac 7. Self-governing: (a) autobiographical, (b)° autonomous, (c) dichotomous 8. Part that represents the whole: (a) epitome, (b) dichotomy, (c) metronome 9. One who physically travels in space: (a) astronomer, (b) as- trologer, (c) astronaut » 10. One who has extramarital affairs: (a) cosmonaut, (b) philanderer, (c) philanthropist KEY: 1-b, 2-a, 3-b, 4-b, 5-b, 6—c, 7-b, 8-a, 9-c, 10-b B. Can you recognize roots? MEANING EXAMPLE ROOT anthropology 1. anthropos philology 2. logos 138

Can you recall the words? 1. s 1. pertaining to the study of social 2. s customs (adj.) or S 2. pertaining to the psychological 3. B effects of words (adj.) 4. p 5. p 3.-Jover and collector of books 4. make love promiscuously 6. 5. pertaining to the science of 7. linguistics (adj.) 6. pertaining to the study of 8. A 9. insects (adj.) 7. one who admires British 10. T 11. D customs 12. D 8. smallest particle, so-called 13. 9. pertaining to the structure of a 14. body (adj.) 10. a dull, heavy book 15. p 11. split in two (adj.) l 2. to split in two 16. 13. a condensation, summary, or 17. p 18. representation of the whole or A 14. to stand for the whole; to 19. s summarize 15. pertaining to charitable 20. activities (adj.) 16. out of the norm; odd 17. one who «plays around» 18. arousing sexual desire (adj.) 19. science of the manner in which groups function 20. self-isolated from contact with people KEY: 1-sociological, 2-semantic or semantical, 3-bibliophile, 4-philander, 5-philological, 6-entomological, 7-Anglo- phile, 8-atom, 9-anatomical, 10-tome, 11-dichotomous, 137

5. bibliophile e. pertaining to the science of group cultures, conventions, 6. Anglophile etc. 7. asocial f. to split in two 8. tome g. withdrawn from contact with 9. philological 10. sociological people h. book collector i. to summarize j. to engage in extramarital sex KEY: 1-f, 2-i, 3-j, 4-b, 5-h, 6-d, 7-g, 8-a, 9-c, 10-e Do you understand the words? YES NO 1. Is a philanderer likely to be faithful to a YES NO spouse? YES NO 2. Did Dr. Jekyll-Mr. Hyde lead a YES NO dichotomous existence? YES NO 3. Is an egoist the epitome of selfishness? YES NO 4. Is a philanthropist antisocial? 5. Is an aphrodisiac intended to reduce YES NO YES NO sexual interest? 6. Is a bibliophile’s chief aim the YES NO YES NO enjoyment of literature? 7. Does a philologist understand etymology? 8. Is a semanticist interested in more than the dictionary meanings of words? 9. Is an asocial person interested in improving social conditions? 10. Is. a light novel considered a tome? KEY: 1-no, 2-yes, 3-yes, 4-no, 5-no, 6-no, 7-yes, 8-yes, 9-no, 10-no 136

7. semantic S9-MAN’-tik 8. semantical sa-MAN’-t9-kal 9. sociology so’-shee-OL’-9-jee or so’-see-OL’-a-jee 10. sociological so’-shee-9-LOJ’-a-kal or sa’-see..g-LQJ’-9-kal 11. asocial ay-SO’-shal Can you work with the words? (I) a. physical structure b. summary; representation of 1. entomology 2. eccentricity. the whole c. science of the meanings and 3. anatomy effects of words 4. dichotomy d. linguistics 5. epitome e. science dealing with insects 6. philology f. science of social structures 7. semantics and customs 8. sociology g. charitable works h. that which causes sexual ·9. aphrodisiac arousal 10. philanthropy i. strangeness; oddness; uncon- ventionality j. condition or state of being split into two parts KEY: 1-e, 2-i, 3-a, 4-j, 5-b, 6-d, 7-c, 8-f, 9-h, 10-g Can you work with the words? 1111 1. dichotomize a. dull, heavy book 2. epitomize b. love potion; aphrodisiac 3. philander c. pertaining to the study of 4. philter language d. one foncl of British people, customs, etc. 135

USING THE WORDS Can you pronounce the.words? (I)- 1. entomology en’-ta-MOL’-a-jee 2. entomological en’-ta-ma-LOJ’-a-kal 3. eccentric· ak-SEN1-trik 4. eccentricity ak’-san-TRIS’-a-tee 5. atom AT’-gm 6. atomic 7. anatomy a-TOM’-ik 8. anatomical a-NAT’-a-mee 9. tome an’-a-TOM’-a-kal 10. dichotomy TOM 11. dichotomous di-KOT’-a-mee 12. dichotomize di-KOT’-a-mas di-KOT’-a-miz’ Can you pronounce the words? (II) 1. epitome a-PIT’-a-mee 2. epitomize a-PIT’-a-miz’ 3. philology fa-LOL’-a-jee 4. philological fil’-a-LOJ’-a-kal 5. linguistics ling-GWIS’-tiks 6. philanthropy fa-LAN’-thra-pee 7. philanthropist fa-LAN’-thra-pist 8. philanthropic fiY-an-THROP’-ik 9. philander fa-LAN’-dar 10. philanderer fa-LAN’-dar-ar Can you pronounce the words? 11111 1. philter FIL’-tar 2. aphrodisiac af’-ra-l)IZ’-ee-ak’ 3. aphrodisiacal af-ra-da-ZI’-a-bl 4. bibliophile BIB’-Iee-a-ffi’ 5. Anglophile ANG’-gla-ffi’ 6. semantics sa-MAN’-tiks 134

ence, study. Socius is the source of such common words as associ- ate, social, socialize, society, sociable, and antisocial; as well as asocial (ay-SO’-shal), which combines the negative prefix a- with socius. The antisocial person actively dislikes people, and often be- haves in ways that are detrimental or destructive to society or the social order (anti-, against). On the other hand, someone who is asocial is withdrawn and self-centered, avoids contact with others, and feels completely indifferent to the interests or welfare of society. The asocial per- son doesn’t want to «get involved.» REVIEW OF ETYMOLOGY PREFIX, ROOT MEANING ENGLISH WORD 133 1. en- in 2. tome a cutting 3. in- in 4. sectus cut 5. kentron center (centrum) not, negative 6. a- up 7. ana- in two 8. dicha- on, upon 9. epi- word, speech 10. logos tongue 11. lingua to love 12. philein wise 13. sophos brother 14. ade_lphos book English B. biblion companion against 16. Anglus 17. socius 18. anti-

aphrodisiac (af-rn-DIZ’-ee-ak’), from Aphrodite, the Greek god- d!lSS of love and beauty. Aphrodisiac is an adjective as well as a noun, but a longer ad- jective form, aphrodisiacal (af-rn-da-ZI’-a-kal), is also used. A bibliophile (BIB’-lee-a-ffi’) is one who loves books as collecti- bles, admiring their binding, typography, illustrations, rarity, etc.-in short, a book collector. The combining root is Greek biblion, book. An Anglophile (ANG’-gl:i-ffi’) admires and is fond of the Brit- ish people, customs, culture, etc. The combining root is Latin Anglus, English. 5. words and how they affect people · The semanticist is professionally involved in semantics (sa- MAN’-tiks). The adjective is semantic (s:i-MAN’-tik) or seman- tical (sQ-MAN’-ta-kal). Semantics, like orthopedics, pediatrics, and obstetrics, is a sin- gular noun despite the -s ending. Semantics is, not are, an exciting study. However, this rule applies only when we refer to the word as a science or area of study. In the following sentence, semantics is used as a pliJral: »The semantics of your thinking· are all wrong.» Two stimulating and highly readable books on the subject, well worth a visit to the h’brary to pick up, are Language in Thought and Action, by S. I. Hayakawa, and People in Quandaries~ by Dr. Wendell Johnson. 6. how people live The profession of the sociologist is sociology (so’-shee-OL’-a- jee or sO-see-OL’-:i-jee). Can you write, and pronounce, the ad- jective? · Sociology is built on Latin socius, companion,* plus logos, sci- .. Companion itself has an interesting etymology-Latin com-, with, plus pants, bread. If you are social, you enjoy breaking bread with companions. Pantry also comes from pants, though far more than bread is stored there. 132

