What part of speech is the word report

English Grammar, Third edition (2011)

7. Reporting what people say or think

7.1 This chapter explains the different ways of reporting what people say or think.

7.2 One way of reporting what someone has said is to repeat their actual words.

‘I don’t know much about music,’ Judy said.

Repeating someone’s actual words like this is called direct speech.

Instead of repeating Judy’s words, the writer could say, Judy said that she didn’t know much about music. This is called reported speech. Some grammars called this indirect speech.

Direct speech and reported speech both consist of two clauses. The main clause is called a reporting clause. The other clause shows what someone said or thought.

In direct speech, this other clause is called the quote.

‘Have you met him?’ I asked.
‘I’sll see you tomorrow,’ said Tom.

In reported speech, the other clause is called the reported clause.

He mentioned that he had a brother living in London.
He asked if you would be able to call and see him.
He promised to give me the money.

Note that the reported clause can begin with a to-infinitive.

7.3 In ordinary conversation, we use reported speech much more often than direct speech. This is because we usually do not know, or cannot remember, the exact words that someone has said. Direct speech is mainly used in written stories.

When we report people’s thoughts, we almost always use reported speech, because thoughts do not usually exist in the form of words, so we cannot quote them exactly. Reported speech can be used to report almost any kind of thought.

7.4 Paragraphs 7.5 to 7.15 explain verbs used in reporting clauses. Paragraphs 7.16 to 7.26 explain direct speech. Paragraphs 7.27 to 7.71 explain reported speech. Paragraphs 7.72 to 7.81 explain how to refer to the speaker and hearer in direct speech or reported speech. Paragraphs 7.82 to 7.85 explain other ways of indicating what someone says or talks about.

Showing that you are reporting: using reporting verbs

7.5 You show that you are quoting or reporting what someone has said or thought by using a reporting verb. Every reporting clause contains a reporting verb.

‘I don’t see what you are getting at,’ Jeremy said.
He looked old, Harold thought, and sick.
They were complaining that Canton was hot and noisy.

basic reporting verbs

7.6 You use say when you are simply reporting what someone said and do not want to add any more information about what you are reporting.

She said that she didn’t want to know.

You use ask when you are reporting a question.

‘How’s it all going?’ Derek asked.

showing the purpose of speaking

7.7 Some reporting verbs such as answer, complain, and explain tell you what purpose an utterance was intended to serve. For example, answer tells you that a statement was intended as an answer, and complain tells you that a statement was intended as a complaint.

He answered that the price would be three pounds.
He never told me, sir, Watson complained.
‘Please don’t,’ I begged.
I suggested that it was time to leave.

Some reporting verbs used in direct speech show the manner of speaking. See paragraph 7.19.

Here is a list of reporting verbs that can be used to report what people say:

acknowledge

add

admit

advise

agree

allege

announce

answer

argue

ask

assert

assure

beg

begin

boast

call

chorus

claim

command

comment

complain

concede

confess

confirm

contend

continue

convince

cry

declare

decree

demand

deny

describe

direct

discuss

dispute

enquire

explain

forbid

grumble

guarantee

hint

imply

inform

inquire

insist

instruct

invite

lament

maintain

mention

mumble

murmur

muse

mutter

note

notify

object

observe

order

persuade

plead

pledge

pray

predict

proclaim

promise

prophesy

propose

reassure

recall

recite

recommend

record

refuse

remark

remind

repeat

reply

report

request

respond

reveal

rule

say

scream

shout

shriek

state

stipulate

storm

suggest

swear

teach

tell

threaten

thunder

urge

vow

wail

warn

whisper

write

yell

BE CAREFUL

7.8 Note that the verbs address, converse, lecture, speak, and talk, although they mean to say something, cannot be used as reporting verbs.

verbs of thinking and knowing

7.9 Many reporting verbs are used to talk about people’s thoughts, rather than what they say. Reporting verbs are used to talk about many different kinds of thought, including beliefs, wishes, hopes, intentions, and decisions. They can also be used to talk about remembering and forgetting.

We both knew that he was lying.
‘I’ll go to him in a minute,’ she thought.
I had always believed that one day I would see him again.

Here is a list of reporting verbs that can be used to report people’s thoughts:

accept

agree

assume

believe

consider

decide

determine

doubt

dream

estimate

expect

fear

feel

figure

foresee

forget

guess

hold

hope

imagine

intend

judge

know

long

mean

muse

note

plan

ponder

pray

prefer

propose

reason

recall

reckon

reflect

regret

remember

resolve

suppose

think

understand

vow

want

wish

wonder

worry

verbs of learning and perceiving

7.10 Some reporting verbs are used for talking about learning and perceiving facts.

I have since learned that the writer of the letter is now dead.
Then she saw that he was sleeping.

Here is a list of reporting verbs that refer to learning and perceiving facts:

conclude

discover

elicit

find

gather

hear

infer

learn

note

notice

observe

perceive

read

realize

see

sense

7.11 Some of the verbs in the above lists, such as tell and promise, must be or can be followed by an object showing who the hearer is. See paragraphs 7.75 to 7.76.

Note that some verbs appear in more than one list, because they have more than one meaning.

indicating the way that something is said

7.12 When you use direct speech or reported speech, you can give more information about the way that something is said by putting an adverb or a prepositional phrase after the reporting verb.

‘I’ve got the key!’ he announced triumphantly.
His secretary explained patiently that this was the only time he could spare.
I know what you mean, Carrie replied with feeling.

You show how the thing that is said fits into the conversation by using a prepositional phrase.

A gift from my mother, he added in explanation.

negatives in reporting clauses

7.13 With a small number of reporting verbs, the negative is often expressed in the reporting clause rather than in the reported clause. I don’t think Mary is at home means the same as I think Mary is not at home, and She doesn’t want to see him means She wants not to see him.

I do not think she suspects me.
She didn’t believe she would ever see him again.
He didn’t want to go.
We don’t intend to put him on trial.

