What word means language in french

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Even if you’re just starting to study French, believe it or not, you’ve already got a pretty extensive vocabulary! 

The reason for this is over 10,000 English words come from French. Many others come from Latin, the language from which French originated.

This means that a significant number of English words have either exact French counterparts or very similar equivalents in French.

That’s something to celebrate!  But, you might be wondering, just how did all of these French words get into English? How many French words are there in English? Let’s take a look at the French influence on the English language, and how it can help you with French vocabulary today!

When were French words borrowed into English?

In order to understand the way French influenced the English language, you have to know a little bit of history.

In antiquity, Celtic languages were spoken in the British Isles. Then, around 50 CE, most of the territory was invaded by the Romans. “Britannia” became a part of the Roman Empire, and Latin became the language of political and administrative life. 

In the 5^th  and 6^th centuries CE, Germanic tribes, including the Angles and the Saxons, invaded Britain, bringing their language with them.

But Latin remained a strong presence, since it was the language of the powerful and far-reaching Catholic Church (the Germanic tribes had quickly converted to Catholicism).

All religious services and texts were in Latin. This led to words commonly heard during masses and in religious parables becoming a part of everyday vocabulary. 

Some of the Latin words that began to infiltrate the language of British people at this time include “devil” (Latin: diabolus) and “angel” (Latin: angelus). 

Like its fellow Romance languages, French is a form of Vulgarized (that is, spoken by the people and influenced by previously existing local dialects) Latin. This is one of the reasons why there are so many similar words in French and Latin-influenced English. But it’s not the only reason why – not by far.

The main reason for the large number of French words in English can be chalked up to another invasion: the Norman Invasion of 1066, when William the Conqueror (Guillaume le Conquerant in French) staked his claim to the British throne and won it in the Battle of Hastings.

If you’re an art person, rather than a linguistics or history person, this battle may sound familiar – it’s immortalized on the Bayeux Tapestry. 

After William’s accession to the throne, the royal court was made up of Norman (from Normandy) nobility, who spoke French.

Old English and French coexisted, often quite separately, since most people in Britain never had contact with nobility.

But over time, French words began to creep into English.

These were mainly in areas like law, administration, and, unsurprisingly, food. For example, this excellent (and very funny) video about the history of English points out that while words like “pig” and “sheep” have Germanic roots, their food forms– “pork” (porc) and “mutton” (mouton) – come from French.

A few other French words that entered the English language in this era include sovereign (souverain), justice (justice), and counsel (conseil).

As the centuries went by, English continued to evolve, and and became recognized in its own right. It was used in the daily life of the upper classes and clergy, as well as the commoners. Latin did make a comeback, though. During the Renaissance, cultured people spoke it, and later, in the Age of Enlightenment, Latin was used again when classifying scientific discoveries and phenomena. 

Over the course of its tumultuous history, and English has borrowed from and been influenced by many different languages. But French and Latin have had the most influence. French and Latin words make up 58 % of modern English vocabulary today.  On their own, purely French words make up 29% of English. 

It’s generally thought that around 10,000 words have been borrowed into English from French. Of those, according to this source, there are over 1,700 “true cognates” – that is, words that not only look the same or similar, but have exactly the same meaning in both languages. 

Why is the French (and Latin) influence on English important to French learners?

Sure, etymology is fascinating, and sure, what you’ve just read might make for some fun party conversation (well, depending on what kind of parties you go to…). But is all of this really important? After all, even if you can speak English, that doesn’t mean you can speak French.  

But in fact, knowing this tie to French can help you. For one thing, you may have already experienced reading something in French and realizing that you understood more than you’d expected, because some of the words are the same in both languages.  And on an even more helpful scale, since certain lexical features like suffixes can be the same in French and English, you may be able to guess how to say certain French words.

Six suffixes that are the same in French and English

With that in mind, let’s look at six fairly common suffixes that are the same in both languages. 

Before we do that, though, remember that a suffix is an ending that gives a particular meaning when it’s tacked onto a word. For example, -ly is a suffix in English that indicates a word is an adjective or adverb (examples: lovely, quietly).

Like English, French has many suffixes. A number of these come from Latin. These include:

• -ation. Examples: nation/la nation ; information/l’information
• -tion. Examples: acceleration/l’accélération ; attention/attention
• -ssion. Examples: mission/une mission ; passion/la passion
• -able. Examples : capable/capable ; table/la table ; adorable/adorable
• -isme. Examples: Impressionism/l’impressionnisme ; racism/le racisme
• -if/ive. Examples: furtive/furtif/furtive; creative/créatif/créative

As you can see, not all of these words are identical down to the letter. But knowing that root words in both languages can have these suffixes added to them can be helpful, especially in French conversation. Personally, this rule was one of the things that made speaking French a lot easier for me. If I knew a word in English that had one of these suffixes, there was a good chance that it was the same or similar in French.

Of course, this doesn’t mean that you’ll no longer have to memorize vocabulary for words with these endings. After all, there are some that don’t follow the rule. Take “vacation” – in French, it’s les vacances.  Still, these common suffixes are good to keep in mind.

French circumflex words and English

Unlike English, the French language involves a lot of diacritical marks. While most accents in French words are used to indicate things like pronunciation, verb tense, or gender, one of them, the circumflex, is basically just a historical marker.

Most French words that have a circumflex once had an “s” after the accented letter. So, for example, the word château was once chasteau. The word forêt was once forest. 

That “once” is a time when French words were being borrowed into English, and so, interestingly enough, many French circumflex words have English counterparts that are very similar, with an “s”. You may already know or have guessed the English equivalents of château and forêt, for example – castle and forest.  

(Before we continue, yes, I know château is also “chateau” in English, but that word has a very specific connotation and isn’t used as a general term the way château is in French.) 

As you can see with château/castle, not all French circumflex words have remained exactly the same in the two languages. And in some cases, like être , there’s no similar English word at all. So, while the tie between French circumflex words and English could be helpful to keep in mind in some cases (forêt/forest; hôtel/hotel; hôpital/hospital; théâtre/theatre, etc.), it isn’t a constant.

But for etymology fans like myself, it is a pretty neat tie to history, at the very least.  

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False cognates – and why they exist in the first place

Some English and French words are written the same way or very similarly but have evolved to have very different meanings. 

One of the most notorious of these faux amis is préservatif, which does not mean “preservative” in French, but…condom. Misusing this word is one of the most awkward French mistakes you can make! 

So, the moral here is to still learn your vocabulary. But if you’re in a bind, you have a good chance of being able to find an equivalent French word if it contains one of those six suffixes I mentioned, or is related to a French circumflex word.

You may be wondering why faux amis exist at all, since English borrowed words directly from French and Latin. The answer is, it’s simply because of how language evolves. Even in English itself, certain words have changed meaning over time or have additional connotations than they previously did. A very interesting example of this – in both languages – is the word “gay”.  

“Gay” was borrowed into English from the French gai (joyful, flashy).  Over the 20^th century, it came to have an additional meaning in English: homosexual. Today, this is the dominant connotation that comes to mind for most English-speakers. The English “gay” has been borrowed back into French, where it also means “homosexual.” The French word gai(e) still means “happy” in French, although some francophones, including those in Quebec, also use this spelling instead of “gay”.

One of the most important things that etymology can teach us is that words are always evolving. While they’re being spoken and used by human beings, languages are living things. Faux amis aside, that’s pretty cool.

French words that are the same in English

Still, there are many words in English and French that are the same or very similar, both in spelling and meaning. Here’s a list of some of the most common. If you want to go further, at the end of this article, you’ll find a link to an extremely long and thorough alphabetical list. 

French food and dining words that are the same in English

Many English food-related words originally came from French, but a majority of these have changed a bit over the centuries, to be pronounced and written in a more Anglophone way. 

A good example of this are the words derived from the French word and verb dîner, which include dinner, diner, and dinette, as well as the verb “to dine”. 

You’ll notice, first of all, that all of these words are pronounced differently than their French ancestors. You’ll also notice that their meanings have expanded from these two original borrowed words: “dinner” and “to dine” are the counterparts of le dîner and dîner, respectively, but a diner and dinette are types of restaurant.

Interestingly, “dinette” is also a French word, but it’ s a classic example of a faux ami.  In French, une dinette in French is a child’s tea party set or set of plastic food toys.  (It can also mean a light, late evening meal, although I’ve personally never heard it used that way, for what it’s worth.)

This being said, there are other French words related to food and dining whose meaning and spelling have remained more or less the same in French and English. A number of these were borrowed into English in recent centuries, when French cooking became a hallmark of class for Anglophones. 

Here are some of the most common food- and dining -related words that are the same (or extremely similar) in French and English:

• à la carte : when you want to order individual dishes which are not part of a pre-established sequence of courses.
• menu
• apéritif
• café (a type of restaurant)
• picnic 
• salade
• soupe
• omelette
• bon appétit
• hors d’œuvre
• vinaigrette
• restaurant
• alcool (This word was originally borrowed into French from Arabic, by way of Latin)
• chef (This means boss in French and not only “cook”.)

British English speakers also often use some common French food words, including: 

• cornichon
• gateau
• courgette
• aubergine

French fashion and appearance words that are the same or similar in English

Every culture has its trends, fashions, and notions of beauty, but France has an international reputation for expertise in this area. It’s no wonder, then, that so many French words related to fashion and appearance have been borrowed into English. Here’s a list of some of the most common -including one that’s a very recent addition to the English language:

• prêt-à-porter
• chic
• couture
• silhouette
• petite
• faux (usually used to describe synthetic fur (faux fur), as opposed to fur from an animal)
• sans fard – If you’re a fan of pop culture and celebrity gossip, you’ve probably come across this term in recent years. “Sans fard” (sometimes written “sans fards”) means “without makeup” and describes a photo where a person is wearing no makeup, and may not even be groomed in a glamorous way (for example, unbrushed hair, etc.). Of course, sans fard photos aren’t always truthful – many celebrities have been called out for abusing the term, since they are wearing at least very basic makeup and have their hair done in the shot.

French art and culture words that are the same or similar in English

Here are some French words that you’ll often hear or come across (or use) in English. 

• Art Nouveau 
• avant-garde
• bas-relief
• film noir
• matinee (Note that in French, this word is most commonly used as a way to say “morning”.)
• papier mâché (For many English speakers, this is written slightly differently: papier mache)
• trompe l’oeil

In addition to artistic movements like Art Nouveau and Art Deco, which keep their French names in English,  many artistic movements are written in a similar way in French and English. One of the main reasons for this is the suffix -ism/-isme.  Here are a few examples:

• Impressionism/impressionnisme
• Realism/réalisme
• Surrealism/surréalisme
• Cubism/cubisme

You can find many other French words related to culture and the arts, including classical dance-related vocabulary on this excellent and extensive list.  