More commonly, epitome and the verb epitomize (a-PIT’-a- miz’) are used in sentences like «She is the epitome of kindness,» or «That one act epitomizes her philosophy of life.» If you cut ev- erything else away to get to the essential part, that part is a rep- resentative cross-section of the whole. So a woman who is the epit- ome of kindness stands for all people who are kind; and an act that epitomizes a philosophy of life represents, by itseH, the com- plete philosophy. 3. love and words Logos, we know, means science or study,- it may also mean word or speech, as it does in philology (fa-LOL’-~-jee), etymo- logically the love of words (from Greek philein, to love, plus logos), or what is more commonly called linguistics (ling-GWIS’- tiks), the science of language, a term derived from Latin lingua, tongue. Can you write, and pronounce, the adjective form of philology? 4. more love Philanthropy (fa-LAN’-thN-pee) is by etymology the love of mankind-one who devotes oneself to philanthropy is a philan- thropist (fa-LAN’-thra-pist), as we learned in Chapter 3; the ad- jective is philanthropic (fil-Qn-THROP’-ik). The verb philander (fa-LAN’-dQr), to «play around» sexually, be promiscuous, or have extramarital relations, combines philein with andros, male. (Philandering, despite its derivation, is not of course exclusively the male province. The word is, in fact, derived from the proper name conventionally given to male lovers in plays and romances of the 1500s and 1600s.) One who engages in the interesting activities catalogued above is a philanderer (fa- LAN’-dQr-Qr). By etymology, philosophy is the love of wisdom (Greek sophos, wise); Philadelphia is the City of Brotherly Love (Greek adel- phos, brother); philharmonic is the love of music or harmony (Greek harmonia, harmony); and a philter, a rarely used word, is a love potion. Today we call whatever arouses sexual desire an 131

2. more cuts The Greek prefix a- makes a root negative; the atom (AT’-am) was so named at a time when it was considered the smallest possi- ble particle of an element, that is, one that could not be cut any further. (We have long since split the atom, of course, with re- sults, as in most technological advances, both good and evil.) The adjective is atomic (a-TOM’-ik). The Greek prefix ana- has a number of meanings, one of which is up, as in anatomy (a-NAT’-a-mee), originally the cutting up of a plant or animal to determine its structure, later the bodily struc- ture itself. The adjective is anatomical (an’-a-TOM’-a-kal) . Originally any book that was part of a larger work of many vol- umes was called a tome (TOM)-etymologically, a part cut from the whole. Today, a tome designates, often disparagingly, an ex- ceptionally large book, or one that is heavy and dull in content. The Greek prefix dicha-, in two, combines with tome to con- struct dichotopiy (dI-KOT’-a-mee), a splitting in two, a technical word used in astronomy, biology, botany, and the science of logic. It is also employed as a non-technical term, as when we refer to the dichotomy in the life of a man who is a government clerk all day and a night-school teacher after working hours, so that his life is, in a sense, split into two parts. The verb is dichotomize (di- KOT’-a-rniz’); the adjective is dichotomous (dI-KOT’-a-mas). Dichotomous thinking is the sort that divides everything into two parts-good and bad; white and black; Democrats and Republi- cans; etc. An unknown wit has made this classic statement about dichotomous thinking: «There are two kinds of people: those who divide everything into two parts, and those who do not.» Imagine a book, a complicated or massive report, or some other elaborate document-now figuratively cut on or through it so that you can get to its essence, the very heart of the idea contained in it. What you have is an epitome (a-PIT’-a-mee), a condensation of the whole. (From epi-, on, upon, plus tome.) An epitome may refer to a summary, condensation, or abridg- ment of language, as in «Let me have an epitome of the book,» or «Give me the epitome of his speech.» 130

“Love is a many splendored thing. Love lifts us up where we belong. All you need is love!”

Moulin Rouge – a movie all about love with their well-known quote, “the greatest thing you’ll ever learn is just to love and be loved in return”. The movie perfectly portrays how two people who were not allowed to be together would do everything in their willpower to love each other till they take their last breath.

That’s probably the general view of loving someone unconditionally that you would do everything and anything to be together. However, with over 7 billion people on this planet, not everyone will have the same definition. Love is a very diverse term. Everyone needs it in some way or another, and therefore, everyone has their own definition to what ‘love’ means to them.

Haikal, 12, Romantic, Adventurous

In my opinion, love is not how much you say ‘I love you’ but how much you can prove it’s true. It’s about how patient and kind you are, it does not include boasting, it is not how arrogant and rude you are.

Love means accepting a person with all their failures, stupidities, and their imperfection. For example, love means there is no more busy world, it’s always about priorities. You will always find times you feel the most important about.

So in conclusion, I think love is a variety of different feelings; it’s about accepting someone for who they are and have feelings and do whatever it takes to have their forgiveness or even their heart.

Joseph, 21, Withdrawn Over-Thinker

I don’t believe in love at first sight. Attraction at first sight, yes. Affection at first sight, perhaps. But love?

Love, to me, rests on the same cline as companionship. And companionship is the foundation of love. Respect, understanding, and enthusiasm are the pillars on which this foundation is built – not initial attraction, not initial perception.

I suppose I am, to an extent, a victim of the ‘mere-exposure effect,’ in which a preference for someone or something comes with familiarity. I was close friends with my girlfriend for seven years before ‘asking her out,’ and I truly think that this friendship has served as an excellent point of reference over the last two years.

Therein lies the crux of my contention: love is not the gunshot signaling that the race has begun, but nor is it the feeling of crossing the finishing line. Love is the race – the journey – itself. Cliché? Yeah, sort of, but I do think it holds that the muddy concept of ‘love’ cannot be confined to the claustrophobic space of initial meeting, and this casts heavy doubts over the idea of love at first sight.

I respect but can’t identify with the desire for ‘one night stands’ or ‘wicked hooks,’ or whatever lingo is being used these days to denote seemingly frivolous dealings with a significant (or not so significant) other. It simply isn’t in my personality to consider such physical interaction to be so detached from emotional connection.

Of course, that’s not to say that love is static; it is an ever-changing construct, arbitrarily named and largely blurred at its edges. For some people, love at first sight might both exist and be fruitful, and I’m totally fine with that. In fact, let me make an amendment to my opening statement: I don’t believe in love at first sight for me.

Love exists outside the realm of human relationships, but I think nuanced meaning clouds its existence. I love coffee, I love the fresh air, and I love poetry, but I’m not in love with them.

I am in love with my girlfriend.

Kirsty, 23, Secretly Sentimental

An important element of love is to love yourself. Accept yourself and embrace the parts of yourself that you don’t necessarily like about yourself. This is an important lesson in how to love someone else. If you love yourself, you can be more generous with the love you give to others. You find yourself feeling more fulfilled and more loved than you could possibly imagine. You’ll find yourself smiling at the thought of whoever it is that you find you love. Love means seeing flaws and accepting them as positive traits. You’ll feel a sense of completeness that you never knew you were lacking in the first place, and no matter how long you’ve been apart whether it be hours or months you’ll feel like you’re coming home.

Luke, 21, Avocado Enthusiast

To possess a true love for something, some place, some ideology or someone and feel the reciprocation is often perceived as a final hurdle on a pathway to utopia, ‘a hypothetical place or state of things where everything is perfect.’

If I were to use something as simple as an “avocado” as a representation of any human, object or place capable of being truly loved; love can be defined to me as the feelings you are overcome with when you stumble across one of these wonderful green oval-shaped specimens, one that is of perfect ripeness, far superior to any avocado you’ve found on the shelves before. So flawless that as your knife pierces through the delicate skin effortlessly leaving you two immaculate halves not only does your heart and mind constantly discover new boundaries of excitement but a level of contentedness and satisfaction settles in.

With a little feta cheese to accompany, all spread over the finest sourdough toast, and experienced in your own personal paradise, each bite brings forth feelings of invincibility and superiority that not a thing in the world can overcome the sheer happiness. I love avocados.

Sarah, 14, Open-Minded and Exciting

What is love to me? Love is something unconditional and can’t really be explained in words. Of course, I’ve never experienced it yet, but it’s something I wish to feel in my lifetime.

The best way you can really say it is, it’s a feeling that you can’t shake, no matter how hard you try. The feeling when you love that special someone or something you can never live without. The feeling to need them and protect them.

Love is when you look at that person, and your heart accelerates, you get goosebumps. Every time you touch them you feel the electricity radiating off the both of you. You can never feel selfish with them and sacrifice anything or everything if it means you can be with them for the rest of your life. It’s when that person makes you happy no matter how you’re feeling. No matter the gender, ethnicity or person.

But love isn’t easy, it comes with consequences and sacrifices that if you are willing to make you know you’ve found the right someone/something.

I know very few people who are truly, deeply, and madly in love with each other, and let me tell you every time I see that it gives me the shred of hope that there actually might be someone out there for me.

So that’s what love is to me. How bout you?