Here is a list of reporting verbs that are often used with a negative in this way:

believe

expect

feel

imagine

intend

plan

propose

reckon

suppose

think

want

wish

reporting speech and thought in informal spoken English

7.14 In informal spoken English, the reporting verb go is sometimes used to introduce direct speech. The reporting clause with go always comes before the quote.

I said, ‘Well, what do you want to talk about?’ He goes, ‘I don’t care.’
I told her what I’d heard and she went, ‘Oh, my gosh.’
When I heard that I’d got the job I went, ‘Oh, no, what have I done?’

Note that you cannot add an adverb after go. For example, you cannot say, He went angrily, ‘Be quiet!’

7.15 Another reporting structure that is used in informal spoken English is be like. Be like can represent either speech or thought. In writing, be like is usually followed by a comma. The quote is sometimes in quotation marks, and sometimes not.

He got a call from Oprah, and he was like, ‘Of course I’ll go on your show.’
He’s like, ‘It’s boring! I hate chess!’ And I’m like, ‘Please teach me!’
The minute I met him, I was like, he’s perfect.

As with other reporting verbs, you can use be like with a noun or a personal pronoun: for example, you can say She was like, …, The doctor was like, … or Jane was like, …, followed by the thing that she/the doctor/Jane said or thought.

Unlike other reporting verbs, you can also use be like after the pronoun it. This structure is often used to present a mixture of speech and thought, or a general situation. For example, if you say It was like, Oh wow! it is possible that nobody actually said or thought Oh wow! Rather, the sentence gives us an idea of the situation and means something like It was amazing/surprising.

So I get back in the bus, quarter of an hour passes and it’s like, Where’s Graham?
When that happened it was like, Oh, no, not again.

Be like always comes before the reported clause.

Reporting someone’s actual words: direct speech

7.16 When you want to say that a person used particular words, you use direct speech. You can do this even if you do not know, or do not remember, the exact words that were spoken. When you use direct speech, you report what someone said as if you were using their own words.

Direct speech consists of two clauses. One clause is the reporting clause, which contains the reporting verb.

‘I knew I’d seen you,’ I said.
Yes please, replied John.

The other part is the quote, which represents what someone says or has said.

‘Let’s go and have a look at the swimming pool,’ she suggested.
‘Leave me alone,’ I snarled.

You can quote anything that someone says – statements, questions, orders, suggestions, and exclamations. In writing, you use quotation marks (also called inverted commas in British English) (‘ ’) or (“ ”) at the beginning and end of a quote.

‘Thank you,’ I said.
After a long silence he asked: ‘What is your name?’

Note that, in written stories, quotes are sometimes used without reporting clauses if the speakers have been established, and if you do not wish to indicate whether the quotes are questions, suggestions, exclamations, etc.

‘When do you leave?’ – ‘I should be gone now.’ – ‘Well, good-bye, Hamo.’

7.17 Thinking is sometimes represented as speaking to oneself. You can therefore use some verbs that refer to thinking as reporting verbs in direct speech.

I must go and see Lynn, Marsha thought.

When you are using direct speech to say what someone thought, you usually omit the quotation marks at the beginning and end of the quote.

How much should he tell her? Not much, he decided.
Perhaps that’s no accident, he reasoned.
Why, she wondered, was the flag at half mast?

7.18 Here is a list of reporting verbs that are often used with direct speech:

add

admit

advise

agree

announce

answer

argue

ask

assert

assure

beg

begin

boast

claim

command

comment

complain

conclude

confess

continue

decide

declare

demand

explain

grumble

inquire

insist

muse

observe

order

plead

ponder

pray

proclaim

promise

read

reason

recite

reflect

remark

reply

report

respond

say

state

suggest

tell

think

urge

vow

warn

wonder

write

A few of these verbs can or must be used with an object that refers to the hearer. See paragraphs 7.75 to 7.76.

verbs that describe the way in which something is said

7.19 If you want to indicate the way in which something was said, you can use a reporting verb such as shout, wail, or scream. Verbs like these usually occur only in written stories.

Jump! shouted the old woman.
Oh, poor little thing, she wailed.
Get out of there, I screamed.

Here is a list of verbs that indicate the way in which something is said:

bellow

call

chorus

cry

mumble

murmur

mutter

scream

shout

shriek

storm

thunder

wail

whisper

yell

BE CREATIVE

7.20 Another way of describing the way in which something is said is to use a verb that is usually used to describe the sound made by a particular kind of animal.

Excuse me! Susannah barked.

You can use a verb such as smile, grin, or frown to indicate the expression on someone’s face while they are speaking.

‘I’m awfully sorry.’ – ‘Not at all,’ I smiled.
It was a joke, he grinned.

BE CREATIVE

7.21 You use verbs like bark and smile in direct speech when you want to create a particular effect, especially in writing.

position of reporting verb

7.22 There are several positions in which you can put the reporting verb in relation to a quote. The usual position is after the quote, but it can also go in front of the quote or in the middle of the quote.

You have to keep trying, he said.
He stepped back and said, Now look at that. You see, he said, my father was an inventor.

7.23 If you put the reporting verb in the middle of a quote, it must go in one of the following positions:

after a noun phrase

That man, I said, never opened a window in his life.

after a vocative such as darling or Dad

‘Darling’, Max said to her, ‘don’t say it’s not possible.’

after a sentence adverb

Maybe, he said hesitantly, maybe there is a beast.

after a clause

‘I know you don’t remember your father,’ said James, ‘but he was a kind and generous man.’

7.24 You can use most reporting verbs in front of a quote.

She replied, My first thought was to protect him.
One student commented: He seems to know his subject very well.

However, the reporting verbs agree, command, promise, and wonder are hardly ever used in front of a quote.

changing the order of the subject and the reporting verb

7.25 When a reporting verb comes after a quote, the subject is often put after the verb.

‘Perhaps he isn’t a bad sort of chap after all,’ remarked Dave.
I see, said John.
I am aware of that, replied the Englishman.