Other common French words used in English

Some French words we use in English, like repertoire and protégé, don’t have exactly the same meaning in both languages – or at least, not the same primary meaning. For example, répertoire in French is most commonly used to describe a list of phone numbers; protégé means “protected” in French).  But many other French words in English are used the same way in French, more or less. Here are some of them:

• bourgeois
• brunette
• blond(e)
• adieu
• au contraire
• chauffeur
• chic
• critique
• depot
• déjà vu
• (eau de) cologne
• eau de toilette
• en route
• entrepreneur
• fiancé (Note that while in English, this can refer to a man or a woman, in French, a female person someone is engaged to is fiancée, the word’s feminine form.)
• genre
• laissez-faire
• maître d’ (this is used in its complete form, maître d’hôtel, in French)
• joie de vivre
• toilette
• nouveau riche
• faux pas
• je ne sais quoi
• carte blanche
• voyeur
• R.S.V.P (Many English-speakers don’t realize this is an abbreviation of Répondez s’il vous plait)
• souvenir
• par excellence
• potpourri
• Bon voyage (learn more here)
• cliché (Note that in French, in addition to its most well-known meaning, cliché is another way to say “photo”)
• au pair
• femme fatale
• bouquet
• boutique
• coup
• milieu 
• ménage à trois
• bon vivant
• bon mot
• coup d’état
• de rigueur
• savoir-faire
• tête à tête
• Voila (I usually see the word written without an accent in English, but remember that it’s actually written like this in French: Voilà).
• du jour

These are just the most common French words used in English, but there are many more, especially if you’re watching or reading something featuring educated, possibly pretentious characters – or spending time with them in real life.  You can find a more extensive list of French words and expressions in English here. 

The three kinds of French words in English – and where to find them all

The words on our lists are among the most noticeable French words in English, because they haven’t changed (or haven’t changed much) from their original spellings and meanings. But what about the thousands of other French words that are supposed to make up the English language?

Since most of these words have evolved over the centuries, they may still be very similar to their French ancestors, or quite a bit different. Take, for example, one of my favorite English words, “jaunty”, which evolved in both spelling and meaning from the French word gentil. 

You can find an alphabetical list of French words in English, including these original borrowings that have evolved away from their French forms, here.  

And of course, don’t forget the English words that have a counterpart in French thanks to Latin. You can see some of those on this list. 

Do you have a favorite French word or expression that’s used in English? Are there any words these lists that surprised you? If so, why not try to use them today?

French
français
Pronunciation	[fʁɑ̃sɛ]
Native to	France, Switzerland, Belgium, Canada, and other locations in the Francophonie
Speakers	Native: 80 million (2022)[1] Total (L1 + L2): 270 million (2022)[1]
Language family	Indo-European Italic Latino-Faliscan Romance Western Romance Gallo-Romance Oïl French
Early forms	Old Latin Classical Latin Vulgar Latin Old Gallo-Romance Old French Middle French
Writing system	Latin (French alphabet) French Braille
Signed forms	Signed French (français signé)
Official status
Official language in	29 countries Belgium Benin Burkina Faso Burundi Cameroon Canada Central African Republic Chad Comoros Congo Democratic Republic of the Congo Djibouti Equatorial Guinea France Gabon Guinea Haiti Ivory Coast Luxembourg Madagascar Mali Monaco Niger Rwanda Senegal Seychelles Switzerland Togo Vanuatu 10 subnational Aosta Valley (Italy) French Polynesia Louisiana (United States) Maine (United States) New Caledonia New Hampshire (United States) Puducherry (India) Saint Barthélemy Saint Martin Saint Pierre and Miquelon Wallis and Futuna Intergovernmental organizations Francophonie United Nations International Olympic Committee European Union African Union NATO World Trade Organization Council of Europe
Regulated by	Académie Française (French Academy) (France) Office québécois de la langue française (Quebec Board of the French Language) (Quebec)
Language codes
ISO 639-1	fr
ISO 639-2	fre (B) fra (T)
ISO 639-3	fra
Glottolog	stan1290
Linguasphere	51-AAA-i
States where French is the majority native language   States where it is an official or administrative language but not a majority native language   States where it is a minority or secondary language
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

French (français [fʁɑ̃sɛ] or langue française [lɑ̃ɡ fʁɑ̃sɛz]) is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. It descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire, as did all Romance languages. French evolved from Gallo-Romance, the Latin spoken in Gaul, and more specifically in Northern Gaul. Its closest relatives are the other langues d’oïl—languages historically spoken in northern France and in southern Belgium, which French (Francien) largely supplanted. French was also influenced by native Celtic languages of Northern Roman Gaul like Gallia Belgica and by the (Germanic) Frankish language of the post-Roman Frankish invaders. Today, owing to France’s past overseas expansion, there are numerous French-based creole languages, most notably Haitian Creole. A French-speaking person or nation may be referred to as Francophone in both English and French.

French is an official language in 29 countries across multiple continents,^[2] most of which are members of the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie (OIF), the community of 84 countries which share the official use or teaching of French. French is also one of six official languages used in the United Nations.^[3] It is spoken as a first language (in descending order of the number of speakers) in France; Canada (especially in the provinces of Quebec, Ontario, and New Brunswick, as well as other Francophone regions); Belgium (Wallonia and the Brussels-Capital Region); western Switzerland (specifically the cantons forming the Romandy region); parts of Luxembourg; parts of the United States (the states of Louisiana, Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont); Monaco; the Aosta Valley region of Italy; and various communities elsewhere.^[4]

In 2015, approximately 40% of the francophone population (including L2 and partial speakers) lived in Europe, 36% in sub-Saharan Africa and the Indian Ocean, 15% in North Africa and the Middle East, 8% in the Americas, and 1% in Asia and Oceania.^[5] French is the second-most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union.^[6] Of Europeans who speak other languages natively, approximately one-fifth are able to speak French as a second language.^[7] French is the second-most taught foreign language in the EU. All institutions of the EU use French as a working language along with English and German; in certain institutions, French is the sole working language (e.g. at the Court of Justice of the European Union).^[8] French is also the 18th most natively spoken language in the world, fifth most spoken language by total number of speakers and the second or third most studied language worldwide (with about 120 million learners as of 2017).^[9] As a result of French and Belgian colonialism from the 16th century onward, French was introduced to new territories in the Americas, Africa and Asia. Most second-language speakers reside in Francophone Africa, in particular Gabon, Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Mauritius, Senegal and Ivory Coast.^[10]

French is estimated to have about 76 million native speakers; about 235 million daily, fluent speakers;^[11][1][12] and another 77–110 million secondary speakers who speak it as a second language to varying degrees of proficiency, mainly in Africa.^[13] According to the OIF, approximately 321 million people worldwide are «able to speak the language»,^[14] without specifying the criteria for this estimation or whom it encompasses.^[15] According to a demographic projection led by the Université Laval and the Réseau Démographie de l’Agence universitaire de la Francophonie, the total number of French speakers will reach approximately 500 million in 2025 and 650 million by 2050.^[16] OIF estimates 700 million by 2050, 80% of whom will be in Africa.^[5]

French has a long history as an international language of literature and scientific standards and is a primary or second language of many international organisations including the United Nations, the European Union, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, the World Trade Organization, the International Olympic Committee, and the International Committee of the Red Cross. In 2011, Bloomberg Businessweek ranked French the third most useful language for business, after English and Standard Mandarin Chinese.^[17]

History

French is a Romance language (meaning that it is descended primarily from Vulgar Latin) that evolved out of the Gallo-Romance dialects spoken in northern France. The language’s early forms include Old French and Middle French.

Vulgar Latin in Gaul

Due to Roman rule, Latin was gradually adopted by the inhabitants of Gaul, and as the language was learned by the common people it developed a distinct local character, with grammatical differences from Latin as spoken elsewhere, some of which being attested on graffiti.^[18] This local variety evolved into the Gallo-Romance tongues, which include French and its closest relatives, such as Arpitan.

The evolution of Latin in Gaul was shaped by its coexistence for over half a millennium beside the native Celtic Gaulish language, which did not go extinct until the late sixth century, long after the fall of the Western Roman Empire.^[19] The population remained 90% indigenous in origin;^[20][21] the Romanizing class were the local native elite (not Roman settlers), whose children learned Latin in Roman schools. At the time of the collapse of the Empire, this local elite had been slowly abandoning Gaulish entirely, but the rural and lower class populations remained Gaulish speakers who could sometimes also speak Latin or Greek.^[22] The final language shift from Gaulish to Vulgar Latin among rural and lower class populations occurred later, when both they and the incoming Frankish ruler/military class adopted the Gallo-Roman Vulgar Latin speech of the urban intellectual elite.^[22]

The Gaulish language likely survived into the sixth century in France despite considerable Romanization.^[19] Coexisting with Latin, Gaulish helped shape the Vulgar Latin dialects that developed into French^[22][19] contributing loanwords and calques (including oui,^[23] the word for «yes»),^[24] sound changes shaped by Gaulish influence,^[25][26][27] and influences in conjugation and word order.^[24][28][18] Recent computational studies suggest that early gender shifts may have been motivated by the gender of the corresponding word in Gaulish.^[29]

The estimated number of French words that can be attributed to Gaulish is placed at 154 by the Petit Robert,^[30] which is often viewed as representing standardized French, while if non-standard dialects are included, the number increases to 240.^[31] Known Gaulish loans are skewed toward certain semantic fields, such as plant life (chêne, bille, etc.), animals (mouton, cheval, etc.), nature (boue, etc.), domestic activities (ex. berceau), farming and rural units of measure (arpent, lieue, borne, boisseau), weapons,^[32] and products traded regionally rather than further afield.^[33] This semantic distribution has been attributed to peasants being the last to hold onto Gaulish.^[33][32]

Old French

The beginning of French in Gaul was greatly influenced by Germanic invasions into the country. These invasions had the greatest impact on the northern part of the country and on the language there.^[34] A language divide began to grow across the country. The population in the north spoke langue d’oïl while the population in the south spoke langue d’oc.^[34] Langue d’oïl grew into what is known as Old French. The period of Old French spanned between the 8th and 14th centuries. Old French shared many characteristics with Latin. For example, Old French made use of different possible word orders just as Latin did because it had a case system that retained the difference between nominative subjects and oblique non-subjects.^[35] The period is marked by a heavy superstrate influence from the Germanic Frankish language, which non-exhaustively included the use in upper-class speech and higher registers of V2 word order,^[36] a large percentage of the vocabulary (now at around 15% of modern French vocabulary^[37]) including the impersonal singular pronoun on (a calque of Germanic man), and the name of the language itself.

Up until its later stages, Old French, alongside Old Occitan, maintained a relic of the old nominal case system of Latin longer than most other Romance languages (with the notable exception of Romanian which still currently maintains a case distinction), differentiating between an oblique case and a nominative case. The phonology was characterized by heavy syllabic stress, which led to the emergence of various complicated diphthongs such as -eau which would later be leveled to monophthongs.^{[citation needed]}

The earliest evidence of what became Old French can be seen in the Oaths of Strasbourg and the Sequence of Saint Eulalia, while Old French literature began to be produced in the eleventh century, with major early works often focusing on the lives of saints (such as the Vie de Saint Alexis), or wars and royal courts, notably including the Chanson de Roland, epic cycles focused on King Arthur and his court, as well as a cycle focused on William of Orange.^{[citation needed]}

Middle French

Within Old French many dialects emerged but the Francien dialect is one that not only continued but also thrived during the Middle French period (14th–17th centuries).^[34] Modern French grew out of this Francien dialect.^[34] Grammatically, during the period of Middle French, noun declensions were lost and there began to be standardized rules. Robert Estienne published the first Latin-French dictionary, which included information about phonetics, etymology, and grammar.^[38] Politically, the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts (1539) named French the language of law.