Sharvin, 19, Dog Lover

Everyone at a pinnacle point in their life has experienced love regardless if they were loved or have been loved. It’s an inevitable feeling that captures the heart with full on passion, infatuation, and desire. It comes in all sorts of forms like with family, friends or an intimate love. In my experience, love “feels so good but hurts so bad”, I went through many amazing memories of my life with the women I love but at the end, it will either end up a fairytale or just like a wrecking ball being swung at you at immense pace.

My love generally lies in the animal kingdom. Such exquisite creatures roaming on our planet for millions of years and have been proven a predominant significance. Dogs are my favorite, especially pugs, golden retrievers, shih tzu, and corgi’s! I have a pet dog that, in all honesty, feels like another younger sibling. Their presence is a remedy for sadness or stress; they will be there through your ups and downs, which clearly defines the term, “dogs are a man’s best friend”. They may be a little annoying at times when it comes to barking or pooping all over the house but hey they are not as privileged as humans to have an intellect.

Marina, 20, Classic and Eclectic

To me, love is the most powerful thing on this planet. It can make you go crazy, feel every emotion a human ought to feel all mixed together, it can make you sick, and it can also make you feel more alive than anything ever can. Whether it’s loving yourself or loving someone else (or even loving an idea or a thing), it will consume you and make you feel infinite.

To me, I know that love is the greatest thing out there – that without it, we are nothing. Something that pushes you to achieve it, no matter what others say or who stops you. It’s the happiness it can bring you when you’re feeling down and once taken away, that’s when you feel like everything has gone to hell.

To be frank, it is dangerous to love, but it’s a risk you should be willing to take. Love so deeply it overwhelms you. Once you fall in love with something or someone, you’ll know it. Trust me on this. It may take time, but it’ll be worth it. You just need to find your star.

Featured photo credit: Susanne Nilsson via flickr.com

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What are words of affirmation?

Examples of words of affirmation

Couples therapist Antonia Di Leo, LMFT, shares some affirmative phrases that will make people whose love language is words of affirmation feel loved and secure: 

Words of affirmation as a love language

Why some people need words of affirmation

Dating someone whose love language is words of affirmation

How to ask someone for more words of affirmation

Are you the one whose love language is words of affirmation? Here’s how to communicate that to your partner: 

Effective communication is everything. The longer you wait to bring it up, the more you are delaying your own happiness. «Don’t wait until you’re in a torrent of resentment or a deluge of sadness before you ask for more words of affirmation,» says DeMarco. 

Fishing for compliments or praise can be frustrating for your partner because it can come off as complaining instead of a request. Flip it by turning it into a conversation where you bring curiosity and openness to the table and address your ask directly. When you see them make an effort, take the time to thank them so it doesn’t feel one-sided. 

«The idea is to help your partner understand how to express their love and appreciation in a way that is most receptive for you. Be clear about what you need. Be calm in your affect. Be confident in your being,» says DeMarco. Show up as an example and clearly state what you need and why it will help you feel safer in the relationship. This act of vulnerability and you standing up for your needs can help intensify the trust in the relationship.

«Consider helping your partner help you by leveraging their own love language style. Speak to people where they’re at,» advises DeMarco. If you’re asking them to put in effort to help you feel more loved, create more possibility by also being proactive to their own love language and how they can feel loved. By putting forth conscious effort, the relationship will feel more transcendental in its limitlessness. 

The takeaway

The 5 LOVE LANGUAGES ®, THE FIVE LOVE LANGUAGES ® and LOVE LANGUAGE® are trademarks owned by The Moody Bible Institute of Chicago. Dr. Gary D. Chapman is the author of the New York Times bestselling book The 5 Love Languages.”

Love encompasses a range of strong and positive emotional and mental states, from the most sublime virtue or good habit, the deepest interpersonal affection, to the simplest pleasure.^[1][2] An example of this range of meanings is that the love of a mother differs from the love of a spouse, which differs from the love for food. Most commonly, love refers to a feeling of a strong attraction and emotional attachment.^[3][4][5]

Love is considered to be both positive and negative, with its virtue representing human kindness, compassion, and affection, as «the unselfish loyal and benevolent concern for the good of another» and its vice representing human moral flaw, akin to vanity, selfishness, amour-propre, and egotism, as potentially leading people into a type of mania, obsessiveness or codependency.^[6][7] It may also describe compassionate and affectionate actions towards other humans, one’s self, or animals.^[8] In its various forms, love acts as a major facilitator of interpersonal relationships and, owing to its central psychological importance, is one of the most common themes in the creative arts.^[9] Love has been postulated to be a function that keeps human beings together against menaces and to facilitate the continuation of the species.^[10]

Ancient Greek philosophers identified six forms of love: essentially, familial love (in Greek, Storge), friendly love or platonic love (Philia), romantic love (Eros), self-love (Philautia), guest love (Xenia), and divine or unconditional love (Agape). Modern authors have distinguished further varieties of love: unrequited love, empty love, companionate love, consummate love, infatuated love, self-love, and courtly love. Numerous cultures have also distinguished Ren, Yuanfen, Mamihlapinatapai, Cafuné, Kama, Bhakti, Mettā, Ishq, Chesed, Amore, Charity, Saudade (and other variants or symbioses of these states), as culturally unique words, definitions, or expressions of love in regards to a specified «moments» currently lacking in the English language.^[11][12][13]

Scientific research on emotion has increased significantly over the past two decades. The color wheel theory of love defines three primary, three secondary and nine tertiary love styles, describing them in terms of the traditional color wheel. The triangular theory of love suggests «intimacy, passion and commitment» are core components of love. Love has additional religious or spiritual meaning. This diversity of uses and meanings combined with the complexity of the feelings involved makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, compared to other emotional states.

Definitions

The word «love» can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in different contexts. Many other languages use multiple words to express some of the different concepts that in English are denoted as «love»; one example is the plurality of Greek concepts for «love» (agape, eros, philia, storge) .^[14] Cultural differences in conceptualizing love thus doubly impede the establishment of a universal definition.^[15]

Although the nature or essence of love is a subject of frequent debate, different aspects of the word can be clarified by determining what isn’t love (antonyms of «love»). Love as a general expression of positive sentiment (a stronger form of like) is commonly contrasted with hate (or neutral apathy). As a less-sexual and more-emotionally intimate form of romantic attachment, love is commonly contrasted with lust. As an interpersonal relationship with romantic overtones, love is sometimes contrasted with friendship, although the word love is often applied to close friendships or platonic love. (Further possible ambiguities come with usages «girlfriend», «boyfriend», «just good friends»).

Abstractly discussed, love usually refers to an experience one person feels for another. Love often involves caring for, or identifying with, a person or thing (cf. vulnerability and care theory of love), including oneself (cf. narcissism). In addition to cross-cultural differences in understanding love, ideas about love have also changed greatly over time. Some historians date modern conceptions of romantic love to courtly Europe during or after the Middle Ages, although the prior existence of romantic attachments is attested by ancient love poetry.^[16]

The complex and abstract nature of love often reduces discourse of love to a thought-terminating cliché. Several common proverbs regard love, from Virgil’s «Love conquers all» to The Beatles’ «All You Need Is Love». St. Thomas Aquinas, following Aristotle, defines love as «to will the good of another.»^[17] Bertrand Russell describes love as a condition of «absolute value,» as opposed to relative value.^{[citation needed]} Philosopher Gottfried Leibniz said that love is «to be delighted by the happiness of another.»^[18] Meher Baba stated that in love there is a «feeling of unity» and an «active appreciation of the intrinsic worth of the object of love.»^[19] Biologist Jeremy Griffith defines love as «unconditional selflessness».^[20]

Impersonal

People can be said to love an object, principle, or goal to which they are deeply committed and greatly value. For example, compassionate outreach and volunteer workers’ «love» of their cause may sometimes be born not of interpersonal love but impersonal love, altruism, and strong spiritual or political convictions.^[21] People can also «love» material objects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding or otherwise identifying with those things. If sexual passion is also involved, then this feeling is called paraphilia.^[22]

Interpersonal

Interpersonal love refers to love between human beings. It is a much more potent sentiment than a simple liking for a person. Unrequited love refers to those feelings of love that are not reciprocated. Interpersonal love is most closely associated with Interpersonal relationships.^[21] Such love might exist between family members, friends, and couples. There are also a number of psychological disorders related to love, such as erotomania.
Throughout history, philosophy and religion have done the most speculation on the phenomenon of love. In the 20th century, the science of psychology has written a great deal on the subject. In recent years, the sciences of psychology, anthropology, neuroscience, and biology have added to the understanding of the concept of love.