Note that this is not done when the subject is a pronoun, except in some literary contexts.

punctuation of quotes

7.26 The following examples show how you punctuate quotes in British English. You can use either single quotation marks (‘ ’) or double quotation marks (“ ”). The ones used to begin a quote are called opening quotation marks, and the ones used to end a quote are called closing quotation marks.

‘Let’s go,’ I whispered.
“We have to go home,” she told him.
Mona’s mother answered: ‘Oh yes, she’s in.’
He nodded and said, ‘Yes, he’s my son.’
‘Margaret’, I said to her, ‘I’m so glad you came.’
What are you doing? Sarah asked.
‘Of course it’s awful!’ shouted Clarissa.
What do they mean, she demanded, by a “population problem”?

Note that in the last example shown above, there is a quote within a quote. If you are using single quotation marks for the main quote, the quoted words within the main quote are enclosed in double quotation marks. If you are using double quotation marks for the main quote, the quoted words within the main quote are enclosed in single quotation marks.

In American English, you always use double quotation marks (“ ”), except where you have a quote within a quote. In such cases, the quoted words within the main quote are enclosed in single quotation marks (‘ ’). This is shown in the second example below.

“What are you doing?” Sarah asked.
“What do they mean,” she demanded, “by a ‘population problem’?”

If you are quoting more than one paragraph, you put opening quotation marks at the beginning of each paragraph, but you put closing quotation marks only at the end of the last paragraph.

Reporting in your own words: reported speech

7.27 When you report what people have said using your own words rather than the words they actually used, you use reported speech.

The woman said she had seen nothing.
I replied that I had not read it yet.

You usually use a reported speech structure when you report what someone thinks.

He thought she was worried.

Reported speech is sometimes called indirect speech. Reported speech consists of two parts. One part is the reporting clause, which contains the reporting verb.

I told him that nothing was going to happen to me.
I have agreed that he should do it.
I wanted to be alone.

The other part is the reported clause.

He answered that he thought the story was extremely interesting.
He felt that he had to do something.
He wondered where they could have come from.

You usually put the reporting clause first, in order to make it clear that you are reporting rather than speaking directly yourself.

Henry said that he wanted to go home.

The exact words that Henry used are unlikely to have been I want to go home, although they might have been. It is more likely that he said something like I think I should be going now. You are more likely to report what he meant rather than what he actually said.

There are many reasons why you do not quote a person’s exact words. Often you cannot remember exactly what was said. At other times, the exact words are not important or not appropriate in the situation in which you are reporting.

types of reported clause

7.28 There are several types of reported clause. The type you use depends on whether you are reporting a statement, a question, an order, or a suggestion.

Most reported clauses either are that-clauses or begin with a to-infinitive. When a question is being reported, the reported clause begins with if, whether, or a wh-word. The use of that-clauses as reported clauses is discussed in paragraphs 7.29 to 7.31. Reported questions are discussed in paragraphs 7.32 to 7.38. The use of to-infinitive clauses in reported speech is discussed in paragraphs 7.39 to 7.48.

Reporting statements and thoughts

7.29 If you want to report a statement or someone’s thoughts, you use a reported clause beginning with the conjunction that.

He said that the police had directed him to the wrong room.
He wrote me a letter saying that he understood what I was doing.
Mrs Kaul announced that the lecture would now begin.

In informal speech and writing, the conjunction that is commonly omitted.

They said I had to see a doctor first.
She says she wants to see you this afternoon.
He knew the attempt was hopeless.
I think there’s something wrong.

In each of these sentences, that could have been used. For example, you can say either They said I had to see a doctor first or They said that I had to see a doctor first.

That is often omitted when the reporting verb refers simply to the act of saying or thinking. You usually include that after a verb that gives more information, such as complain or explain.

The FBI confirmed that the substance was an explosive.
I explained that she would have to stay in bed.

This kind of reported clause is often called a that-clause, even though many occur without that.

Note that some relative clauses also begin with that. In such clauses, that is a relative pronoun, not a conjunction. Relative clauses are explained in paragraphs 8.83 to 8.116.

verbs used with that-clauses

7.30 Here is a list of verbs that are often used as reporting verbs with that-clauses:

accept

acknowledge

add

admit

agree

allege

announce

answer

argue

assert

assume

assure

believe

boast

claim

comment

complain

concede

conclude

confirm

consider

contend

convince

decide

deny

determine

discover

dispute

doubt

dream

elicit

estimate

expect

explain

fear

feel

figure

find

foresee

forget

gather

guarantee

guess

hear

hold

hope

imagine

imply

inform

insist

judge

know

lament

learn

maintain

mean

mention

note

notice

notify

object

observe

perceive

persuade

pledge

pray

predict

promise

prophesy

read

realize

reason

reassure

recall

reckon

record

reflect

remark

remember

repeat

reply

report

resolve

reveal

say

see

sense

speculate

state

suggest

suppose

suspect

swear

teach

tell

think

threaten

understand

vow

warn

wish

worry

write

Note that some of these verbs are only used in reported speech in some of their senses. For example, if you say He accepted a present you are using accept as an ordinary verb.

A few of these verbs can or must be used with an object that refers to the hearer. See paragraphs 7.75 to 7.76.

Some of these verbs, such as decide and promise, can also be used with a to-infinitive. See paragraphs 7.39 and 7.45.

Some other verbs, such as advise and order, can be used as reporting verbs with that-clauses only if the that-clause contains a modal or a subjunctive. That-clauses of this kind are discussed in paragraph 7.43.

position of reported clauses

7.31 You usually put the reporting clause before the that-clause, in order to make it clear that you are reporting rather than speaking directly yourself.

I said that I would rather work at home.
Georgina said she was going to bed.

However, if you want to emphasize the statement contained in the reported clause, you can change the order and put the reported clause first, with a comma after it. You do not use that to introduce the clause.