Modern French

During the 17th century, French replaced Latin as the most important language of diplomacy and international relations (lingua franca). It retained this role until approximately the middle of the 20th century, when it was replaced by English as the United States became the dominant global power following the Second World War.^[39][40] Stanley Meisler of the Los Angeles Times said that the fact that the Treaty of Versailles was written in English as well as French was the «first diplomatic blow» against the language.^[41]

During the Grand Siècle (17th century), France, under the rule of powerful leaders such as Cardinal Richelieu and Louis XIV, enjoyed a period of prosperity and prominence among European nations. Richelieu established the Académie Française to protect the French language. By the early 1800s, Parisian French had become the primary language of the aristocracy in France.

Near the beginning of the 19th century, the French government began to pursue policies with the end goal of eradicating the many minorities and regional languages (patois) spoken in France. This began in 1794 with Henri Grégoire’s «Report on the necessity and means to annihilate the patois and to universalize the use of the French language». When public education was made compulsory, only French was taught and the use of any other (patois) language was punished. The goals of the public school system were made especially clear to the French-speaking teachers sent to teach students in regions such as Occitania and Brittany. Instructions given by a French official to teachers in the department of Finistère, in western Brittany, included the following: «And remember, Gents: you were given your position in order to kill the Breton language».^[42] The prefect of Basses-Pyrénées in the French Basque Country wrote in 1846: «Our schools in the Basque Country are particularly meant to replace the Basque language with French…»^[42] Students were taught that their ancestral languages were inferior and they should be ashamed of them; this process was known in the Occitan-speaking region as Vergonha.

Geographic distribution

Europe

Spoken by 19.71% of the European Union’s population, French is the third most widely spoken language in the EU, after English and German and the second-most-widely taught language after English.^[6][44]

Under the Constitution of France, French has been the official language of the Republic since 1992,^[45] although the Ordinance of Villers-Cotterêts made it mandatory for legal documents in 1539. France mandates the use of French in official government publications, public education except in specific cases, and legal contracts; advertisements must bear a translation of foreign words.

In Belgium, French is an official language at the federal level along with Dutch and German. At the regional level, French is the sole official language of Wallonia (excluding a part of the East Cantons, which are German-speaking) and one of the two official languages—along with Dutch—of the Brussels-Capital Region, where it is spoken by the majority of the population (approx. 80%), often as their primary language.^[46]

French is one of the four official languages of Switzerland, along with German, Italian, and Romansh, and is spoken in the western part of Switzerland, called Romandy, of which Geneva is the largest city. The language divisions in Switzerland do not coincide with political subdivisions, and some cantons have bilingual status: for example, cities such as Biel/Bienne and cantons such as Valais, Fribourg and Berne. French is the native language of about 23% of the Swiss population, and is spoken by 50%^[47] of the population.

Along with Luxembourgish and German, French is one of the three official languages of Luxembourg, where it is generally the preferred language of business as well as of the different public administrations. It is also the official language of Monaco.

At a regional level, French is acknowledged as an official language in the Aosta Valley region of Italy where it is the first language of approximately 30% of the population, while French dialects remain spoken by minorities on the Channel Islands. It is also spoken in Andorra and is the main language after Catalan in El Pas de la Casa. The language is taught as the primary second language in the German state of Saarland, with French being taught from pre-school and over 43% of citizens being able to speak French.^[48][49]

Africa

The majority of the world’s French-speaking population lives in Africa. According to a 2018 estimate from the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie, an estimated 141 million African people spread across 34 countries and territories^{[Note 1]} can speak French as either a first or a second language.^[53][54] This number does not include the people living in non-Francophone African countries who have learned French as a foreign language. Due to the rise of French in Africa, the total French-speaking population worldwide is expected to reach 700 million people in 2050.^[55] French is the fastest growing language on the continent (in terms of either official or foreign languages).^[56][57]
French is mostly a second language in Africa, but it has become a first language in some urban areas, such as the region of Abidjan, Ivory Coast^[58] and in Libreville, Gabon.^[59] There is not a single African French, but multiple forms that diverged through contact with various indigenous African languages.^[60]

Sub-Saharan Africa is the region where the French language is most likely to expand, because of the expansion of education and rapid population growth.^[61] It is also where the language has evolved the most in recent years.^[62][63] Some vernacular forms of French in Africa can be difficult to understand for French speakers from other countries,^[64] but written forms of the language are very closely related to those of the rest of the French-speaking world.

Americas

Canada

French is the second-most common language in Canada, after English, and both are official languages at the federal level. It is the first language of 9.5 million people or 29% and the second language for 2.07 million or 6% of the entire population of Canada.^[12] French is the sole official language in the province of Quebec, being the mother tongue for some 7 million people, or almost 80% (2006 Census) of the province^{[citation needed]}. About 95% of the people of Quebec speak French as either their first or second language, and for some as their third language. Quebec is also home to the city of Montreal, which is the world’s fourth-largest French-speaking city, by number of first language speakers.^{[65][citation needed]} New Brunswick and Manitoba are the only officially bilingual provinces, though full bilingualism is enacted only in New Brunswick, where about one third of the population is Francophone. French is also an official language of all of the territories (Northwest Territories, Nunavut, and Yukon). Out of the three, Yukon has the most French speakers, making up just under 4% of the population.^[66] Furthermore, while French is not an official language in Ontario, the French Language Services Act ensures that provincial services are to be available in the language. The Act applies to areas of the province where there are significant Francophone communities, namely Eastern Ontario and Northern Ontario. Elsewhere, sizable French-speaking minorities are found in southern Manitoba, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and the Port au Port Peninsula in Newfoundland and Labrador, where the unique Newfoundland French dialect was historically spoken. Smaller pockets of French speakers exist in all other provinces. The Ontarian city of Ottawa, the Canadian capital, is also effectively bilingual, as it has a large population of federal government workers, who are required to offer services in both French and English, and is across a river from Quebec, opposite the major city of Gatineau with which it forms a single metropolitan area.^{[citation needed]}

United States

According to the United States Census Bureau (2011), French is the fourth^[67] most spoken language in the United States after English, Spanish, and Chinese, when all forms of French are considered together and all dialects of Chinese are similarly combined. French is the second-most spoken language (after English) in the states of Maine and Vermont. In Louisiana, it is tied with Spanish for second-most spoken if Louisiana French and all creoles such as Haitian are included. French is the third most spoken language (after English and Spanish) in the states of Connecticut, Rhode Island, and New Hampshire.^[68] Louisiana is home to many distinct French dialects, collectively known as Louisiana French. New England French, essentially a variant of Canadian French, is spoken in parts of New England. Missouri French was historically spoken in Missouri and Illinois (formerly known as Upper Louisiana), but is nearly extinct today.^[69] French also survived in isolated pockets along the Gulf Coast of what was previously French Lower Louisiana, such as Mon Louis Island, Alabama and DeLisle, Mississippi (the latter only being discovered by linguists in the 1990s) but these varieties are severely endangered or presumed extinct.

Caribbean

French is one of two official languages in Haiti alongside Haitian Creole. It is the principal language of education, administration, business, and public signage and is spoken by all educated Haitians. It is also used for ceremonial events such as weddings, graduations, and church masses. The vast majority of the population speaks Haitian Creole as their first language; the rest largely speak French as a first language.^[70] As a French Creole language, Haitian Creole draws the large majority of its vocabulary from French, with influences from West African languages, as well as several European languages. It is closely related to Louisiana Creole and the creole from the Lesser Antilles.^[71]

French is the sole official language of all the overseas territories of France in the Caribbean that are collectively referred to as the French West Indies, namely Guadeloupe, Saint Barthélemy, Saint Martin, and Martinique.

Other territories

French is the official language of both French Guiana on the South American continent,^[72] and of Saint Pierre and Miquelon,^[73] an archipelago off the coast of Newfoundland in North America.

Asia

Southeast Asia

French was the official language of the colony of French Indochina, comprising modern-day Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia. It continues to be an administrative language in Laos and Cambodia, although its influence has waned in recent decades.^[74] In colonial Vietnam, the elites primarily spoke French, while many servants who worked in French households spoke a French pidgin known as «Tây Bồi» (now extinct). After French rule ended, South Vietnam continued to use French in administration, education, and trade.^[75] However, since the Fall of Saigon and the opening of a unified Vietnam’s economy, French has gradually been effectively displaced as the first foreign language of choice by English in Vietnam. Nevertheless, it continues to be taught as the other main foreign language in the Vietnamese educational system and is regarded as a cultural language.^[76]
All three countries are full members of La Francophonie (OIF).

India

French was the official language of French India, consisting of the geographically separate enclaves referred to as Puducherry. It continued to be an official language of the territory even after its cession to India in 1956 until 1965.^[77] A small number of older locals still retain knowledge of the language, although it has now given way to Tamil and English.^[77][78]

Western Asia

Lebanon

A former French mandate, Lebanon designates Arabic as the sole official language, while a special law regulates cases when French can be publicly used. Article 11 of Lebanon’s Constitution states that «Arabic is the official national language. A law determines the cases in which the French language is to be used».^[79] The French language in Lebanon is a widespread second language among the Lebanese people, and is taught in many schools along with Arabic and English. French is used on Lebanese pound banknotes, on road signs, on Lebanese license plates, and on official buildings (alongside Arabic).