Biological basis

Biological models of sex tend to view love as a mammalian drive, much like hunger or thirst.^[23] Helen Fisher, an anthropologist and human behavior researcher, divides the experience of love into three partly overlapping stages: lust, attraction, and attachment. Lust is the feeling of sexual desire; romantic attraction determines what partners mates find attractive and pursue, conserving time and energy by choosing; and attachment involves sharing a home, parental duties, mutual defense, and in humans involves feelings of safety and security.^[24] Three distinct neural circuitries, including neurotransmitters, and three behavioral patterns, are associated with these three romantic styles.^[24]

Lust is the initial passionate sexual desire that promotes mating, and involves the increased release of chemicals such as testosterone and estrogen. These effects rarely last more than a few weeks or months. Attraction is the more individualized and romantic desire for a specific candidate for mating, which develops out of lust as commitment to an individual mate forms. Recent studies in neuroscience have indicated that as people fall in love, the brain consistently releases a certain set of chemicals, including the neurotransmitter hormones, dopamine, norepinephrine, and serotonin, the same compounds released by amphetamine, stimulating the brain’s pleasure center and leading to side effects such as increased heart rate, loss of appetite and sleep, and an intense feeling of excitement. Research has indicated that this stage generally lasts from one and a half to three years.^[25]

Since the lust and attraction stages are both considered temporary, a third stage is needed to account for long-term relationships. Attachment is the bonding that promotes relationships lasting for many years and even decades. Attachment is generally based on commitments such as marriage and children, or mutual friendship based on things like shared interests. It has been linked to higher levels of the chemicals oxytocin and vasopressin to a greater degree than short-term relationships have.^[25] Enzo Emanuele and coworkers reported the protein molecule known as the nerve growth factor (NGF) has high levels when people first fall in love, but these return to previous levels after one year.^[26]

Psychological basis

Psychology depicts love as a cognitive and social phenomenon. Psychologist Robert Sternberg formulated a triangular theory of love and argued that love has three different components: intimacy, commitment, and passion. Intimacy is a form in which two people share confidences and various details of their personal lives, and is usually shown in friendships and romantic love affairs. Commitment, on the other hand, is the expectation that the relationship is permanent. The last form of love is sexual attraction and passion. Passionate love is shown in infatuation as well as romantic love. All forms of love are viewed as varying combinations of these three components. Non-love does not include any of these components. Liking only includes intimacy. Infatuated love only includes passion. Empty love only includes commitment. Romantic love includes both intimacy and passion. Companionate love includes intimacy and commitment. Fatuous love includes passion and commitment. Lastly, consummate love includes all three components.^[27] American psychologist Zick Rubin sought to define love by psychometrics in the 1970s. His work states that three factors constitute love: attachment, caring, and intimacy.^[28][29]

Following developments in electrical theories such as Coulomb’s law, which showed that positive and negative charges attract, analogs in human life were developed, such as «opposites attract». Over the last century, research on the nature of human mating has generally found this not to be true when it comes to character and personality—people tend to like people similar to themselves. However, in a few unusual and specific domains, such as immune systems, it seems that humans prefer others who are unlike themselves (e.g., with an orthogonal immune system), since this will lead to a baby that has the best of both worlds.^[30] In recent years, various human bonding theories have been developed, described in terms of attachments, ties, bonds, and affinities.
Some Western authorities disaggregate into two main components, the altruistic and the narcissistic. This view is represented in the works of Scott Peck, whose work in the field of applied psychology explored the definitions of love and evil. Peck maintains that love is a combination of the «concern for the spiritual growth of another,» and simple narcissism.^[31] In combination, love is an activity, not simply a feeling.

Psychologist Erich Fromm maintained in his book The Art of Loving that love is not merely a feeling but is also actions, and that in fact, the «feeling» of love is superficial in comparison to one’s commitment to love via a series of loving actions over time.^[21] In this sense, Fromm held that love is ultimately not a feeling at all, but rather is a commitment to, and adherence to, loving actions towards another, oneself, or many others, over a sustained duration.^[21] Fromm also described love as a conscious choice that in its early stages might originate as an involuntary feeling, but which then later no longer depends on those feelings, but rather depends only on conscious commitment.^[21]

Evolutionary basis

Evolutionary psychology has attempted to provide various reasons for love as a survival tool. Humans are dependent on parental help for a large portion of their lifespans compared to other mammals. Love has therefore been seen as a mechanism to promote parental support of children for this extended time period. Furthermore, researchers as early as Charles Darwin himself identified unique features of human love compared to other mammals and credit love as a major factor for creating social support systems that enabled the development and expansion of the human species.^{[citation needed]} Another factor may be that sexually transmitted diseases can cause, among other effects, permanently reduced fertility, injury to the fetus, and increase complications during childbirth. This would favor monogamous relationships over polygamy.^[32]

Adaptive benefit

Interpersonal love between a male and a female is considered to provide an evolutionary adaptive benefit since it facilitates mating and sexual reproduction.^[33] However, some organisms can reproduce asexually without mating. Thus understanding the adaptive benefit of interpersonal love depends on understanding the adaptive benefit of sexual reproduction as opposed to asexual reproduction. Michod^[33] has reviewed evidence that love, and consequently sexual reproduction, provides two major adaptive advantages. First, love leading to sexual reproduction facilitates repair of damages in the DNA that is passed from parent to progeny (during meiosis, a key stage of the sexual process). Second, a gene in either parent may contain a harmful mutation, but in the progeny produced by sex reproduction, expression of a harmful mutation introduced by one parent is likely to be masked by expression of the unaffected homologous gene from the other parent.^[33]

Comparison of scientific models

Biological models of love tend to see it as a mammalian drive, similar to hunger or thirst.^[23] Psychology sees love as more of a social and cultural phenomenon. Certainly, love is influenced by hormones (such as oxytocin), neurotrophins (such as NGF), and pheromones, and how people think and behave in love is influenced by their conceptions of love. The conventional view in biology is that there are two major drives in love: sexual attraction and attachment. Attachment between adults is presumed to work on the same principles that lead an infant to become attached to its mother. The traditional psychological view sees love as being a combination of companionate love and passionate love. Passionate love is intense longing, and is often accompanied by physiological arousal (shortness of breath, rapid heart rate); companionate love is affection and a feeling of intimacy not accompanied by physiological arousal.

Cultural views

Ancient Greek

Greek distinguishes several different senses in which the word «love» is used. Ancient Greeks identified four forms of love: kinship or familiarity (in Greek, storge), friendship and/or platonic desire (philia), sexual and/or romantic desire (eros), and self-emptying or divine love (agape).^[34][35] Modern authors have distinguished further varieties of romantic love.^[36] However, with Greek (as with many other languages), it has been historically difficult to separate the meanings of these words totally. At the same time, the Ancient Greek text of the Bible has examples of the verb agapo having the same meaning as phileo.

Agape (ἀγάπη agápē) means love in modern-day Greek. The term s’agapo means I love you in Greek. The word agapo is the verb I love. It generally refers to a «pure,» ideal type of love, rather than the physical attraction suggested by eros. However, there are some examples of agape used to mean the same as eros. It has also been translated as «love of the soul.»^[37]

Eros (ἔρως érōs) (from the Greek deity Eros) is passionate love, with sensual desire and longing. The Greek word erota means in love. Plato refined his own definition. Although eros is initially felt for a person, with contemplation it becomes an appreciation of the beauty within that person, or even becomes appreciation of beauty itself. Eros helps the soul recall knowledge of beauty and contributes to an understanding of spiritual truth. Lovers and philosophers are all inspired to seek truth by eros. Some translations list it as «love of the body».^[37]

Philia (φιλία philía), a dispassionate virtuous love, was a concept addressed and developed by Aristotle in his Nicomachean Ethics Book VIII.^[38] It includes loyalty to friends, family, and community, and requires virtue, equality, and familiarity. Philia is motivated by practical reasons; one or both of the parties benefit from the relationship. It can also mean «love of the mind.»

Storge (στοργή storgē) is natural affection, like that felt by parents for offspring.

Xenia (ξενία xenía), hospitality, was an extremely important practice in ancient Greece. It was an almost ritualized friendship formed between a host and his guest, who could previously have been strangers. The host fed and provided quarters for the guest, who was expected to repay only with gratitude. The importance of this can be seen throughout Greek mythology—in particular, Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey.