All these things were trivial, he said. She was worried, he thought.

If the reported clause is long, you can put the reporting clause in the middle.

Ten years ago, Moumoni explained, some government people had come to inspect the village.

Reporting questions

7.32 As well as reporting what someone says or thinks, you can also report a question that they ask or wonder about.

Questions in reported speech are sometimes called reported questions or indirect questions.

the reporting verb

7.33 The reporting verb most often used for reporting questions is ask. Questions can be reported in a more formal way using enquire or inquire.

I asked if I could stay with them.
He asked me where I was going.
She inquired how Ibrahim was getting on.

BE CAREFUL

7.34 When you report a question:

you do not use interrogative word order

you do not use a question mark.

So the question Did you enjoy it? could be reported: I asked her if she had enjoyed it.

Questions are explained in paragraphs 5.10 to 5.34.

yes/no questions

7.35 There are two main types of question, and so two main types of reported speech structure for questions.

One type of question is called a yes/no question. These are questions that can be answered simply with yes or no.

When you report a yes/no question, you use an if-clause beginning with the conjunction if, or a whether-clause beginning with the conjunction whether.

You use if when the speaker has suggested one possibility that may be true. Do you know my name? could be reported as A woman asked if I knew her name.

She asked him if his parents spoke French.
Someone asked me if the work was going well.
He inquired if her hair had always been that colour.

You use whether when the speaker has suggested one possibility but has left open the question of other possibilities. After whether, you can suggest another possibility, or you can leave it unstated.

I was asked whether I wanted to stay at a hotel or at his home.
She asked whether the servants were still there.
I asked Professor Fred Bailey whether he agreed.
A policeman asked me whether he could be of help.

Sometimes the alternative possibility is represented by or not.

The barman didn’t ask whether or not they were over eighteen.
They asked whether Britain was or was not a Christian country.

For more information about yes/no questions, see paragraphs 5.12 to 5.14.

7.36 There are a few other verbs that can be used before if-clauses or whether-clauses, because they refer to being unsure of facts or to discovering facts.

I didn’t know whether to believe him or not.
Simon wondered if he should make conversation.
She didn’t say whether he was still alive.

Here is a list of other verbs that can be used before if-clauses and whether-clauses:

consider

determine

discover

doubt

know

remember

say

see

tell

wonder

Note that know, remember, say, see, and tell are usually used in a negative or interrogative clause, or a clause with a modal.

All the verbs in the list, except wonder, can also be used with that-clauses: see paragraph 7.30. They can all also be used with clauses beginning with wh-words: see paragraph 7.38.

wh-questions

7.37 The other type of question is called a wh-question. These are questions in which someone asks for information about an event or situation. Wh-questions cannot be answered with yes or no.

When you report a wh-question, you use a wh-word at the beginning of the reported clause.

He asked where I was going.
She enquired why I was so late.
She started to ask what had happened, then decided against it.
I asked how they had got there so quickly.
I never thought to ask who put it there.

When the details of the question are clear from the context, you can sometimes leave out everything except the wh-word. This happens mostly in spoken English, especially with why.

I asked why.
They enquired how.

For more information about wh-questions see paragraphs 5.21 to 5.34.

7.38 Other verbs can be used before clauses beginning with wh-words, because they refer to knowing, learning, or mentioning one of the circumstances of an event or situation.

She doesn’t know what we were talking about.
They couldn’t see how they would manage without her.
I wonder what’s happened.

Here is a list of other verbs that can be used before clauses beginning with wh-words:

decide

describe

determine

discover

discuss

explain

forget

guess

imagine

judge

know

learn

realize

remember

reveal

say

see

suggest

teach

tell

test

think

understand

wonder

Note that imagine, say, see, suggest, and think are usually used in a negative or interrogative clause, or a clause with a modal.

All the verbs in the list, except describe, discuss, and wonder, can also be used with that-clauses: see paragraph 7.30.

Reporting orders, requests, advice, and intentions

reporting requests

7.39 If someone orders, requests, or advises someone else to do something, this can be reported by using a to-infinitive after a reporting verb such as tell. The person being addressed, who is going to perform the action, is mentioned as the object of the reporting verb.

He told her to wait there for him.
He commanded his men to retreat
He ordered me to fetch the books.
My doctor advised me to see a neurologist.

For more on this type of structure, see paragraphs 3.202 and 3.206.

Here is a list of reporting verbs that can be used with a person as object followed by a to-infinitive:

advise

ask

beg

command

forbid

instruct

invite

order

persuade

remind

teach

tell

urge

warn

USAGE NOTE

7.40 A few verbs can be used with a to-infinitive to report requests when the hearer is mentioned in a prepositional phrase.

An officer shouted to us to stop all the noise.
I pleaded with him to tell me.

Here is a list of these verbs and the prepositions used with them:

appeal to

plead with

shout at

shout to

whisper to

yell at

7.41 In ordinary conversation, requests are often put in the form of a question. For example, you might say Will you help me? instead of Help me. Similarly, reported requests often look like reported questions.

He asked me if I could lend him fifty dollars.

When you report a request like this, you can mention both the person receiving it and the person making it.

She asked me whether I would help her.

Alternatively, you can just mention the person making it.

He asked if I would answer some questions.

7.42 You can report a request in which someone asks for permission to do something by using a to-infinitive after ask or demand.

I asked to see the manager.

reporting suggestions

7.43 When someone makes a suggestion about what someone else (not their hearer) should do, you report it by using a that-clause. In British English, this clause often contains a modal, usually should.

He proposes that the Government should hold an inquiry.
Travel agents advise that people should change their money before they travel.

Note that this structure can also be used to report a suggestion about what the hearer should do. Consider the example: Her father had suggested that she ought to see a doctor; her father might have suggested it directly to her.

If you do not use a modal, the result is considered more formal in British English. In American English, however, this is the usual verb form that is used after suggesting verbs.

Someone suggested that they break into small groups.