Today, French and English are secondary languages of Lebanon, with about 40% of the population being Francophone and 40% Anglophone.^[80] The use of English is growing in the business and media environment. Out of about 900,000 students, about 500,000 are enrolled in Francophone schools, public or private, in which the teaching of mathematics and scientific subjects is provided in French.^[81] Actual usage of French varies depending on the region and social status. One-third of high school students educated in French go on to pursue higher education in English-speaking institutions. English is the language of business and communication, with French being an element of social distinction, chosen for its emotional value.^[82]

United Arab Emirates and Qatar

The UAE has the status in the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie as an observer state, and Qatar has the status in the organization as an associate state. However, in both countries, French is not spoken by almost any of the general population or migrant workers, but spoken by a small minority of those who invest in Francophone countries or have other financial or family ties. Their entrance as observer and associate states respectively into the organization was aided a good deal by their investments into the Organisation and France itself.^[83] A country’s status as an observer state in the Organisation internationale de la Francophonie gives the country the right to send representatives to organization meetings and make formal requests to the organization but they do not have voting rights within the OIF.^[84] A country’s status as an associate state also does not give a country voting abilities but associate states can discuss and review organization matters.^[85]

Oceania and Australasia

French is an official language of the Pacific Island nation of Vanuatu, where 31% of the population was estimated to speak it in 2018.^[53] In the French special collectivity of New Caledonia, 97% of the population can speak, read and write French^[86] while in French Polynesia this figure is 95%,^[87] and in the French collectivity of Wallis and Futuna, it is 84%.^[88]

In French Polynesia and to a lesser extent Wallis and Futuna, where oral and written knowledge of the French language has become almost universal (95% and 84% respectively), French increasingly tends to displace the native Polynesian languages as the language most spoken at home. In French Polynesia, the percentage of the population who reported that French was the language they use the most at home rose from 67% at the 2007 census to 74% at the 2017 census.^[89][87] In Wallis and Futuna, the percentage of the population who reported that French was the language they use the most at home rose from 10% at the 2008 census to 13% at the 2018 census.^[88][90]

Future

The future of the French language is often discussed in the news. For example, in 2014, The New York Times documented an increase in the teaching of French in New York, especially in K-12 dual-language programs where Spanish and Mandarin are the only second-language options more popular than French.^[91] In a study published in March 2014 by Forbes, the investment bank Natixis said that French could become the world’s most spoken language by 2050. It noted that French is spreading in areas where the population is rapidly increasing, especially in sub-Saharan Africa.^[92]

In the European Union, French was the dominant language within all institutions until the 1990s. After several enlargements of the EU (1995, 2004), French significantly lost ground in favour of English, which is more widely spoken and taught in most EU countries. French currently remains one of the three working languages, or «procedural languages», of the EU, along with English and German. It is the second-most widely used language within EU institutions after English, but remains the preferred language of certain institutions or administrations such as the Court of Justice of the European Union, where it is the sole internal working language, or the Directorate-General for Agriculture. Since 2016, Brexit has rekindled discussions on whether or not French should again hold greater role within the institutions of the European Union.^[93]

Varieties

Current status and importance

A leading world language, French is taught in universities around the world, and is one of the world’s most influential languages because of its wide use in the worlds of journalism, jurisprudence, education, and diplomacy.^[94]
In diplomacy, French is one of the six official languages of the United Nations (and one of the UN Secretariat’s only two working languages^[95]), one of twenty official and three procedural languages of the European Union, an official language of NATO, the International Olympic Committee, the Council of Europe, the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Organization of American States (alongside Spanish, Portuguese and English), the Eurovision Song Contest, one of eighteen official languages of the European Space Agency, World Trade Organization and the least used of the three official languages in the North American Free Trade Agreement countries. It is also a working language in nonprofit organisations such as the Red Cross (alongside English, German, Spanish, Portuguese, Arabic and Russian), Amnesty International (alongside 32 other languages of which English is the most used, followed by Spanish, Portuguese, German, and Italian), Médecins sans Frontières (used alongside English, Spanish, Portuguese and Arabic), and Médecins du Monde (used alongside English).^[96] Given the demographic prospects of the French-speaking nations of Africa, researcher Pascal-Emmanuel Gobry wrote in 2014 that French «could be the language of the future».^[97]

Significant as a judicial language, French is one of the official languages of such major international and regional courts, tribunals, and dispute-settlement bodies as the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights, the Caribbean Court of Justice, the Court of Justice for the Economic Community of West African States, the Inter-American Court of Human Rights, the International Court of Justice, the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea the International Criminal Court and the World Trade Organization Appellate Body. It is the sole internal working language of the Court of Justice of the European Union, and makes with English the European Court of Human Rights’s two working languages.^[98]

In 1997, George Weber published, in Language Today, a comprehensive academic study entitled «The World’s 10 most influential languages».^[99] In the article, Weber ranked French as, after English, the second-most influential language of the world, ahead of Spanish.^[99] His criteria were the numbers of native speakers, the number of secondary speakers (especially high for French among fellow world languages), the number of countries using the language and their respective populations, the economic power of the countries using the language, the number of major areas in which the language is used, and the linguistic prestige associated with the mastery of the language (Weber highlighted that French in particular enjoys considerable linguistic prestige).^[99] In a 2008 reassessment of his article, Weber concluded that his findings were still correct since «the situation among the top ten remains unchanged.»^[99]

Knowledge of French is often considered to be a useful skill by business owners in the United Kingdom; a 2014 study found that 50% of British managers considered French to be a valuable asset for their business, thus ranking French as the most sought-after foreign language there, ahead of German (49%) and Spanish (44%).^[100] MIT economist Albert Saiz calculated a 2.3% premium for those who have French as a foreign language in the workplace.^[101]

In English-speaking Canada, the United Kingdom, and Ireland, French is the first foreign language taught and in number of pupils is far ahead of other languages. In the United States, French is the second-most commonly taught foreign language in schools and universities, although well behind Spanish. In some areas of the country near French-speaking Quebec, however, it is the foreign language more commonly taught.

Phonology

Consonant phonemes in French

	Labial	Dental/ Alveolar	Palatal/ Postalveolar	Velar/ Uvular
Nasal	m	n	ɲ	(ŋ)
Stop	voiceless	p	t		k
voiced	b	d		ɡ
Fricative	voiceless	f	s	ʃ	ʁ
voiced	v	z	ʒ
Approximant	plain		l	j
labial			ɥ	w

Vowel phonemes in French

Oral Front Central Back unrounded rounded Close i y u Close-mid e ø (ə) o Open-mid ɛ/(ɛː) œ ɔ Open a (ɑ)

Nasal Front Back unrounded rounded Open-mid ɛ̃ (œ̃) ɔ̃ Open ɑ̃

Although there are many French regional accents, foreign learners normally use only one variety of the language.

• There are a maximum of 17 vowels in French, not all of which are used in every dialect: /a/, /ɑ/, /e/, /ɛ/, /ɛː/, /ə/, /i/, /o/, /ɔ/, /y/, /u/, /œ/, /ø/, plus the nasalized vowels /ɑ̃/, /ɛ̃/, /ɔ̃/ and /œ̃/. In France, the vowels /ɑ/, /ɛː/ and /œ̃/ are tending to be replaced by /a/, /ɛ/ and /ɛ̃/ in many people’s speech, but the distinction of /ɛ̃/ and /œ̃/ is present in Meridional French. In Quebec and Belgian French, the vowels /ɑ/, /ə/, /ɛː/ and /œ̃/ are present.
• Voiced stops (i.e., /b, d, ɡ/) are typically produced fully voiced throughout.
• Voiceless stops (i.e., /p, t, k/) are unaspirated.
• The velar nasal /ŋ/ can occur in final position in borrowed (usually English) words: parking, camping, swing. The palatal nasal /ɲ/ can occur in word initial position (e.g., gnon), but it is most frequently found in intervocalic, onset position or word-finally (e.g., montagne).
• French has three pairs of homorganic fricatives distinguished by voicing, i.e., labiodental /f/~/v/, dental /s/~/z/, and palato-alveolar /ʃ/~/ʒ/. /s/~/z/ are dental, like the plosives /t/~/d/ and the nasal /n/.
• French has one rhotic whose pronunciation varies considerably among speakers and phonetic contexts. In general, it is described as a voiced uvular fricative, as in [ʁu] roue, «wheel». Vowels are often lengthened before this segment. It can be reduced to an approximant, particularly in final position (e.g., fort), or reduced to zero in some word-final positions. For other speakers, a uvular trill is also common, and an apical trill [r] occurs in some dialects.
• Lateral and central approximants: The lateral approximant /l/ is unvelarised in both onset (lire) and coda position (il). In the onset, the central approximants [w], [ɥ], and [j] each correspond to a high vowel, /u/, /y/, and /i/ respectively. There are a few minimal pairs where the approximant and corresponding vowel contrast, but there are also many cases where they are in free variation. Contrasts between /j/ and /i/ occur in final position as in /pɛj/ paye, «pay», vs. /pɛi/ pays, «country».

French pronunciation follows strict rules based on spelling, but French spelling is often based more on history than phonology. The rules for pronunciation vary between dialects, but the standard rules are:

• Final single consonants, in particular s, x, z, t, d, n, p and g, are normally silent. (A consonant is considered «final» when no vowel follows it even if one or more consonants follow it.) The final letters f, k, q, and l, however, are normally pronounced. The final c is sometimes pronounced like in bac, sac, roc but can also be silent like in blanc or estomac. The final r is usually silent when it follows an e in a word of two or more syllables, but it is pronounced in some words (hiver, super, cancer etc.).
  • When the following word begins with a vowel, however, a silent consonant may once again be pronounced, to provide a liaison or «link» between the two words. Some liaisons are mandatory, for example the s in les amants or vous avez; some are optional, depending on dialect and register, for example, the first s in deux cents euros or euros irlandais; and some are forbidden, for example, the s in beaucoup d’hommes aiment. The t of et is never pronounced and the silent final consonant of a noun is only pronounced in the plural and in set phrases like pied-à-terre.
  • Doubling a final n and adding a silent e at the end of a word (e.g., chien → chienne) makes it clearly pronounced. Doubling a final l and adding a silent e (e.g., gentil → gentille) adds a [j] sound if the l is preceded by the letter i.
• Some monosyllabic function words ending in a or e, such as je and que, drop their final vowel when placed before a word that begins with a vowel sound (thus avoiding a hiatus). The missing vowel is replaced by an apostrophe. (e.g., *je ai is instead pronounced and spelled → j’ai). This gives, for example, the same pronunciation for l’homme qu’il a vu («the man whom he saw») and l’homme qui l’a vu («the man who saw him»). However, for Belgian French the sentences are pronounced differently; in the first sentence the syllable break is as «qu’il-a», while the second breaks as «qui-l’a». It can also be noted that, in Quebec French, the second example (l’homme qui l’a vu) is more emphasized on l’a vu.

Writing system

Alphabet

French is written with the 26 letters of the basic Latin script, with four diacritics appearing on vowels (circumflex accent, acute accent, grave accent, diaeresis) and the cedilla appearing in «ç».

There are two ligatures, «œ» and «æ», but they are often replaced in contemporary French with «oe» and «ae», because the ligatures do not appear on the AZERTY keyboard layout used in French-speaking countries. However this is nonstandard in formal and literary texts.

Orthography

French spelling, like English spelling, tends to preserve obsolete pronunciation rules. This is mainly due to extreme phonetic changes since the Old French period, without a corresponding change in spelling. Moreover, some conscious changes were made to restore Latin orthography (as with some English words such as «debt»):

• Old French doit > French doigt «finger» (Latin digitus)
• Old French pie > French pied «foot» [Latin pes (stem: ped-)]

French orthography is morphophonemic. While it contains 130 graphemes that denote only 36 phonemes, many of its spelling rules are likely due to a consistency in morphemic patterns such as adding suffixes and prefixes.^[102] Many given spellings of common morphemes usually lead to a predictable sound. In particular, a given vowel combination or diacritic generally leads to one phoneme. However, there is not a one-to-one relation of a phoneme and a single related grapheme, which can be seen in how tomber and tombé both end with the /e/ phoneme.^[103] Additionally, there are many variations in the pronunciation of consonants at the end of words, demonstrated by how the x in paix is not pronounced though at the end of Aix it is.