Ancient Roman (Latin)

The Latin language has several different verbs corresponding to the English word «love.» amō is the basic verb meaning I love, with the infinitive amare («to love») as it still is in Italian today. The Romans used it both in an affectionate sense as well as in a romantic or sexual sense. From this verb come amans—a lover, amator, «professional lover,» often with the accessory notion of lechery—and amica, «girlfriend» in the English sense, often being applied euphemistically to a prostitute. The corresponding noun is amor (the significance of this term for the Romans is well illustrated in the fact, that the name of the city, Rome—in Latin: Roma—can be viewed as an anagram for amor, which was used as the secret name of the City in wide circles in ancient times),^[39] which is also used in the plural form to indicate love affairs or sexual adventures. This same root also produces amicus—»friend»—and amicitia, «friendship» (often based to mutual advantage, and corresponding sometimes more closely to «indebtedness» or «influence»). Cicero wrote a treatise called On Friendship (de Amicitia), which discusses the notion at some length. Ovid wrote a guide to dating called Ars Amatoria (The Art of Love), which addresses, in depth, everything from extramarital affairs to overprotective parents.

Latin sometimes uses amāre where English would simply say to like. This notion, however, is much more generally expressed in Latin by the terms placere or delectāre, which are used more colloquially, the latter used frequently in the love poetry of Catullus. Diligere often has the notion «to be affectionate for,» «to esteem,» and rarely if ever is used for romantic love. This word would be appropriate to describe the friendship of two men. The corresponding noun diligentia, however, has the meaning of «diligence» or «carefulness,» and has little semantic overlap with the verb. Observare is a synonym for diligere; despite the cognate with English, this verb and its corresponding noun, observantia, often denote «esteem» or «affection.» Caritas is used in Latin translations of the Christian Bible to mean «charitable love»; this meaning, however, is not found in Classical pagan Roman literature. As it arises from a conflation with a Greek word, there is no corresponding verb.

Chinese and other Sinic

Two philosophical underpinnings of love exist in the Chinese tradition, one from Confucianism which emphasized actions and duty while the other came from Mohism which championed a universal love. A core concept to Confucianism is 仁 (Ren, «benevolent love»), which focuses on duty, action, and attitude in a relationship rather than love itself. In Confucianism, one displays benevolent love by performing actions such as filial piety from children, kindness from parents, loyalty to the king and so forth.

The concept of 愛 (Mandarin: ài) was developed by the Chinese philosopher Mozi in the 4th century BC in reaction to Confucianism’s benevolent love. Mozi tried to replace what he considered to be the long-entrenched Chinese over-attachment to family and clan structures with the concept of «universal love» (兼愛, jiān’ài). In this, he argued directly against Confucians who believed that it was natural and correct for people to care about different people in different degrees. Mozi, by contrast, believed people in principle should care for all people equally. Mohism stressed that rather than adopting different attitudes towards different people, love should be unconditional and offered to everyone without regard to reciprocation; not just to friends, family and other Confucian relations. Later in Chinese Buddhism, the term Ai (愛) was adopted to refer to a passionate, caring love and was considered a fundamental desire. In Buddhism, Ai was seen as capable of being either selfish or selfless, the latter being a key element towards enlightenment.

In Mandarin Chinese, 愛 (ài) is often used as the equivalent of the Western concept of love. 愛 (ài) is used as both a verb (e.g. 我愛你, Wǒ ài nǐ, or «I love you») and a noun (such as 愛情 àiqíng, or «romantic love»). However, due to the influence of Confucian 仁 (rén), the phrase 我愛你 (Wǒ ài nǐ, I love you) carries with it a very specific sense of responsibility, commitment and loyalty. Instead of frequently saying «I love you» as in some Western societies, the Chinese are more likely to express feelings of affection in a more casual way. Consequently, «I like you» (我喜欢你, Wǒ xǐhuan nǐ) is a more common way of expressing affection in Mandarin; it is more playful and less serious.^[40] This is also true in Japanese (suki da, 好きだ).

Japanese

The Japanese language uses three words to convey the English equivalent of «love». Because «love» covers a wide range of emotions and behavioral phenomena, there are nuances distinguishing the three terms.^[41][42] The term ai (愛), which is often associated with maternal love^[41] or selfless love,^[42] originally referred to beauty and was often used in a religious context. Following the Meiji Restoration 1868, the term became associated with «love» in order to translate Western literature. Prior to Western influence, the term koi (恋 or 孤悲) generally represented romantic love, and was often the subject of the popular Man’yōshū Japanese poetry collection.^[41] Koi describes a longing for a member of the opposite sex and is typically interpreted as selfish and wanting.^[42] The term’s origins come from the concept of lonely solitude as a result of separation from a loved one. Though modern usage of koi focuses on sexual love and infatuation, the Manyō used the term to cover a wider range of situations, including tenderness, benevolence, and material desire.^[41] The third term, ren’ai (恋愛), is a more modern construction that combines the kanji characters for both ai and koi, though its usage more closely resembles that of koi in the form of romantic love.^[41][42] Amae (甘え), referring to the desire to be loved and cared for by an authority figure, is another important aspect of Japan’s cultural perspective on love, and has been analysed in detail in Takeo Doi’s The Anatomy of Dependence^[43]

Indian

In contemporary literature, the Sanskrit words for love is «sneha». Other terms such as Priya refers to innocent love, Prema refers to spiritual love, and Kama refers usually to sexual desire.^[44][45] However, the term also refers to any sensory enjoyment, emotional attraction and aesthetic pleasure such as from arts, dance, music, painting, sculpture and nature.^[46][47]

The concept of kama is found in some of the earliest known verses in Vedas. For example, Book 10 of Rig Veda describes the creation of the universe from nothing by the great heat. There in hymn 129, it states:

कामस्तदग्रे समवर्तताधि मनसो रेतः परथमं यदासीत |
सतो बन्धुमसति निरविन्दन हर्दि परतीष्याकवयो मनीषा ||^[48]

Thereafter rose Desire in the beginning, Desire the primal seed and germ of Spirit,
Sages who searched with their heart’s thought discovered the existent’s kinship in the non-existent.

Persian

Rumi, Hafiz, and Sa’di are icons of the passion and love that the Persian culture and language present.^{[citation needed]} The Persian word for love is Ishq, which is derived from Arabic language; however, it is considered by most to be too stalwart a term for interpersonal love and is more commonly substituted for «doost dashtan» («liking»).^{[citation needed]} In the Persian culture, everything is encompassed by love and all is for love, starting from loving friends and family, husbands and wives, and eventually reaching the divine love that is the ultimate goal in life.^{[citation needed]}

Religious views

Abrahamic

Judaism

In Hebrew, אהבה (ahava) is the most commonly used term for both interpersonal love and love between God and God’s creations. Chesed, often translated as loving-kindness, is used to describe many forms of love between human beings.

The commandment to love other people is given in the Torah, which states, «Love your neighbor like yourself» (Leviticus 19:18). The Torah’s commandment to love God «with all your heart, with all your soul and with all your might» (Deuteronomy 6:5) is taken by the Mishnah (a central text of the Jewish oral law) to refer to good deeds, willingness to sacrifice one’s life rather than commit certain serious transgressions, willingness to sacrifice all of one’s possessions, and being grateful to the Lord despite adversity (tractate Berachoth 9:5). Rabbinic literature differs as to how this love can be developed, e.g., by contemplating divine deeds or witnessing the marvels of nature.

As for love between marital partners, this is deemed an essential ingredient to life: «See life with the wife you love» (Ecclesiastes 9:9). Rabbi David Wolpe writes that «…love is not only about the feelings of the lover…It is when one person believes in another person and shows it.» He further states that «…love…is a feeling that expresses itself in action. What we really feel is reflected in what we do.»^[50] The biblical book Song of Solomon is considered a romantically phrased metaphor of love between God and his people, but in its plain reading, reads like a love song. The 20th-century rabbi Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler is frequently quoted as defining love from the Jewish point of view as «giving without expecting to take» (from his Michtav me-Eliyahu, Vol. 1).

Christianity

The Christian understanding is that love comes from God, who is himself love (1 John 4:8). The love of man and woman—eros in Greek—and the unselfish love of others (agape), are often contrasted as «descending» and «ascending» love, respectively, but are ultimately the same thing.^[51]

There are several Greek words for «love» that are regularly referred to in Christian circles.

• Agape: In the New Testament, agapē is charitable, selfless, altruistic, and unconditional. It is parental love, seen as creating goodness in the world; it is the way God is seen to love humanity, and it is seen as the kind of love that Christians aspire to have for one another.^[37]
• Phileo: Also used in the New Testament, phileo is a human response to something that is found to be delightful. Also known as «brotherly love.»
• Two other words for love in the Greek language, eros (sexual love) and storge (child-to-parent love), were never used in the New Testament.^[37]

Christians believe that to Love God with all your heart, mind, and strength and Love your neighbor as yourself are the two most important things in life (the greatest commandment of the Jewish Torah, according to Jesus; cf. Gospel of Mark chapter 12, verses 28–34). Saint Augustine summarized this when he wrote «Love God, and do as thou wilt.»