Note that when you leave out the modal, the verb in the reported clause still has the form it would have if the modal were present. This verb form is called the subjunctive.

It was his doctor who advised that he change his job.
I suggested that he bring them all up to the house.
He urges that the restrictions be lifted.

Here is a list of reporting verbs that can be followed by a that-clause containing a modal or a subjunctive:

advise

agree

ask

beg

command

decree

demand

direct

insist

intend

order

plead

pray

prefer

propose

recommend

request

rule

stipulate

suggest

urge

Note that advise, ask, beg, command, order, and urge can also be used with an object and a to-infinitive, and agree, pray, and suggest can also be used with that-clauses without a modal.

7.44 When someone makes a suggestion about what someone else should do, or about what they themselves and someone else should do, you can report this using one of the reporting verbs suggest, advise, propose, or recommendfollowed by an -ing participle.

Barbara suggested going to another coffee-house.
Deirdre proposed moving to New York.

reporting intentions and hopes

7.45 When you are reporting an action that the speaker (the subject of the reporting verb) intends to perform, you can report it in two ways. You can either report it simply as an action, using a to-infinitive clause, or you can report it as a statement or fact, using a that-clause.

For example, promises relate to actions (eg He promised to phone her) but they can also be seen as relating to facts (eg He promised that he would phone her).

The verb phrase in the that-clause always contains a modal.

I promised to come back.
She promised that she would not leave hospital until she was better.
I decided to withhold the information till later.
She decided that she would leave her money to him.
I had vowed to fight for their freedom.
She vowed that she would not leave her home.

Here is a list of verbs that can be used either with a to-infinitive or with a that-clause containing a modal:

decide

expect

guarantee

hope

pledge

promise

propose

resolve

swear

threaten

vow

USAGE NOTE

7.46 Claim and pretend can also be used with these two structures, when you are saying that someone is claiming or pretending something about himself or herself. For example, He claimed to be a genius has the same meaning as He claimed that he was a genius.

He claimed to have witnessed the accident.
He claimed that he had found the money in the forest.

Note that the to-infinitive can be in the perfect form: to have + -ed participle, when you are referring to a past event or situation.

7.47 Note that a few verbs that indicate personal intentions can be used only with a to-infinitive.

I intend to say nothing for the present.
They are planning to move to the country.
I don’t want to die yet.

Here is a list of these verbs:

intend

long

mean

plan

refuse

want

Reporting uncertain things

7.48 When you are reporting an action that someone is wondering about doing themselves, you can use a to-infinitive beginning with whether.

I’ve been wondering whether to retire.
He didn’t know whether to feel glad or sorry at his dismissal.

Here is a list of verbs that can be used with to-infinitive clauses of this kind:

choose

debate

decide

know

wonder

Note that choose, decide, and know are usually used in a negative or interrogative clause, or a clause with a modal.

When you are mentioning information about something involved in an action, you can use a to-infinitive after a wh-word as the reported clause.

I asked him what to do.
I shall teach you how to cook.

Here is a list of verbs that can be used with to-infinitives of this kind:

describe

discover

discuss

explain

forget

guess

imagine

know

learn

realize

remember

reveal

say

see

suggest

teach

tell

think

understand

wonder

As an alternative to both kinds of to-infinitive, you can use a clause containing should.

I wondered whether I should call for help.
He began to wonder what he should do now.

All the verbs in the above lists, except choose and debate, can also be used with ordinary clauses beginning with whether or wh-words. See paragraphs 7.35 to 7.38.

Time reference in reported speech

7.49 This section explains how to show time reference in reported speech. Descriptions of time reference in reported speech often give a simplified system that involves changing the tense in the actual words spoken, so that a present tense would be changed to a past tense, and a past tense would be changed to the past perfect. In fact, tense changes in reported speech are affected by several factors other than time, such as whether you wish to distance yourself from what was said, or whether you want to emphasize the fact that a statement is still true.

past tense for both verbs

7.50 If you are reporting something that was said or believed in the past, or if you want to distance yourself from what the other person said, you usually use a past tense for both the reporting verb and the verb in the reported clause.

She said you threw away her sweets.
Brody asked what happened.
In the Middle Ages, people thought the world was flat.

reporting verb in other tenses

7.51 If you are reporting something that someone says or believes at the time that you are speaking, you use a present tense of the reporting verb.

A third of adults say that work is bad for your health.
I think it’s going to rain.

However, you can also use a present tense of the reporting verb when you are reporting something said in the past, especially if you are reporting something that someone often says or that is still true.

She says she wants to see you this afternoon.
My doctor says it’s nothing to worry about.

If you are predicting what people will say or think, you use a future form of the reporting verb.

No doubt he will claim that his car broke down.
They will think we are making a fuss.

tense of verb in reported clause

7.52 Whatever the tense of your reporting verb, you put the verb in the reported clause into a tense that is appropriate at the time that you are speaking.

If the event or situation described in the reported clause is in the past at the time that you are speaking, you generally use the past simple, the past progressive, or the present perfect: She said she enjoyed the course, She said she was enjoying the course, or She said she has enjoyed the course. See Chapter 4 for information on when to use these forms.

Dad explained that he had no money.
She added that she was working too much.
He says he has never seen a live shark in his life.

When the reporting verb is in a past tense, a past tense is also usually used for the verb in the reported clause even if the reported situation still exists. For example, you could say I told him I was eighteen even if you are still eighteen. You are concentrating on the situation at the past time that you are talking about.

He said he was English.

A present form is sometimes used instead, to emphasize that the situation still exists.

I told him that I don’t eat more than anyone else.

If the event or situation was in the past at the time that the reported statement was made, or had existed up to that time, you use the past perfect: She said she had enjoyed the course.

He knew he had behaved badly.
Mr Benn said that he had been in hospital at the time.

If the event or situation is still going on, you use a present form if you are using a present form of the reporting verb: She says she’s enjoying the course.

Don’t assume l’m a complete fool.
He knows he’s being watched.