As a result, it can be difficult to predict the spelling of a word based on the sound. Final consonants are generally silent, except when the following word begins with a vowel (see Liaison (French)). For example, the following words end in a vowel sound: pied, aller, les, finit, beaux. The same words followed by a vowel, however, may sound the consonants, as they do in these examples: beaux-arts, les amis, pied-à-terre.

French writing, as with any language, is affected by the spoken language. In Old French, the plural for animal was animals. The /als/ sequence was unstable and was turned into a diphthong /aus/. This change was then reflected in the orthography: animaus. The us ending, very common in Latin, was then abbreviated by copyists (monks) by the letter x, resulting in a written form animax. As the French language further evolved, the pronunciation of au turned into /o/ so that the u was reestablished in orthography for consistency, resulting in modern French animaux (pronounced first /animos/ before the final /s/ was dropped in contemporary French). The same is true for cheval pluralized as chevaux and many others. In addition, castel pl. castels became château pl. châteaux.

• Nasal: n and m. When n or m follows a vowel or diphthong, the n or m becomes silent and causes the preceding vowel to become nasalized (i.e., pronounced with the soft palate extended downward so as to allow part of the air to leave through the nostrils). Exceptions are when the n or m is doubled, or immediately followed by a vowel. The prefixes en- and em- are always nasalized. The rules are more complex than this but may vary between dialects.
• Digraphs: French uses not only diacritics to specify its large range of vowel sounds and diphthongs, but also specific combinations of vowels, sometimes with following consonants, to show which sound is intended.
• Gemination: Within words, double consonants are generally not pronounced as geminates in modern French (but geminates can be heard in the cinema or TV news from as recently as the 1970s, and in very refined elocution they may still occur). For example, illusion is pronounced [ilyzjɔ̃] and not [ilːyzjɔ̃]. However, gemination does occur between words; for example, une info («a news item» or «a piece of information») is pronounced [ynɛ̃fo], whereas une nympho («a nymphomaniac») is pronounced [ynːɛ̃fo].
• Accents are used sometimes for pronunciation, sometimes to distinguish similar words, and sometimes based on etymology alone.
  • Accents that affect pronunciation
    • The acute accent (l’accent aigu) é (e.g., école—school) means that the vowel is pronounced /e/ instead of the default /ə/.
    • The grave accent (l’accent grave) è (e.g., élève—pupil) means that the vowel is pronounced /ɛ/ instead of the default /ə/.
    • The circumflex (l’accent circonflexe) ê (e.g. forêt—forest) shows that an e is pronounced /ɛ/ and that an ô is pronounced /o/. In standard French, it also signifies a pronunciation of /ɑ/ for the letter â, but this differentiation is disappearing. In the mid-18th century, the circumflex was used in place of s after a vowel, where that letter s was not pronounced. Thus, forest became forêt, hospital became hôpital, and hostel became hôtel.
    • Diaeresis or tréma (ë, ï, ü, ÿ): over e, i, u or y, indicates that a vowel is to be pronounced separately from the preceding one: naïve, Noël.
      • The combination of e with diaeresis following o (Noël [ɔɛ]) is nasalized in the regular way if followed by n (Samoëns [wɛ̃])
      • The combination of e with diaeresis following a is either pronounced [ɛ] (Raphaël, Israël [aɛ]) or not pronounced, leaving only the a (Staël [a]) and the a is nasalized in the regular way if aë is followed by n (Saint-Saëns [ɑ̃])
      • A diaeresis on y only occurs in some proper names and in modern editions of old French texts. Some proper names in which ÿ appears include Aÿ (a commune in Marne, formerly Aÿ-Champagne), Rue des Cloÿs (an alley in Paris), Croÿ (family name and hotel on the Boulevard Raspail, Paris), Château du Faÿ [fr] (near Pontoise), Ghÿs (name of Flemish origin spelt Ghijs where ij in handwriting looked like ÿ to French clerks), L’Haÿ-les-Roses (commune near Paris), Pierre Louÿs (author), Moÿ-de-l’Aisne (commune in Aisne and a family name), and Le Blanc de Nicolaÿ (an insurance company in eastern France).
      • The diaeresis on u appears in the Biblical proper names Archélaüs, Capharnaüm, Emmaüs, Ésaü, and Saül, as well as French names such as Haüy. Nevertheless, since the 1990 orthographic changes, the diaeresis in words containing guë (such as aiguë or ciguë) may be moved onto the u: aigüe, cigüe, and by analogy may be used in verbs such as j’argüe.
      • In addition, words coming from German retain their umlaut (ä, ö and ü) if applicable but use often French pronunciation, such as Kärcher (trademark of a pressure washer).
    • The cedilla (la cédille) ç (e.g., garçon—boy) means that the letter ç is pronounced /s/ in front of the back vowels a, o and u (c is otherwise /k/ before a back vowel). C is always pronounced /s/ in front of the front vowels e, i, and y, thus ç is never found in front of front vowels.
  • Accents with no pronunciation effect
    • The circumflex does not affect the pronunciation of the letters i or u, nor, in most dialects, a. It usually indicates that an s came after it long ago, as in île (from former isle, compare with English word «isle»). The explanation is that some words share the same orthography, so the circumflex is put here to mark the difference between the two words. For example, dites (you say) / dîtes (you said), or even du (of the) / dû (past participle for the verb devoir = must, have to, owe; in this case, the circumflex disappears in the plural and the feminine).
    • All other accents are used only to distinguish similar words, as in the case of distinguishing the adverbs là and où («there», «where») from the article la («the» feminine singular) and the conjunction ou («or»), respectively.

Some proposals exist to simplify the existing writing system, but they still fail to gather interest.^{[104][105][106][107]}

In 1990, a reform accepted some changes to French orthography. At the time the proposed changes were considered to be suggestions. In 2016, schoolbooks in France began to use the newer recommended spellings, with instruction to teachers that both old and new spellings be deemed correct.^[108]

Grammar

French is a moderately inflected language. Nouns and most pronouns are inflected for number (singular or plural, though in most nouns the plural is pronounced the same as the singular even if spelled differently); adjectives, for number and gender (masculine or feminine) of their nouns; personal pronouns and a few other pronouns, for person, number, gender, and case; and verbs, for tense, aspect, mood, and the person and number of their subjects. Case is primarily marked using word order and prepositions, while certain verb features are marked using auxiliary verbs. According to the French lexicogrammatical system, French has a rank-scale hierarchy with clause as the top rank, which is followed by group rank, word rank, and morpheme rank. A French clause is made up of groups, groups are made up of words, and lastly, words are made up of morphemes.^[109]

French grammar shares several notable features with most other Romance languages, including

• the loss of Latin declensions
• the loss of the neuter gender
• the development of grammatical articles from Latin demonstratives
• the loss of certain Latin tenses and the creation of new tenses from auxiliaries.

Nouns

Every French noun is either masculine or feminine. Because French nouns are not inflected for gender, a noun’s form cannot specify its gender. For nouns regarding the living, their grammatical genders often correspond to that which they refer to. For example, a male teacher is an «enseignant» while a female teacher is an «enseignante». However, plural nouns that refer to a group that includes both masculine and feminine entities are always masculine. So a group of two male teachers would be «enseignants». A group of two male teachers and two female teachers would still be «enseignants». In many situations, and in the case of «enseignant», both the singular and plural form of a noun are pronounced identically. The article used for singular nouns is different from that used for plural nouns and the article provides a distinguishing factor between the two in speech. For example, the singular «le professeur» or «la professeur(e)» (the male or female teacher, professor) can be distinguished from the plural «les professeurs» because «le», «la», and «les» are all pronounced differently. There are some situations where both the feminine and masculine form of a noun are the same and the article provides the only difference. For example, «le dentiste» refers to a male dentist while «la dentiste» refers to a female dentist.

Verbs

Moods and tense-aspect forms

The French language consists of both finite and non-finite moods. The finite moods include the indicative mood (indicatif), the subjunctive mood (subjonctif), the imperative mood (impératif), and the conditional mood (conditionnel). The non-finite moods include the infinitive mood (infinitif), the present participle (participe présent), and the past participle (participe passé).

Finite moods

Indicative (Indicatif)

The indicative mood makes use of eight tense-aspect forms. These include the present (présent), the simple past (passé composé and passé simple), the past imperfective (imparfait), the pluperfect (plus-que-parfait), the simple future (futur simple), the future perfect (futur antérieur), and the past perfect (passé antérieur). Some forms are less commonly used today. In today’s spoken French, the passé composé is used while the passé simple is reserved for formal situations or for literary purposes. Similarly, the plus-que-parfait is used for speaking rather than the older passé antérieur seen in literary works.

Within the indicative mood, the passé composé, plus-que-parfait, futur antérieur, and passé antérieur all use auxiliary verbs in their forms.

Indicatif
	Présent	Imparfait	Passé composé	Passé simple
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st Person	j’aime	nous aimons	j’aimais	nous aimions	j’ai aimé	nous avons aimé	j’aimai	nous aimâmes
2nd Person	tu aimes	vous aimez	tu aimais	vous aimiez	tu as aimé	vous avez aimé	tu aimas	vous aimâtes
3rd Person	il/elle aime	ils/elles aiment	il/elle aimait	ils/elles aimaient	il/elle a aimé	ils/elles ont aimé	il/elle aima	ils/elles aimèrent
	Futur simple	Futur antérieur	Plus-que-parfait	Passé antérieur
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st Person	j’aimerai	nous aimerons	j’aurai aimé	nous aurons aimé	j’avais aimé	nous avions aimé	j’eus aimé	nous eûmes aimé
2nd Person	tu aimeras	vous aimerez	tu auras aimé	vous aurez aimé	tu avais aimé	vous aviez aimé	tu eus aimé	vous eûtes aimé
3rd Person	il/elle aimera	ils/elles aimeront	il/elle aura aimé	ils/elles auront aimé	il/elle avait aimé	ils/elles avaient aimé	il/elle eut aimé	ils/elles eurent aimé

Subjunctive (Subjonctif)

The subjunctive mood only includes four of the tense-aspect forms found in the indicative: present (présent), simple past (passé composé), past imperfective (imparfait), and pluperfect (plus-que-parfait).

Within the subjunctive mood, the passé composé and plus-que-parfait use auxiliary verbs in their forms.

Subjonctif
	Présent	Imparfait	Passé composé	Plus-que-parfait
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st Person	j’aime	nous aimions	j’aimasse	nous aimassions	j’aie aimé	nous ayons aimé	j’eusse aimé	nous eussions aimé
2nd Person	tu aimes	vous aimiez	tu aimasses	vous aimassiez	tu aies aimé	vous ayez aimé	tu eusses aimé	vous eussiez aimé
3rd Person	il/elle aime	ils/elles aiment	il/elle aimât	ils/elles aimassent	il/elle ait aimé	ils/elles aient aimé	il/elle eût aimé	ils/elles eussent aimé

Imperative (Imperatif)

The imperative is used in the present tense (with the exception of a few instances where it is used in the perfect tense). The imperative is used to give commands to you (tu), we/us (nous), and plural you (vous).

Imperatif
	Présent
	Singular	Plural
1st Person		aimons
2nd Person	aime	aimez

Conditional (Conditionnel)

The conditional makes use of the present (présent) and the past (passé).