The Apostle Paul glorified love as the most important virtue of all. Describing love in the famous poetic interpretation in 1 Corinthians, he wrote, «Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, and always perseveres.»^[52]

The Apostle John wrote, «For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but to save the world through him.» (John 3:16–17, NIV) John also wrote, «Dear friends, let us love one another for love comes from God. Everyone who loves has been born of God and knows God. Whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love.»^[53]

Saint Augustine wrote that one must be able to decipher the difference between love and lust. Lust, according to Saint Augustine, is an overindulgence, but to love and be loved is what he has sought for his entire life. He even says, «I was in love with love.» Finally, he does fall in love and is loved back, by God. Saint Augustine says the only one who can love you truly and fully is God, because love with a human only allows for flaws such as «jealousy, suspicion, fear, anger, and contention.» According to Saint Augustine, to love God is «to attain the peace which is yours.» (Saint Augustine’s Confessions)

Augustine regards the duplex commandment of love in Matthew 22 as the heart of Christian faith and the interpretation of the Bible. After the review of Christian doctrine, Augustine treats the problem of love in terms of use and enjoyment until the end of Book I of De Doctrina Christiana (1.22.21–1.40.44;).^[54]

Christian theologians see God as the source of love, which is mirrored in humans and their own loving relationships. Influential Christian theologian C. S. Lewis wrote a book called The Four Loves. Benedict XVI named his first encyclical God is love. He said that a human being, created in the image of God, who is love, is able to practice love; to give himself to God and others (agape) and by receiving and experiencing God’s love in contemplation (eros). This life of love, according to him, is the life of the saints such as Teresa of Calcutta and Mary, the mother of Jesus and is the direction Christians take when they believe that God loves them.^[51]

Pope Francis taught that «True love is both loving and letting oneself be loved…what is important in love is not our loving, but allowing ourselves to be loved by God.»^[55] And so, in the analysis of a Catholic theologian, for Pope Francis, «the key to love…is not our activity. It is the activity of the greatest, and the source, of all the powers in the universe: God’s.»^[56]

In Christianity the practical definition of love is summarised by Thomas Aquinas, who defined love as «to will the good of another,» or to desire for another to succeed.^[17] This is an explanation of the Christian need to love others, including their enemies. As Thomas Aquinas explains, Christian love is motivated by the need to see others succeed in life, to be good people.

Regarding love for enemies, Jesus is quoted in the Gospel of Matthew:

«You have heard that it was said, ‘Love your neighbor and hate your enemy.’ But I tell you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, that you may be children of your Father in heaven. He causes his sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the unrighteous. If you love those who love you, what reward will you get? Are not even the tax collectors doing that? And if you greet only your own people, what are you doing more than others? Do not even pagans do that? Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect.»^[57]

Do not forget to love with forgiveness, Christ saved an adulterous woman from those who would stone her. A world of wronged hypocrites needs forgiving love. Mosaic Law would hold Deuteronomy 22:22-24 «If a man is found lying with a woman married to a husband, then both of them shall die—the man that lay with the woman, and the woman; so you shall put away the evil from Israel. If a young woman who is a virgin is betrothed to a husband, and a man finds her in the city and lies with her, then you shall bring them both out to the gate of that city, and you shall stone them to death with stones, the young woman because she did not cry out in the city, and the man because he humbled his neighbor’s wife; so you shall put away the evil from among you.»

Tertullian wrote regarding love for enemies: «Our individual, extraordinary, and perfect goodness consists in loving our enemies. To love one’s friends is common practice, to love one’s enemies only among Christians.»^[58]

Islam

Love encompasses the Islamic view of life as universal brotherhood that applies to all who hold faith. Amongst the 99 names of God (Allah), there is the name Al-Wadud, or «the Loving One,» which is found in Surah ^{[ 11:90]} as well as Surah ^{[ 85:14]}. God is also referenced at the beginning of every chapter in the Qur’an as Ar-Rahman and Ar-Rahim, or the «Most Compassionate» and the «Most Merciful», indicating that nobody is more loving, compassionate and benevolent than God. The Qur’an refers to God as being «full of loving kindness.»

The Qur’an exhorts Muslim believers to treat all people, those who have not persecuted them, with birr or «deep kindness» as stated in Surah ^{[ 6:8-9]}. Birr is also used by the Qur’an in describing the love and kindness that children must show to their parents.

Ishq, or divine love, is the emphasis of Sufism in the Islamic tradition. Practitioners of Sufism believe that love is a projection of the essence of God to the universe. God desires to recognize beauty, and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, God «looks» at himself within the dynamics of nature. Since everything is a reflection of God, the school of Sufism practices seeing the beauty inside the apparently ugly. Sufism is often referred to as the religion of love.^[59] God in Sufism is referred to in three main terms, which are the Lover, Loved, and Beloved, with the last of these terms being often seen in Sufi poetry. A common viewpoint of Sufism is that through love, humankind can get back to its inherent purity and grace. The saints of Sufism are infamous for being «drunk» due to their love of God; hence, the constant reference to wine in Sufi poetry and music.

Bahá’í Faith

In his Paris Talks, `Abdu’l-Bahá described four types of love: the love that flows from God to human beings; the love that flows from human beings to God; the love of God towards the Self or Identity of God; and the love of human beings for human beings.^[60]

Dharmic

Buddhism

In Buddhism, Kāma is sensuous, sexual love. It is an obstacle on the path to enlightenment, since it is selfish. Karuṇā is compassion and mercy, which reduces the suffering of others. It is complementary to wisdom and is necessary for enlightenment. Adveṣa and mettā are benevolent love. This love is unconditional and requires considerable self-acceptance. This is quite different from ordinary love, which is usually about attachment and sex and which rarely occurs without self-interest. Instead, in Buddhism it refers to detachment and unselfish interest in others’ welfare.

The Bodhisattva ideal in Mahayana Buddhism involves the complete renunciation of oneself in order to take on the burden of a suffering world.

Hinduism

In Hinduism, kāma is pleasurable, sexual love, personified by the god Kamadeva. For many Hindu schools, it is the third end (Kama) in life. Kamadeva is often pictured holding a bow of sugar cane and an arrow of flowers; he may ride upon a great parrot. He is usually accompanied by his consort Rati and his companion Vasanta, lord of the spring season. Stone images of Kamadeva and Rati can be seen on the door of the Chennakeshava temple at Belur, in Karnataka, India. Maara is another name for kāma.

In contrast to kāma, prema – or prem – refers to elevated love. Karuna is compassion and mercy, which impels one to help reduce the suffering of others. Bhakti is a Sanskrit term, meaning «loving devotion to the supreme God.» A person who practices bhakti is called a bhakta. Hindu writers, theologians, and philosophers have distinguished nine forms of bhakti, which can be found in the Bhagavata Purana and works by Tulsidas. The philosophical work Narada Bhakti Sutras, written by an unknown author (presumed to be Narada), distinguishes eleven forms of love.

In certain Vaishnava sects within Hinduism, attaining unadulterated, unconditional and incessant love for Godhead is considered the foremost goal of life. Gaudiya Vaishnavas who worship Krishna as the Supreme Personality of Godhead and the cause of all causes consider Love for Godhead (Prema) to act in two ways: sambhoga and vipralambha (union and separation)—two opposites.^[61]

In the condition of separation, there is an acute yearning for being with the beloved and in the condition of union, there is supreme happiness and nectarean. Gaudiya Vaishnavas consider that Krishna-prema (Love for Godhead) is not fire but that it still burns away one’s material desires. They consider that Kṛṣṇa-prema is not a weapon, but it still pierces the heart. It is not water, but it washes away everything—one’s pride, religious rules, and one’s shyness. Krishna-prema is considered to make one drown in the ocean of transcendental ecstasy and pleasure. The love of Radha, a cowherd girl, for Krishna is often cited as the supreme example of love for Godhead by Gaudiya Vaishnavas. Radha is considered to be the internal potency of Krishna, and is the supreme lover of Godhead. Her example of love is considered to be beyond the understanding of material realm as it surpasses any form of selfish love or lust that is visible in the material world. The reciprocal love between Radha (the supreme lover) and Krishna (God as the Supremely Loved) is the subject of many poetic compositions in India such as the Gita Govinda and Hari Bhakti Shuddhodhaya.