If the event or situation was in the future at the time of the statement or is still in the future, you use a modal. See paragraphs 7.53 to 7.56, below.

modals in reported clauses

7.53 The basic rules for using modals in reported clauses are as follows.

If the verb in the reporting clause is in a past form or has could or would as an auxiliary, you usually use could, might, or would in the reported clause.

If, as is less common, the verb in the reporting clause is in the present or has can or will as an auxiliary, you usually use can, may, or will in the reported clause.

USAGE NOTE

7.54 When you want to report a statement or question about someone’s ability to do something, you normally use could.

They believed that war could be avoided.
Nell would not admit that she could not cope.

If you want to report a statement about possibility, you normally use might.

They told me it might flood here.
He said you might need money.

If the possibility is a strong one, you use must.

I told her she must be out of her mind.

When you want to report a statement giving permission or a request for permission, you normally use could. Might is used in more formal English.

I told him he couldn’t have it.
Madeleine asked if she might borrow a pen and some paper.

When you want to report a prediction, promise, or expectation, or a question about the future, you normally use would.

She said they would all miss us.
He insisted that reforms would save the system, not destroy it.

7.55 If the reported event or situation still exists or is still in the future, and you are using a present tense of the reporting verb, you use can instead of could, may instead of might, and will or shall instead of would.

Helen says I can share her apartment.
I think the weather may change soon.
I don’t believe he will come.

Note that you cannot use can have instead of could have, or will have instead of would have. You cannot use may have instead of might have if you are using it like could have to talk about something that did not happen.

You can also use can, may, will, and shall when you are using a past tense of the reporting verb, if you want to emphasize that the situation still exists or is still in the future.

He claimed that the child’s early experiences may cause psychological distress in later life.

If you are using a present reporting verb and want to indicate that the reported event or situation is hypothetical or very unlikely, you can use the modals could, might, or would.

I believe that I could live very comfortably here.

7.56 When you want to report a statement about obligation, it is possible to use must, but the expression had to (see paragraph 5.242) is more common.

He said he really had to go back inside.
Sita told him that he must be especially kind to the little girl.

You use have to, has to, or must if the reported situation still exists or is in the future.

When you want to report a statement prohibiting something, you normally use mustn’t.

He said they mustn’t get us into trouble.

When you want to report a strong recommendation, you can use ought to. You can also use should.

He knew he ought to be helping Harold.
I felt I should consult my family.

7.57 When you want to report a habitual past action or a past situation, you can use the semi-modal used to.

I wish I knew what his favourite dishes used to be.

7.58 The use of modals in reported clauses can be compared with the ordinary use of modals (see paragraphs 5.92 to 5.256). Many of the functions are similar, but some are rarely or never found in reported clauses.

reporting conditional statements

7.59 When you are reporting a conditional statement, the tenses of the verbs are, in most cases, the same as they would be normally. However, they are different if you are using the past simple form of a reporting verb, and reporting a conditional statement such as If there is no water in the radiator, the engine will overheat. In this case, you can use the past simple instead of the present simple and would instead of will in the reported conditional statement: She said that if there was no water in the radiator, the engine would overheat.

For information about conditional statements, see paragraphs 8.25 to 8.42.

Making your reference appropriate

7.60 People, things, times, and places can be referred to in different ways, depending on who is speaking or on when or where they are speaking. For example, the same person can be referred to as I, you, or she, and the same place can be referred to as over there or just here.

If you use reported speech to report what someone has said, the words you use to refer to things must be appropriate in relation to yourself, the time when you are speaking, and the place in which you are speaking. The words you use may well be different from the words originally spoken, which were appropriate from the point of view of the speaker at the time.

referring to people and things

7.61 For example, if a man is talking to someone about a woman called Jenny, and he says, I saw her in the High Street, there are several ways in which this statement can be reported. If the original speaker repeats what he said, he could say, I said I saw her in the High Street. I and her do not change, because they still refer to the same people.

If the original listener reports what was said, he or she could say, He said he saw her in the High Street. I becomes he, because the statement is reported from the point of view of a third person, not from the point of view of the original speaker.

If the original listener reports the statement to Jenny, her becomes you: He said he saw you in the High Street.

The original listener might report the statement to the original speaker. This time, I has to change to you: You said you saw her in the High Street.

You’re crazy.
I told him he was crazy.

Possessive determiners and pronouns change in the same way as personal pronouns in order to keep the same reference. So the following sentences could all report the same question: She asked if he was my brother, She asked if you were my brother, I asked if he was her brother. The original question might have been expressed as Is he your brother?

referring to time

7.62 When reporting, you may need to change time adverbials such as today, yesterday, or next week.

For example, if someone called Jill says I will come tomorrow, you could report this statement the following day as Jill said she would come today. At a later time, you could report the same statement as Jill said she would come the next day or Jill said she would come the following day.

We decided to leave the city the next day.
I was afraid people might think I’d been asleep during the previous twenty-four hours.

referring to places

7.63 You may need to change words that relate to position or place.

For example, if you are talking to a man about a restaurant, he might say I go there every day. If you report his statement while you are actually in the restaurant, you could say He said he comes here every day.

Using reporting verbs to perform an action

7.64 Reporting verbs are often used when people explicitly say what function their statement is performing. They do this using I and the present simple of a verb such as admit or promise that refers to something that is done with words. For example, instead of saying I’ll be there you could say I promise I’ll be there, which makes the statement stronger.

I suggest we draw up a document.
I’ll be back at one, I promise.
I was somewhat shocked, I admit, by these events.

The following verbs can be used in this way:

acknowledge

admit

assure

claim

concede

contend

demand

deny

guarantee

maintain

pledge

predict

promise

prophesy

propose

say

submit

suggest

swear

tell

vow

warn

7.65 Some other verbs that refer to doing something with words are used without a that-clause after them. When used without a that-clause, the use of the present simple with I performs the function of a statement in itself, rather than commenting on another statement.