The passé uses auxiliary verbs in its forms.

Conditionnel
	Présent	Passé
	Singular	Plural	Singular	Plural
1st Person	j’aimerais	nous aimerions	j’aurais aimé	nous aurions aimé
2nd Person	tu aimerais	vous aimeriez	tu aurais aimé	vous auriez aimé
3rd Person	il/elle aimerait	ils/elles aimeraient	il/elle aurait aimé	ils/elles auraient aimé

Voice

French uses both the active voice and the passive voice. The active voice is unmarked while the passive voice is formed by using a form of verb être («to be») and the past participle.

Example of the active voice:

• «Elle aime le chien.» She loves the dog.
• «Marc a conduit la voiture.» Marc drove the car.

Example of the passive voice:

• «Le chien est aimé par elle.» The dog is loved by her.
• «La voiture a été conduite par Marc.» The car was driven by Marc.

Syntax

Word order

French declarative word order is subject–verb–object although a pronoun object precedes the verb. Some types of sentences allow for or require different word orders, in particular inversion of the subject and verb, as in «Parlez-vous français ?» when asking a question rather than «Vous parlez français ?» Both formulations are used, and carry a rising inflection on the last word. The literal English translations are «Do you speak French?» and «You speak French?», respectively. To avoid inversion while asking a question, «Est-ce que» (literally «is it that») may be placed at the beginning of the sentence. «Parlez-vous français ?» may become «Est-ce que vous parlez français ?» French also uses verb–object–subject (VOS) and object–subject–verb (OSV) word order. OSV word order is not used often and VOS is reserved for formal writings.^[35]

Vocabulary

The majority of French words derive from Vulgar Latin or were constructed from Latin or Greek roots. In many cases, a single etymological root appears in French in a «popular» or native form, inherited from Vulgar Latin, and a learned form, borrowed later from Classical Latin. The following pairs consist of a native noun and a learned adjective:

• brother: frère / fraternel from Latin frater / fraternalis
• finger: doigt / digital from Latin digitus / digitalis
• faith: foi / fidèle from Latin fides / fidelis
• eye: œil / oculaire from Latin oculus / ocularis

However, a historical tendency to Gallicise Latin roots can be identified, whereas English conversely leans towards a more direct incorporation of the Latin:

• rayonnement / radiation from Latin radiatio
• éteindre / extinguish from Latin exstinguere
• noyau / nucleus from Latin nucleus
• ensoleillement / insolation from Latin insolatio

There are also noun-noun and adjective-adjective pairs:

• thing/cause: chose / cause from Latin causa
• cold: froid / frigide from Latin frigidum

It can be difficult to identify the Latin source of native French words because in the evolution from Vulgar Latin, unstressed syllables were severely reduced and the remaining vowels and consonants underwent significant modifications.

More recently^[when?] the linguistic policy of the French language academies of France and Quebec has been to provide French equivalents^[111] to (mainly English) imported words, either by using existing vocabulary, extending its meaning or deriving a new word according to French morphological rules. The result is often two (or more) co-existing terms for describing the same phenomenon.

• mercatique / marketing
• finance fantôme / shadow banking
• bloc-notes / notepad
• ailière / wingsuit
• tiers-lieu / coworking

It is estimated that 12% (4,200) of common French words found in a typical dictionary such as the Petit Larousse or Micro-Robert Plus (35,000 words) are of foreign origin (where Greek and Latin learned words are not seen as foreign). About 25% (1,054) of these foreign words come from English and are fairly recent borrowings. The others are some 707 words from Italian, 550 from ancient Germanic languages, 481 from other Gallo-Romance languages, 215 from Arabic, 164 from German, 160 from Celtic languages, 159 from Spanish, 153 from Dutch, 112 from Persian and Sanskrit, 101 from Native American languages, 89 from other Asian languages, 56 from other Afro-Asiatic languages, 55 from Balto-Slavic languages, 10 from Basque and 144 (about 3%) from other languages.^[110]

One study analyzing the degree of differentiation of Romance languages in comparison to Latin estimated that among the languages analyzed French has the greatest distance from Latin.^[112] Lexical similarity is 89% with Italian, 80% with Sardinian, 78% with Rhaeto-Romance, and 75% with Romanian, Spanish and Portuguese.^[113][1]

Numerals

The numeral system used in the majority of Francophone countries employs both decimal and vigesimal counting. After the use of unique names for the numbers 1-16, those from 17 to 69 are counted by tens, while twenty (vingt) is used as a base number in the names of numbers from 70 to 99. The French word for 80 is quatre-vingts, literally «four twenties», and the word for 75 is soixante-quinze, literally «sixty-fifteen». The vigesimal method of counting is analogous to the archaic English use of score, as in «fourscore and seven» (87), or «threescore and ten» (70).

Belgian, Swiss, and Aostan French^[114] as well as that used in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Rwanda and Burundi, use different names for 70 and 90, namely septante and nonante. In Switzerland, depending on the local dialect, 80 can be quatre-vingts (Geneva, Neuchâtel, Jura) or huitante (Vaud, Valais, Fribourg). The Aosta Valley similarly uses huitante^[114] for 80. Conversely, Belgium and in its former African colonies use quatre-vingts for 80.

In Old French (during the Middle Ages), all numbers from 30 to 99 could be said in either base 10 or base 20, e.g. vint et doze (twenty and twelve) for 32, dous vinz et diz (two twenties and ten) for 50, uitante for 80, or nonante for 90.^[115]

The term octante was historically used in Switzerland for 80, but is now considered archaic.^[116]

French, like most European languages, uses a space to separate thousands.^[117] The comma (French: virgule) is used in French numbers as a decimal point, i.e. «2,5» instead of «2.5». In the case of currencies, the currency markers are substituted for decimal point, i.e. «5$7» for «5 dollars and 7 cents».

Example text

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in French:

Tous les êtres humains naissent libres et égaux en dignité et en droits. Ils sont doués de raison et de conscience et doivent agir les uns envers les autres dans un esprit de fraternité.^[118]

Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights in English:

All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.^[119]

See also

• Alliance Française
• AZERTY
• Français fondamental
• Francization
• Francophile
• Francophobia
• Francophonie
• French language in the United States
• French language in Canada
• French poetry
• Glossary of French expressions in English
• Influence of French on English
• Language education
• List of countries where French is an official language
• List of English words of French origin
• List of French loanwords in Persian
• List of French words and phrases used by English speakers
• List of German words of French origin
• Official bilingualism in Canada
• Varieties of French

Notes

References

Further reading

• Marc Fumaroli (2011). When the World Spoke French. Translated by Richard Howard. ISBN 978-1-59017-375-6.
• Nadeau, Jean-Benoît, and Julie Barlow (2006). The Story of French. (First U.S. ed.) New York: St. Martin’s Press. ISBN 0-312-34183-0.
• Ursula Reutner (2017). Manuel des francophonies. Berlin/Boston: de Gruyter. ISBN 978-3-11-034670-1.
• La langue française dans le monde 2014 (PDF) (in French). Nathan. 2014. ISBN 978-2-09-882654-0. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 April 2015. Retrieved 5 April 2015.

External links

Organisations

• Fondation Alliance française: an international organisation for the promotion of French language and culture (in French)
• Agence de promotion du FLE: Agency for promoting French as a foreign language

Courses and tutorials

• Français interactif: interactive French program, University of Texas at Austin
• Tex’s French Grammar, University of Texas at Austin
• Lingopolo French
• French lessons in London, The Language machine

Online dictionaries

• Oxford Dictionaries French Dictionary
• Collins Online English↔French Dictionary
• Centre national de ressources textuelles et lexicales: monolingual dictionaries (including the Trésor de la langue française), language corpora, etc.

Grammar

Verbs

• French verb conjugation at Verbix

Vocabulary

• Swadesh list in English and French

Numbers

• Smith, Paul. «French, Numbers». Numberphile. Brady Haran. Archived from the original on 2 March 2017. Retrieved 7 April 2013.

Books

• (in French) La langue française dans le monde 2010 (Full book freely accessible)

Articles

• «The status of French in the world». Ministry of Foreign Affairs (France)

This article is for anyone interested in French. This amazing, beautiful language is extremely demanding of those who learn it. We want to help you. Beginner or intermediate — here you will find tips on how to master langue française. Bon chance!

Features of the French language

• Double trouble. There are only two genders in French: masculine and feminine. This is an advantage, because you don’t need to memorize the neutral one. The downside is that all adjectives, numerals, pronouns, verbs, and verbal forms agree in gender and number. At the same time, it is impossible to determine the gender of a noun without an article. You just need to know: male or female. Spoiler: nouns with the ending -tion are usually femininebut definitely not always (la révolution, l’inscription, la libération, etc.). An example of agreement of two words:
  • Chapeau, m. — hat;
  • Chemise, f. — shirt.

• Agreement by the gender of the subject. In French, the possessive pronouns have gender, which is decided by the subject. For example, “my coat” would be son manteau — son is a masculine pronoun, and is used because the word manteau is masculine.
• Bizzare numerals. In French, numericals are formed a bit differently than in English. We form them by essentially saying “so many tens and a number,” except for anything smaller than 13. Think about it — twenty-two (2×10+2), fifty-seven (5×10+7). In French, things are more complicated. For instance, the threshold for uniquely-named numbers is 16, not 12. Only then do the French switch to the “tens + another number” system, and it goes for round numbers as well. However, 80 is not “eight tens” — it’s “four twenties” for some reason, and there are many more surprises waiting for you. Overall, learning to count in French is an adventure in its own right — see the table below.

• French pronunciation. The phonetics of the French language gives it a special charm. Nasal vowels, grassed r, combinations of consonants and vowels — all this creates the beauty of de la langue française. Some even joke that in French, pronunciation is more important than meaning. At the same time, you will hear grumpy remarks from language learners about how the French are terribly distorting foreign words.
• Merging. Another feature of French pronunciation is called liaison. This is a phonetic linking of consecutive words. It does not happen randomly, but according to rules. If a word ends in a consonant and the next begins with a vowel or a voiceless h, they are linked and read as one. For example, six heures sounds like a single word — [sisœ: r], and six hommes — [sisɔm].
• Fixed stress. One of the clear advantages of the French language is its constant stress on the last syllable. Whichever word you choose, the rule is the same. Although sometimes the stress changes in colloquial speech — depending on intonation.
• Lots of words for nothing. The French love their language, so they use as many words as possible, even where they are not needed. The most striking examples:
  • Subject repetition — Moi, je pense, que (I, I think that);
  • The word que in different variations — Qu‘est-ce que je dois faire? (What should I do?)
  • Two negative particles ne and pas around the verbs — Je ne suis pas contente (I’m not happy).
• Diacritical marks. The symbols over and under some of the French letters show how pronunciation changes. The word français itself has a diacritic mark. It means that the letter [c] is read as [s].