In the Bhakti tradition within Hinduism, it is believed that execution of devotional service to God leads to the development of Love for God (taiche bhakti-phale krsne prema upajaya), and as love for God increases in the heart, the more one becomes free from material contamination (krishna-prema asvada haile, bhava nasa paya). Being perfectly in love with God or Krishna makes one perfectly free from material contamination. and this is the ultimate way of salvation or liberation. In this tradition, salvation or liberation is considered inferior to love, and just an incidental by-product. Being absorbed in Love for God is considered to be the perfection of life.^[62]

Political views

Free love

The term «free love» has been used^[63] to describe a social movement that rejects marriage, which is seen as a form of social bondage. The free love movement’s initial goal was to separate the state from sexual matters such as marriage, birth control, and adultery. It claimed that such issues were the concern of the people involved, and no one else.^[64]

Many people in the early 19th century believed that marriage was an important aspect of life to «fulfill earthly human happiness.» Middle-class Americans wanted the home to be a place of stability in an uncertain world. This mentality created a vision of strongly defined gender roles, which provoked the advancement of the free love movement as a contrast.^[65]

Advocates of free love had two strong beliefs: opposition to the idea of forceful sexual activity in a relationship and advocacy for a woman to use her body in any way that she pleases.^[66] These are also beliefs of feminism.^[67]

Philosophical views

The philosophy of love is a field of social philosophy and ethics that attempts to explain the nature of love.^[68] The philosophical investigation of love includes the tasks of distinguishing between the various kinds of personal love, asking if and how love is or can be justified, asking what the value of love is, and what impact love has on the autonomy of both the lover and the beloved.^[67]

See also

• Color wheel theory of love
• Human bonding
• Love at first sight
• Love-in
• Pair bond
• Polyamory
• Relationship science
• Romance (love)
• Self-love
• Social connection
• Traditional forms, Agape, Philia, Philautia, Storge, Eros: Greek terms for love

References

Sources

Further reading

• Bayer, A, ed. (2008). Art and love in Renaissance Italy. New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

External links

• History of Love, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Friendship at Curlie
• Philanthropy at Curlie
• Romance at Curlie

Every teacher wonders how to teach a word to students, so that it stays with them and they can actually use it in the context in an appropriate form. Have your students ever struggled with knowing what part of the speech the word is (knowing nothing about terminologies and word relations) and thus using it in the wrong way? What if we start to teach learners of foriegn languages the basic relations between words instead of torturing them to memorize just the usage of the word in specific contexts?

Let’s firstly try to recall what semantic relations between words are. Semantic relations are the associations that exist between the meanings of words (semantic relationships at word level), between the meanings of phrases, or between the meanings of sentences (semantic relationships at phrase or sentence level). Let’s look at each of them separately.

Word Level

At word level we differentiate between semantic relations:

• Synonyms — words that have the same (or nearly the same) meaning and belong to the same part of speech, but are spelled differently. E.g. big-large, small-tiny, to begin — to start, etc. Of course, here we need to mention that no 2 words can have the exact same meaning. There are differences in shades of meaning, exaggerated, diminutive nature, etc. 
• Antonyms — semantic relationship that exists between two (or more) words that have opposite meanings. These words belong to the same grammatical category (both are nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc.). They share almost all their semantic features except one. (Fromkin & Rodman, 1998) E.g.
  
• Homonyms — the relationship that exists between two (or more) words which belong to the same grammatical category, have the same spelling, may or may not have the same pronunciation, but have different meanings and origins. E.g. to lie (= to rest) and to lie (= not to tell the truth); When used in a context, they can be misunderstood especially if the person knows only one meaning of the word.

Other semantic relations include hyponymy, polysemy and metonymy which you might want to look into when teaching/learning English as a foreign language.

At Phrase and Sentence Level

Here we are talking about paraphrases, collocations, ambiguity, etc.

• Paraphrase — the expression of the meaning of a word, phrase or sentence using other words, phrases or sentences which have (almost) the same meaning. Here we need to differentiate between lexical and structural paraphrase. E.g.

  Lexical — I am tired = I am exhausted.
  Structural — He gave the book to me = He gave me the book.

• Ambiguity — functionality of having two or more distinct meanings or interpretations. You can read more about its types here.
• Collocations — combinations of two or more words that often occur together in speech and writing. Among the possible combinations are verbs + nouns, adjectives + nouns, adverbs + adjectives, etc. Idiomatic phrases can also sometimes be considered as collocations. E.g. ‘bear with me’, ‘round and about’, ‘salt and pepper’, etc.

So, what does it mean to know a word? 
Knowing a word means knowing all of its semantic relations and usages.

Why is it useful? 
It helps to understand the flow of the language, its possibilities, occurrences, etc.better.

Should it be taught to EFL learners? 
Maybe not in that many details and terminology, but definitely yes if you want your learners to study the language in depth, not just superficially.

How should it be taught?
Not as a separate phenomenon, but together with introducing a new word/phrase, so that students have a chance to create associations and base their understanding on real examples. You can give semantic relations and usages, ask students to look up in the dictionary, brainstorm ideas in pairs and so on.  

Let us know what you do to help your students learn the semantic relations between the words and whether it helps.

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Описание презентации по отдельным слайдам:

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  Word Meaning
  Lecture # 6
  Grigoryeva M.

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  2 слайд

  Word Meaning

  Approaches to word meaning

  Meaning and Notion (понятие)

  Types of word meaning

  Types of morpheme meaning

  Motivation

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  3 слайд

  Each word has two aspects:

  the outer aspect
  ( its sound form)
  cat

  the inner aspect
  (its meaning)
  long-legged, fury animal with sharp teeth
  and claws

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  Sound and meaning do not always constitute a constant unit even in the same language

  EX a temple

  a part of a human head
  a large church

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  Semantics (Semasiology)
  Is a branch of lexicology which studies the
  meaning of words and word equivalents

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  6 слайд

  Approaches to Word Meaning
  The Referential (analytical) approach

  The Functional (contextual) approach

  Operational (information-oriented) approach

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  7 слайд

  The Referential (analytical) approach
  formulates the essence of meaning by establishing the interdependence between words and things or concepts they denote

  distinguishes between three components closely connected with meaning:
  the sound-form of the linguistic sign,
  the concept
  the actual referent

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  Basic Triangle
  concept (thought, reference) – the thought of the object that singles out its essential features
  referent – object denoted by the word, part of reality
  sound-form (symbol, sign) – linguistic sign
  concept – flower

  sound-form referent
  [rәuz]

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  In what way does meaning correlate with
  each element of the triangle ?

  In what relation does meaning stand to
  each of them?

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  Meaning and Sound-form
  are not identical
  different
  EX. dove — [dΛv] English sound-forms
  [golub’] Russian BUT
  [taube] German
  the same meaning

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  Meaning and Sound-form
  nearly identical sound-forms have different meanings in different languages
  EX. [kot] Russian – a male cat
  [kot] English – a small bed for a child

  identical sound-forms have different meanings (‘homonyms)
  EX. knight [nait]
  night [nait]

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  Meaning and Sound-form
  even considerable changes in sound-form do not affect the meaning

  EX Old English lufian [luvian] – love [l Λ v]

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  Meaning and Concept
  concept is a category of human cognition

  concept is abstract and reflects the most common and typical features of different objects and phenomena in the world

  meanings of words are different in different languages

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  Meaning and Concept
  identical concepts may have different semantic structures in different languages

  EX. concept “a building for human habitation” –
  English Russian
  HOUSE ДОМ

  + in Russian ДОМ
  “fixed residence of family or household”
  In English HOME

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  Meaning and Referent

  one and the same object (referent) may be denoted by more than one word of a different meaning
  cat
  pussy
  animal
  tiger

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  Meaning
  is not identical with any of the three points of the triangle –
  the sound form,
  the concept
  the referent

  BUT
  is closely connected with them.