I apologize for any delay.
I congratulate you with all my heart.
I forgive you.

The following verbs are commonly used in this way:

absolve

accept

accuse

advise

agree

apologize

authorize

baptize

challenge

confess

congratulate

consent

declare

dedicate

defy

forbid

forgive

name

nominate

object

order

pronounce

protest

refuse

renounce

resign

second

sentence

7.66 The verbs in the above lists are sometimes called performative verbs or performatives, because they perform the action they refer to.

USAGE NOTE

7.67 Some of these verbs are used with modals when people want to be emphatic, polite, or tentative.

I must apologize for Mayfield.
I would agree with a lot of their points.
She was very thoroughly checked, I can assure you.
May I congratulate you again on your excellent performance.

Avoiding mention of the person speaking or thinking

7.68 There are several reporting structures that you can use if you want to avoid saying whose opinion or statement you are giving.

use of passives to express general beliefs

7.69 If you want to show or suggest that something is an opinion held by an unspecified group of people, you can use a passive form of a reporting verb with it as the impersonal subject.

It is assumed that the government will remain in power.
In former times it was believed that all enlarged tonsils should be removed.
It is now believed that foreign languages are most easily taught to young children.
It was said that half a million dollars had been spent on the search.

Here is a list of reporting verbs that are used in the passive with it as their subject:

accept

acknowledge

admit

agree

allege

announce

argue

assert

assume

believe

claim

comment

concede

conclude

confirm

consider

decide

decree

discover

estimate

expect

explain

fear

feel

find

foresee

forget

guarantee

hold

hope

imply

know

mention

note

notice

object

observe

predict

propose

realize

recall

reckon

recommend

record

remember

report

request

reveal

rule

rumour

say

state

stipulate

suggest

suppose

think

understand

This structure has much in common with a structure using a passive reporting verb and a to-infinitive clause. In this structure, the main person or thing involved in the reported opinion is put as the subject of the reporting verb.

Intelligence is assumed to be important.
He is said to have died a natural death.
He is believed to have fled to France.

Note that the to-infinitive is most commonly be or have, or a perfect infinitive.

Here is a list of reporting verbs, from the list above, that are also used in this type of structure:

agree

allege

assume

believe

claim

consider

discover

estimate

expect

feel

find

guarantee

hold

know

observe

think

understand

seem and appear

7.70 If you want to say that something appears to be the case, you can use either of the verbs seem and appear. These verbs can be used as reporting verbs followed by a that-clause or they can be used with a to— infinitive. You can use this structure to give your own opinion or that of someone else. The subject of seem or appear is it, used impersonally.

It seemed that she had not been careful enough
It seemed that he had lost his chance to win.
It appears that he followed my advice.

Alternatively, you can use a structure involving seem or appear and a to-infinitive clause. The main person or thing involved in the fact that appears to be true is put as the subject of the reporting verb.

She seemed to like me.
He appears to have been an interesting man.
The system appears to work well.

If you want to mention the person whose viewpoint you are giving, you can add a prepositional phrase beginning with to after seem or appear.

It seemed to Jane that everyone was against her.

USAGE NOTE

7.71 There are a few expressions containing impersonal it that are used as reporting clauses before that-clauses to show that someone suddenly thought of something: It occurred to me, It struck me, and It crossed my mind.

It occurred to her that someone was missing.
It crossed my mind that somebody must have been keeping things secret.

Referring to the speaker and hearer

referring to the speaker

7.72 You usually use a reporting verb to report what one person has said or thought, so the subject of a reporting verb is usually a singular noun.

Henry said that he wanted to go home.
He claimed his health had been checked several times at a clinic.

When you report the statements, opinions, orders, or questions of a group of people, you can use a plural noun or a collective noun as the subject of the reporting verb.

The judges demanded that the race be run again.
The committee noted that this was not the first case of its kind.

When you report what was said on television or radio, or what is printed or written in a newspaper or other document, you can mention the source or means of communication as the subject of a reporting verb.

The newspaper said he was hiding somewhere near Kabul.
His contract stated that his salary would be £50,000 a year.

Note that you can also use say with nouns such as sign, notice, clock, and map as the subject.

The notice said that attendants should not be tipped.
A sign over the door said Dreamland Cafe.
The road map said it was 210 kilometres to the French frontier.

use of the passive

7.73 As explained in paragraph 7.69, when you want to avoid mentioning the person who said something, you can use a reporting verb in the passive.

It was said that some of them had become insane.
He was said to be the oldest man in the firm.

If you want to avoid mentioning the person giving an order or giving advice, you use a passive reporting verb with the person who receives the order or advice as the subject.

Harriet was ordered to keep away from my room.

USAGE NOTE

7.74 If you want to distance yourself from a statement you are making, you can show that you are reporting what someone else has said by using a phrase beginning with according to, rather than using reported speech.

According to Dime, he had strangled Jed in the course of a struggle.

referring to the hearer

7.75 After some reporting verbs that refer to speech, you have to mention the hearer as a direct object. Tell is the most common of these verbs.

I told them you were at the dentist.
I informed her that I was unwell and could not come.
Smith persuaded them that they must support the strike.

You can use these verbs in the passive, with the hearer as the subject.

She had been told she could leave hospital.
Members had been informed that the purpose of the meeting was to elect a new chairman.
She was persuaded to look again.

Here is a list of reporting verbs that must have the hearer as the direct object when they are used with a that-clause:

assure

convince

inform

notify

persuade

reassure

remind

tell

Here is a list of reporting verbs that must have the hearer as the direct object when they are used with a to-infinitive clause:

advise

beg

command

forbid

instruct

invite

order

persuade

remind

teach

tell

urge

warn

verbs with or without the hearer as object

7.76 After a few reporting verbs that refer to speech, you can choose whether or not to mention the hearer.

I promised that I would try to phone her.
I promised Myra I’d be home at seven.
The physicians warned that, without the operation, the child would die.
Thomas warned her that his mother was slightly deaf.