• 18 times is not the limit. If you thought that the twelveexcluding the passive voice tenses of the English language is a lot, get ready for a ride. There are more than eighteen of them in French (some count twenty-one). But even without an exact number, it is clear that agreeing verbs in every tense and mood is still highly enjoyable. There is even a form that is only used in literary language, such as magazine articles. It’s called the Passé Simple. You also need to be able to distinguish it in written speech.

How to learn French on your own?

French is not the most difficult language. It is quite possible to learn it on your own. Especially if you already speak English or Italian. With the latter, they share Latin roots, and in the former, there are many words borrowed from French. In this section, we will give you some tips on how to learn the perfect langue française.

1. Start with phonetics. Yes, just like in school. We ourselves do not like such methods, but they suit the French the best. You first need to understand the reading rules. Understand why beaucoup reads as [bo-koo], and qu’est-ce que ça as [kes-ke-sey]. And only then can you start learning French vocabulary. If you immediately start learning words by ear, there is a chance that you will face a problem: it will be difficult to match pronunciation with spelling. Nobody can just guess that [ohm] is written as homme.
2. Enjoy learning. The main secret in learning any language is to practice the way you like it. Bored of cramming grammar? Throw the blasted textbook aside and do something fun. Watch TV shows in French, listen to and memorize songs, read books or comics. If you are a full-fledged student, then grammatical constructions cannot be avoided, and Subjonctif will catch you, too. But after all, it can also be looked at through engaging examples.
3. Don’t be afraid of mistakes. It is impossible to learn a language without practice. Feel free to mispronounce words. No matter what jokes go about the French, no one will turn their backs on you because of an error in pronunciation. Most likely they will praise everyone who dares to learn their great and beautiful language.
4. Practice every day. Learning a foreign language is 20% understanding of grammatical concepts and 80% practice. Give French at least an hour every day. Or 30 minutes, or even 15. The main part is not to forget about it. It is enough to listen to an audio recording on the way home or rehearse out loud the recently learned phrases.
5. Surround yourself with French. Immersion in a language environment is the most effective way to learn a foreign language. Create your own French world: switch all your gadgets to it, change the keyboard layout, speak, listen and think in French.

Vocabulaire — How to learn French words?

We all know «merci» and “bonjour.” But it’s not enough to speak French. Once you’ve mastered the reading rules and the basics of grammar, it’s time to start building your vocabulary. The question arises: how to do this?

Look for familiar expressions

English has many words from French. Some of them have the same meaning, making them easier to remember. For example:

• Facade — une façade;
• Omelet — une omelette;
• Mise-en-scène — une mise en scène;
• Jacket — une jaquette.

A complete list of easy-to-remember French loanwords can be found here. But be careful. In addition to them, there are also false friends. For example, the word synthétiser means «to summarize,» not “synthesize”, and pain miraculously means “bread.”

Still, there are plenty of similar vocabulary and even grammatical forms.

Learn the gender of words

It will protect your nerve cells in the future. To inflect words correctly in French, you need to know the genders of the nouns. Better to memorize them right away. Otherwise, later you will frantically try to recollect: is it sa maison or son maison, belle robe or beau robe.

Make texts

A great way not only to learn a foreign language, but also to urgently remember something. Let’s say you have 10 new words. Take them all and come up with a text or a couple of sentences. It doesn’t matter how usable they are, the point is to create a memorizable image. Let’s give an example:

• Un chat — a cat;
• Acheter — buy;
• Des petit pois — peas;
• Une tasse — cup;
• Une aubergine — eggplant;
• Rêver — to dream.

We make a sentence: Un chat rêve d’acheter une tasse de petits pois et d’aubergines — A cat dreams of buying a cup of peas and eggplants. Weird? Yes. But super picturesque.

For that method, you need to know grammar: how words are connected through prepositions, articles, and verb forms. It is better to both write and pronounce sentences.

Use new knowledge in speech

The fastest way to remember words is to say them out loud. So you do two things at the same time: you learn new things and add them to your active vocabulary. You can know 10,000 French words passively, not using them in real life. This is a bad school habit. There they gave us a list — we crammed it only to forget later. You have to do the opposite.

One of the variants of this method is retelling the texts based on new words. Let’s say you read the article, then wrote down and sorted the unfamiliar phrases. Now, instead of cramming, retell the text using each one. It is effective learning through the use of words in context.

Learn not words, but phrases

Because of the liveliness and fluidity of French speech, sentences merge into one. Native speakers muffle the beginning, middle, end, or even the whole word. Therefore, we advise you to learn not single words, but fixed expressions with them. There are enough of them in French. For example, n’importe quoi — anything (slang: «oh everything, no difference, some kind of nonsense») or je n’en sais rien — I don’t know. And it is better to learn verbs right away with prepositions of control à, de or without:

• aider quelqu’un à faire quelque chose — to help someone do something;
• avoir besoin de quelque chose — you need something;
• vouloir faire quelque chose — to want to do something.

Phraseological units are loved in France, so learning the relevant ones is pivotal to success in mastering the language.

Memorize through pictures

This is a tip for visuals. If you quickly absorb information through external images, learn words from illustrated dictionaries or flashcards. You can buy them from a bookstore, find them online, or make your own. The latter option is more energy-intensive, but this way you will start learning words while creating cards.

Resources

Grammaire — How to learn French grammar?

French grammar scares beginners with its large number of tenses, the agreement between parts of speech, and simply with its existence. Of course, when you look at this «beauty» in textbooks, it invokes panic. But in fact, French grammar is extremely logical. It must be sorted out at the very beginning, along with the reading rules. Then you will have less desire to grab your head at the sight of Conditionnel.

Learn the conjugation of verbs

Unfortunately, there is no learning this language without them. Probably the most annoying part of French is its verb forms. They change by every tense and for every pronoun. There are three groups of verbs in total. Below is an example of the conjugations of group 1 and 2 in Présent simple de l’indicatif≈Present Simple. With these verbs, things are mostly understandable.

The third group of irregular verbs is troublesome. Here’s a small example of how the verb avoir — «to have» — conjugates in all its forms.

If you need French for everyday communication, then you can make do with just learning the most necessary verbs from a phrasebook. But you still have to learn their forms. Otherwise, you run the risk of speaking exclusively in infinitives: I want, he do, she be. And those who strive to truly master French are not afraid of Subjonctif.

Don’t suffer from grammar

Remember that any activity can be turned into something fun. Instead of just cramming, try memorizing verb forms like a song to a familiar tune. Another option is to create a visual association. So, the 29 verbs conjugated with a être are easy to remember by drawing a picture or making a story out of them.

Take your time

French grammar will not run away from you. Start learning from the basics: personal pronouns, gender of nouns, groups of verbs, conjugation of the key être, and more. Move gradually. Start by reading a textbook in English, where everything is explained clearly.

Also, be sure to pay attention to the little things. If your goal is to truly master French, understand each grammatical construct. There are many small details in this language. For example, parts of speech such as en, on, dont, que. And they are all used regularly.

Resources

Compréhension orale — What and how to listen to in French?

Understanding French by ear is not easy. And not at all because of the stereotypical «they speak too fast» routine. The main difficulty is the connection between words. Native speakers move from one phrase to another so masterfully that all sentences merge into one. There seem to be no pauses between them. How can this be overcome? Listen to French speech. Listen, even if you don’t understand anything — turn on the recording and immerse yourself in French. Without understanding the meaning of what has been said, you still get used to the intonation and rhythm of the language.

Listen to podcasts and radio

A great way to get used to the sound of French. You can listen to both regular radio and educational podcasts. For example, Coffee Break Languages ​​was created specifically for those who are short on time. The entries are categorized according to difficulty levels, from A1 to C1. Another good podcast is News in slow French, which has trending news in French. Then there is French in 5 Minutes — small audios on various topics, from culture to language learning. French radio stations also offer great variety: France Info, Europe 1, RFM, France Culture and so on. Turn on any station and listen to programs or music. If you are interested not in France, but in other countries, find their stations. For example, Canadian 98.5 Montréal or Swiss RTS. Almost all of the listed radios have their own podcasts.

Watch TV shows and series

This method is the favorite of many foreign language learners. What could be nicer? You watch the show, enjoy your life and improve your French skills at once. But this also needs to be done correctly.

First, select the material according to your level. Start with kids’ shows or tutorials like Extra. There are simple and straightforward dialogues, especially useful to beginners. If you don’t like this, try looking at something you’ve seen before, but in French. Say you’re a fan of The Big Bang Theory and can retell any episode faster than Sheldon says «Bazinga.» Find it in French and go. It may not be easy to do this, though. Unfortunately, there are very few free resources for French films. The most convenient way is to use streaming services like Netflix or YouTube.

The second rule is to watch everything with French subtitles, not English. This makes it easier to remember vocabulary in context. Plus, you will immediately understand and think in another language. It will be difficult for a beginner to learn French from films, but for advanced students with a solid foundation, it is a great option.

Listen to lectures and audiobooks

They are suitable for advanced learners. Especially those planning to study in French. Audiobooks can be found on Audiolib or Audible. With lectures, it is a little more complicated. Try searching on Coursera. By the way, there are also French courses from various universities around the world.

Resources

Compréhension écrite — What and how to read in French?

Often people focus on speaking and underestimate reading. But all the elements of French are interconnected, and without developing this skill, others will also lag behind. Reading practice helps to build vocabulary and understand the internal logic of the language. The more you read, the easier it is for you to express yourself in French.

Start with easy texts

For beginners, we recommend short, easy texts designed especially for language learners. The resource Lingua has stories for A1-A2 levels.

When you get the vocabulary, move on to adapted books — simplified representations of original works. There aren’t many of them, but seek and ye shall find.

Read relevant press

Reading magazines and newspapers is a great and free way to improve your skills. This will help you learn modern vocabulary and slang expressions. And also immerse yourself in the political and cultural life of the country: you will understand how the French live and what is important to them. Fortunately, the French press offers a ton of options for all tastes: political Le Figaro, Le Monde, and Libération, the infamous Charlie Hebdo, the sporty L’Équipe, and so on.

Read fiction

There is no point in moving to this method before the level Intermediate. But even here you need to increase the degree gradually: from children’s books (B1) to professional literature (C1). Of the former, the most popular are The Little Prince, Little Nicolas and Arsene Lupine, as well as the series Découverte: Lecture en français facile from CLE International.

At the avancé level (B2), people start to feel the language. They can look at the constructs in the text and admire the skill of the writer. But don’t think that if you are learning French you have to love their classical literature. It’s hard to read it, and it’s even harder to understand. The Three Musketeers in French no longer seem so exciting.

Reading should be enjoyable. Don’t like classics? Well, okay. Look for detective stories or fantasy stories. For example, the thriller Nuitor the novel Une anglaise a bicyclette by contemporary French writers. The language in them is just as rich, but more relevant. If your goal is to work in a French-speaking country, read the professional literature right away. This will help you grasp the vocabulary you need faster.

Resources

Expression écrite — How to write in French?

The spelling of French is difficult not only for foreigners, but also for the native speakers themselves. Even such simple words as beau [handsome] or beaucoup [many] cause errors. What to expect from something like immarcescible [unbreakable]. If you need French to communicate, you can take a breather and skip the writing part. But for those who study langue française for study or work, we advise you to be patient. Writing will have to be studied long and hard.