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  Functional Approach
  studies the functions of a word in speech
  meaning of a word is studied through relations of it with other linguistic units
  EX. to move (we move, move a chair)
  movement (movement of smth, slow movement)

  The distriution ( the position of the word in relation to
  others) of the verb to move and a noun movement is
  different as they belong to different classes of words and
  their meanings are different

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  Operational approach
  is centered on defining meaning through its role in
  the process of communication

  EX John came at 6
  Beside the direct meaning the sentence may imply that:
  He was late
  He failed to keep his promise
  He was punctual as usual
  He came but he didn’t want to

  The implication depends on the concrete situation

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  Lexical Meaning and Notion
  Notion denotes the reflection in the mind of real objects

  Notion is a unit of thinking
  Lexical meaning is the realization of a notion by means of a definite language system
  Word is a language unit

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  Lexical Meaning and Notion
  Notions are international especially with the nations of the same cultural level

  Meanings are nationally limited

  EX GO (E) —- ИДТИ(R)
  “To move”
  BUT !!!
  To GO by bus (E)
  ЕХАТЬ (R)

  EX Man -мужчина, человек
  Она – хороший человек (R)
  She is a good person (E)

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  Types of Meaning
  Types of meaning

  grammatical
  meaning

  lexico-grammatical
  meaning
  lexical meaning
  denotational
  connotational

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  22 слайд

  Grammatical Meaning
  component of meaning recurrent in identical sets of individual forms of different words

  EX. girls, winters, toys, tables –
  grammatical meaning of plurality

  asked, thought, walked –
  meaning of past tense

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  Lexico-grammatical meaning
  (part –of- speech meaning)
  is revealed in the classification of lexical items into:
  major word classes (N, V, Adj, Adv)
  minor ones (artc, prep, conj)

  words of one lexico-grammatical class have the same paradigm

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  24 слайд

  Lexical Meaning
  is the meaning proper to the given linguistic unit in all its forms and distributions

  EX . Go – goes — went
  lexical meaning – process of movement

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  25 слайд

  PRACTICE
  Group the words into 3 column according to the grammatical, lexical or part-of –speech meaning
  Boy’s, nearest, at, beautiful,
  think, man, drift, wrote,
  tremendous, ship’s, the most beautiful,
  table, near, for, went, friend’s,
  handsome, thinking, boy,
  nearer, thought, boys,
  lamp, go, during.

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  26 слайд

  Grammatical
  The case of nouns: boy’s, ship’s, friend’s
  The degree of comparison of adj: nearest, the most beautiful
  The tense of verbs: wrote, went, thought

  Lexical
  Think, thinking, thought
  Went, go
  Boy’s, boy, boys
  Nearest, near, nearer
  At, for, during (“time”)
  Beautiful, the most beautiful

  Part-of-speech
  Nouns—verbs—adj—-prep

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  27 слайд

  Aspects of Lexical meaning
  The denotational aspect

  The connotational aspect

  The pragmatic aspect

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  Denotational Meaning
  “denote” – to be a sign of, stand as a symbol for”

  establishes the correlation between the name and the object
  makes communication possible

  EX booklet
  “a small thin book that gives info about smth”

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  29 слайд

  PRACTICE
  Explain denotational meaning

  A lion-hunter
  To have a heart like a lion
  To feel like a lion
  To roar like a lion
  To be thrown to the lions
  The lion’s share
  To put your head in lion’s mouth

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  30 слайд

  PRACTICE

  A lion-hunter
  A host that seeks out celebrities to impress guests
  To have a heart like a lion
  To have great courage
  To feel like a lion
  To be in the best of health
  To roar like a lion
  To shout very loudly
  To be thrown to the lions
  To be criticized strongly or treated badly
  The lion’s share
  Much more than one’s share
  To put your head in lion’s mouth

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  Connotational Meaning
  reflects the attitude of the speaker towards what he speaks about
  it is optional – a word either has it or not

  Connotation gives additional information and includes:
  The emotive charge EX Daddy (for father)
  Intensity EX to adore (for to love)
  Imagery EX to wade through a book
  “ to walk with an effort”

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  32 слайд

  PRACTICE
  Give possible interpretation of the sentences

  She failed to buy it and felt a strange pang.
  Don’t be afraid of that woman! It’s just barking!
  He got up from his chair moving slowly, like an old man.
  The girl went to her father and pulled his sleeve.
  He was longing to begin to be generous.
  She was a woman with shiny red hands and work-swollen finger knuckles.

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  33 слайд

  PRACTICE
  Give possible interpretation of the sentences
  She failed to buy it and felt a strange pang.
  (pain—dissatisfaction that makes her suffer)
  Don’t be afraid of that woman! It’s just barking!
  (make loud sharp sound—-the behavior that implies that the person is frightened)
  He got up from his chair moving slowly, like an old man.
  (to go at slow speed—was suffering or was ill)
  The girl went to her father and pulled his sleeve.
  (to move smth towards oneself— to try to attract smb’s attention)
  He was longing to begin to be generous.
  (to start doing— hadn’t been generous before)
  She was a woman with shiny red hands and work-swollen finger knuckles.
  (colour— a labourer involved into physical work ,constant contact with water)

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  34 слайд

  The pragmatic aspect of lexical meaning

  the situation in which the word is uttered,
  the social circumstances (formal, informal, etc.),
  social relationships between the interlocutors (polite, rough, etc.),
  the type and purpose of communication (poetic, official, etc.)

  EX horse (neutral)
  steed (poetic)
  nag (slang)
  gee-gee (baby language)

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  35 слайд

  PRACTICE
  State what image underline the meaning

  I heard what she said but it didn’t sink into my mind.
  You should be ashamed of yourself, crawling to the director like that.
  They seized on the idea.
  Bill, chasing some skirt again?
  I saw him dive into a small pub.
  Why are you trying to pin the blame on me?
  He only married her for her dough.

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  36 слайд

  PRACTICE
  State what image underline the meaning
  I heard what she said but it didn’t sink into my mind.
  (to understand completely)
  You should be ashamed of yourself, crawling to the director like that.
  (to behave humbly in order to win favour)
  They seized on the idea.
  (to be eager to take and use)
  Bill, chasing some skirt again?
  (a girl)
  I saw him dive into a small pub.
  (to enter suddenly)
  Why are you trying to pin the blame on me?
  (to blame smb unfairly)
  He only married her for her dough.
  (money)

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  Types of Morpheme Meaning
  lexical
  differential
  functional
  distributional

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  38 слайд

  Lexical Meaning in Morphemes
  root-morphemes that are homonymous to words possess lexical meaning
  EX. boy – boyhood – boyish

  affixes have lexical meaning of a more generalized character
  EX. –er “agent, doer of an action”

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  39 слайд

  Lexical Meaning in Morphemes
  has denotational and connotational components
  EX. –ly, -like, -ish –
  denotational meaning of similiarity
  womanly , womanish

  connotational component –
  -ly (positive evaluation), -ish (deragotary) женственный — женоподобный

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  40 слайд

  Differential Meaning
  a semantic component that serves to distinguish one word from all others containing identical morphemes

  EX. cranberry, blackberry, gooseberry

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  41 слайд

  Functional Meaning
  found only in derivational affixes
  a semantic component which serves to
  refer the word to the certain part of speech

  EX. just, adj. – justice, n.

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  42 слайд

  Distributional Meaning
  the meaning of the order and the arrangement of morphemes making up the word
  found in words containing more than one morpheme
  different arrangement of the same morphemes would make the word meaningless
  EX. sing- + -er =singer,
  -er + sing- = ?

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  43 слайд

  Motivation
  denotes the relationship between the phonetic or morphemic composition and structural pattern of the word on the one hand, and its meaning on the other

  can be phonetical
  morphological
  semantic

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  44 слайд

  Phonetical Motivation
  when there is a certain similarity between the sounds that make up the word and those produced by animals, objects, etc.

  EX. sizzle, boom, splash, cuckoo

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  45 слайд

  Morphological Motivation
  when there is a direct connection between the structure of a word and its meaning
  EX. finger-ring – ring-finger,

  A direct connection between the lexical meaning of the component morphemes
  EX think –rethink “thinking again”

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  46 слайд

  Semantic Motivation
  based on co-existence of direct and figurative meanings of the same word

  EX a watchdog –
  ”a dog kept for watching property”

  a watchdog –
  “a watchful human guardian” (semantic motivation)

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  48 слайд

  Analyze the meaning of the words.
  Define the type of motivation
  a) morphologically motivated
  b) semantically motivated

  Driver
  Leg
  Horse
  Wall
  Hand-made
  Careless
  piggish

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  49 слайд

  Analyze the meaning of the words.
  Define the type of motivation
  a) morphologically motivated
  b) semantically motivated
  Driver
  Someone who drives a vehicle
  morphologically motivated
  Leg
  The part of a piece of furniture such as a table
  semantically motivated
  Horse
  A piece of equipment shaped like a box, used in gymnastics
  semantically motivated

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  50 слайд

  Wall
  Emotions or behavior preventing people from feeling close
  semantically motivated
  Hand-made
  Made by hand, not machine
  morphologically motivated
  Careless
  Not taking enough care
  morphologically motivated
  Piggish
  Selfish
  semantically motivated

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  51 слайд

  I heard what she said but it didn’t sink in my mind
  “do down to the bottom”
  ‘to be accepted by mind” semantic motivation

  Why are you trying to pin the blame on me?
  “fasten smth somewhere using a pin” –
  ”to blame smb” semantic motivation

  I was following the man when he dived into a pub.
  “jump into deep water” –
  ”to enter into suddenly” semantic motivation

  You should be ashamed of yourself, crawling to the director like that
  “to move along on hands and knees close to the ground” –
  “to behave very humbly in order to win favor” semantic motivation

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