Find assistance

First, look for someone who will review what you have written and correct your mistakes. Ideally, they should be a native, but anyone who speaks French at a high level will do. Try HiNative for asking questions to native speakers, or LangCorrect. There they correct your texts. But keep in mind — the spelling in French is so difficult that even the French can have a hard time.

Therefore, do not neglect the self-tests. And use all the available technologies: auto-edits in Word, electronic dictionaries, resources like Bon Patron or Languagetool. Don’t neglect searching for every word. And do not forget about diacritics accent symbols: è, à, ù, They are not optional. Their absence is a spelling error. Also, always check the gender of nouns and the correctness of the declension.

Use simple sentences

This is a tip for beginners, but avancé can also use it. Literary French is characterized by long and tricky sentences. They sound beautiful within that style. You just can’t resist repeating after the native and wrap up something virtuoso. Do not hurry. At first, write simply, and then gradually move on to a truly literary French style. The time will come, and you will also write something like: «qu’il s’agisse d’un changement de région ou d’un retour en France depuis un pays étranger, une tolérance sera de mise pour les déplacements qui se feront durant ce week-end de Pâques«^[2].

Learn synonyms

Try to enrich your speech and make it more elegant. In a conversation, refined vocabulary is not needed, but in writing a well-chosen synonym will guarantee respect from your penpal. For example, it is better to replace the constructions [simple verb + adverb] with one word. Not «crier fortement,» but “hurler.” Not “très fatigué”, but “épuisé.” A good site for finding synonyms is Synonymo. Here are some common French words and their equivalents:

Correspond in French

Language is a living structure. It is constantly changing, and communicating with a native is a great way to stay up to date with all the innovations. This will bring you closer to real life. You will understand how the French communicate with each other. Of particular interest are the slang phrases and abbreviations, like mdr, a +, biz, slt, etc. The textbooks won’t teach you that. Look for a conversation partner in the HelloTalk, Ablo, or Italki apps. The latter is designed specifically for learning. There you will find French teachers from different French-speaking countries.

If you’re not ready to have a conversation with another person just yet, start writing to yourself. For example, start a diary or a blog in French.

Resources

Expression orale — How to speak French?

For some, speaking French is the most enjoyable part of learning a language, while for others it is the biggest stress of a lifetime. We will give you some tips on how to speak French.

Say it all out loud

That’s the universal rule for any language, but in French it is paramount. Don’t just read the texts, but retell them. Don’t just learn the words, but enunciate them. Start early. Learned your first five words? Make a sentence out of them. Let’s say you have je — me, aller — to go, cinéma— cinema, aujourd’hui — today. Now can you say «aujourd’hui, je vais au cinéma.» There, your first steps in spoken French. Of course, this is just the starting line. Getting beyond “I want sleep bed” takes a lot of exercise and grammar learning.

One way to practice is to say all your actions out loud. Start in the morning when you got up: «je me lave le visage, je me brosse les dents«I’m washing, I’m cleaning my teeth… or think out loud in French. You can even do it on the street.

Chat in French

Find someone to practice. It can be another French enthusiast, such as you, or a native. Communication with the latter is more effective in terms of understanding the language. Speaking with a French learner is just practice, but speaking with a native speaker is also a valuable experience. You will hear their accent, intonation, and learn slang. If there is still no opportunity to train with a francophonea French speaker, talk to yourself or find a conversation partner online. Try these platforms: Tandem, Speaky, or Easy Language Exchange.

Another popular practice option is attending conversation clubs. As a rule, they are organized by language schools.

Expand your active vocabulary

A sore spot for many French learners: «I know a word, but I can’t say it.» Why is this happening? Most likely, this person has been developing their passive vocabulary. It increases well through reading, listening, and watching movies. New phrases and expressions are remembered but do not become an asset. You can fix this by using them in speech. Learned a new word? Immediately use it in a conversation. Repeat it several times in a row to make it easier to remember.

Resources

Prononciation — How to master French pronunciation?

We advise you to give due attention to the correct pronunciation of french words. The difficulty is that some French sounds simply do not exist in our language. And some of those that do exist have different articulations. But learning to speak like a real Frenchman is possible. Here are some tips on how to improve your pronunciation.

Learn phonetics

We’ve already discussed how important it is to start French with the basics. Without understanding phonetics, pronunciation is impossible. The hardest thing for foreigners is with the «burry» r and the sounds [u], [ou], [œ]. In fact, you can read a separate lecture about each sound of this language. If you strive for the most correct pronunciation, analyze them all one by one. Preferably with a teacher. Those who want to come to France and pass for locals, cannot do without the help of a specialist. Otherwise, it is quite possible to study phonetics on your own. For example, TV5Monde offers a good beginner course.

Also, be sure to watch your articulation. The key to understanding French prononciation is the correct placement of the tongue in the mouth. Not only listen to what the person says but also watch how they do it.

Read tongue twisters

Advice for advanced language learners — take a chance. Grab a French tongue twister, read it in your head, and cry some in the corner. Then say it out loud several times, gradually increasing the speed. This is a great way to work out your articulation. Tongue twisters should be selected according to your level. Start with the simplest ones. For example, «douze douches douces.» The day will come and you will confidently say “les chaussettes de l’archiduchesse sont-elles sèches? Archi-sèches?«.

Learn pronunciation by ear

Technique fit for all levels — listen to as much French as possible. Songs, movies, podcasts, street conversations — anything will do. Just be careful with intonation. There is a difference between how people communicate in everyday life, how announcers read the news, and the performers sing.

To master the pronunciation, repeat after the speakers. And try to convey not only the words but also the emotional coloring of their speech. You can even duplicate the facial expressions and gestures.

Resources

You have four main options for learning French:

• Language schools (group lessons);
• Individual lessons with a tutor;
• Language courses abroad;
• Self-study.

Here are several lists of different resources for studying French and getting extra materials.

French courses abroad

Resources for self-studying French

Why learn French?

In terms of the number of native speakers, French is inferior to English and Chinese. It is spoken by 267 million people, making it the seventh most widespread language in the world^[1]. At the same time, langue française is placed second, right after English, among the languages ​​that people learn or want to learn^[3]. Maybe not everyone achieves mastery in it, but the interest is clearly there. French attracts people for a variety of reasons: study, career, travel, the desire to migrate, or simply its eternal beauty.

French for study

France has a relatively inexpensive and high-quality education. A year in a Bachelor’s degree program for foreign students costs 3,061 USD, and in a Master’s — 4,166 USD. It is cheaper than in, for example, the Netherlands and the UK. With the knowledge of a français, it is possible to study not only in France, but also in Canadain Quebec, Switzerland, or Belgiumin Wallonia. Though, in these countries, the variety of programs in French is much smaller.

Proof of language proficiency is required to enroll in a French-taught program. You can get it by passing DELF, DALF, or TCF. Preparing for them is not easy, so we advise you to do it with a tutor, preferably — one who has already passed them. Preparing for the exams on your own is also absolutely possible. The fundamental issue is to find the right study materials and train the right skills. Many language schools organize courses specifically for DELF preparation.

French for work

If you are going to work in France, you can’t do it without knowing the language. The employers expect you to be at least B2C1-C2 for medicine, law, linguistics and journalism. There is a stereotype that the French do not like English. It is not true. The bottom line is different: they do not understand it. Did you know that in terms of English proficiency, France is below Greece and Romania?^[4] Therefore, do not think that you can easily find a job in Paris by showing your C1 English certificate. But in Canada, there are chances. Of course, this additionally requires other competencies, a quality education, and work experience.

It is not so easy to get settled in France. The unemployment rate among foreigners is 13% — the highest among French-speaking countries. In Belgium, it’s 10%, in Switzerland — 7.3%, and in Canada — 6.3%^[5].

The French language is generally appreciated abroad. With him you can find work in one of the large companies: L’Oreal, Renault, Auchan, Total, BNP Paribas, Dior and others. Plus it is the official language of international organizations: UN, Red Cross, Olympic Committee, etc. So for those wishing to work in the field of international relations, knowledge of French is a must.

French for immigration

French-speaking countries rank high among the most popular destinations for immigration. France is seventh, followed by Canada. Switzerland is in the 24th place because it is expensive^[6].

If your goal is France, you must be fluent in the language. Without French, life will not be nice there. We have already talked about the difficult relationship of citizens of the Republic with the English language. The situation is no better with other languages. Do you want to live in France? Speak and act like a Frenchman. And to become a fully accepted member of society, you need to know the language. It serves not only as a means of communication, but also brings people closer culturally.

Acquiring French citizenship is a quest. You need to live in the country for 5 years. Graduates of French universities — 2 years. It is also necessary to demonstrate the B1 level of language proficiency, which is not so high. To confirm it, you take an exam. It evaluates your speaking and listening skills, and, since 2020, also covers writing. So you have to learn it.

A few words for those wishing to move to red-and-white Canada. If you are aiming for an English-speaking province, knowledge of French will earn you extra points in the Express Entry system when you receive a visa. And with two languages, it will be easier for you to find a job.

French for travel

French may not be as common as English, but it will also come in handy when traveling. First, there are 29 countries in the world where French is recognized as an official language. Most of them are located in Africa. Want to visit Ivory Coast? Secondly, many people forget that France has overseas territories: New Caledonia, Guadeloupe, Martinique, and others. If you already know Europe inside and out, the French islands in the Pacific are awaiting you eagerly. In addition to the French-speaking countries, you will most likely be understood in Spain and Italy. These languages ​​have similar words and constructions.

If you’re learning French for a tourist trip, don’t get too deep into the intricacies of the language. You don’t need them. Pay attention to common colloquial phrases. There are many compilations for tourists on the Internet. For example, here. Believe me, the French will appreciate your attempt to learn a few words in their langue belle avec des mots superbesa beautiful language with superb words.

French for yourself

You don’t have to look for a reason to learn French. It attracts many people not by its practicality, but by its beauty. Someone studies it to sing along to their favorite songs from Notre-dame de Paris. Other brave souls dream of reading untranslated Sartre. Finally, many are passionate about la cuisine française. And the last group just wants to impress their beloved ones. Yes, that happens too. «French is the language of love.» A stereotype? Maybe. But it’s hard to deny that it’s melodic, graceful, and pleasing to the ear. If you are learning French for yourself, just choose whichever method you like. You can start by memorizing songs, and then you’ll get more engaged and sign up for professional courses.

Exams in French

Unlike the huge variety of English exams, there are not as many options in French. Three main tests to determine the level of the language are:

• DELF (A1-B2);
• DALF (C1-C2);
• TCF.

TCF is a generic name for all French language proficiency testsTest de Connaissance de Français. There are TCF Canada, TCF ANF ​​(for citizenship), TCF Québec, and a few more in other countries. DELF and DALF consist of four sections:

• Listening;
• Reading;
• Writing;
• Speaking.

You can prepare for these exams yourself. But it is still better to find a tutor or an assistant, at least for the speaking part. To train it well, you need a conversation partner. Also, pay attention to writing. French essays have their own specificities, different from English.

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