Here is a list of reporting verbs that can be used with or without the hearer as object when used with a that-clause:

ask

promise

teach

warn

Promise can also be used with or without an object when it is used with a to-infinitive. Ask has to be used with an object when it is used with a to-infinitive clause to report a request for the hearer to do something, but it is used without an object when the request is for permission to do something (see paragraphs 7.39 and 7.42).

the hearer in prepositional phrases

7.77 With many other reporting verbs, if you want to mention the hearer, you do so in a prepositional phrase beginning with to.

I explained to her that I had to go home.
‘Margaret’, I said to her, ‘I’m so glad you came.’

Here is a list of reporting verbs that are used with that-clauses or quotes and that need the preposition to if you mention the hearer:

admit

announce

boast

complain

confess

declare

explain

hint

insist

mention

murmur

propose

report

reveal

say

shout

suggest

swear

whisper

Propose and swear can also be used with a to-infinitive, but not if you mention the hearer.

I propose to mention this at the next meeting.

7.78 When you are describing a situation in which a speaker is speaking forcefully to a hearer, you can mention the hearer in a prepositional phrase beginning with at.

The tall boy shouted at them, Choir! Stand still!
Shut up! he bellowed at me.

Here is a list of reporting verbs that are used to describe forceful speech. If you want to mention the hearer, you use a prepositional phrase beginning with at:

bark

bellow

growl

grumble

howl

roar

scream

shout

shriek

snap

storm

thunder

wail

yell

7.79 With verbs that describe situations where both the speaker and the hearer are involved in the speech activity, you can mention the hearer in a prepositional phrase beginning with with.

He agreed with us that it would be better to have no break.
Can you confirm with Ray that this date is ok?

Here is a list of reporting verbs that take the preposition with if you mention the hearer:

agree

argue

confirm

plead

reason

7.80 With verbs that describe situations where someone is getting information from someone or something, you use a prepositional phrase beginning with from to mention the source of the information.

I discovered from her that a woman prisoner had killed herself.

Here is a list of reporting verbs where the source of the information is mentioned using from:

discover

elicit

gather

hear

infer

learn

see

reflexive pronouns

7.81 A reflexive pronoun is sometimes used as the object of a reporting verb or preposition in order to say what someone is thinking. For example, to say something to yourself means to think it rather than to say it aloud.

I told myself that he was crazy.
It will soon be over, I kept saying to myself.

Other ways of indicating what is said

objects with reporting verbs

7.82 Sometimes you use a noun such as question, story, or apology to refer to what someone has said or written. You can use a reporting verb with one of these nouns as its object instead of a reported clause.

He asked a number of questions.
Simon whispered his answer.
He told funny stories and made everyone laugh.
Philip repeated his invitation.

Here is a list of reporting verbs that are often used with nouns that refer to something spoken or written:

accept

acknowledge

ask

begin

believe

continue

demand

deny

expect

explain

forget

guess

hear

imagine

know

lay out

learn

mention

mutter

note

notice

promise

refuse

remember

repeat

report

set down

shout

state

suggest

tell

understand

whisper

write

7.83 Some reporting verbs can have as their objects nouns that refer to events or facts. These nouns are often closely related to verbs. For example, loss is closely related to lose, and instead of saying He admitted that he had lost his passport, you can say He admitted the loss of his passport.

British Airways announce the arrival of flight BA 5531 from Glasgow.
The company reported a 45 per cent drop in profits.

Here is a list of reporting verbs that are often used with nouns that refer to events or facts:

accept

acknowledge

admit

announce

demand

describe

discover

discuss

doubt

expect

explain

fear

foresee

forget

imagine

mean

mention

note

notice

observe

predict

prefer

promise

recommend

record

remember

report

see

sense

suggest

urge

USAGE NOTE

7.84 Note that say is usually only used with an object if the object is a very general word such as something, anything, or nothing.

I must have said something wrong.
The man nodded but said nothing.

prepositional phrases with reporting verbs

7.85 A few verbs referring to speech and thought can be used with a prepositional phrase rather than a reported clause, to indicate the general subject matter of a statement or thought.

Thomas explained about the request from Paris.

Here are three lists of verbs that can be used with a prepositional phrase referring to a fact or subject. In each list, the verbs in the first group are used without an object, and the verbs in the second group are used with an object referring to the hearer. Note that ask and warn can be used with or without an object.

The following verbs are used with about:

agree

ask

boast

complain

decide

dream

explain

forget

grumble

hear

inquire

know

learn

mutter

read

wonder

worry

write

~

ask

teach

tell

warn

No one knew about my interest in mathematics.
I asked him about the horses.

The following verbs are used with of:

complain

dream

hear

know

learn

read

think

warn

write

~

assure

convince

inform

notify

persuade

reassure

remind

warn

They never complained of the incessant rain.
No one had warned us of the dangers.

The following verbs are used with on. None of them take an object referring to the hearer.

agree

comment

decide

determine

insist

remark

report

write

He had already decided on his story.
They are insisting on the release of all political prisoners.

Note that speak and talk are used with about and of but not with reported clauses.

Other ways of using reported clauses

nouns used with reported clauses

7.86 There are many nouns, such as statement, advice, and opinion, that refer to what someone says or thinks. Many of the nouns used in this way are related to reporting verbs. For example, information is related to inform, and decision is related to decide. These nouns can be used in reporting structures in a similar way to reporting verbs. They are usually followed by a reported clause beginning with that.

He referred to Copernicus’ statement that the Earth moves around the sun.
They expressed the opinion that I must be misinformed.
There was little hope that he would survive.

Here is a list of nouns that have related reporting verbs and that can be used with that-clauses:

admission

advice

agreement

announcement

answer

argument

assertion

assumption

belief

claim

conclusion

decision

declaration

dream

expectation

explanation

feeling

guess

hope

information

knowledge

promise

reply

report

response

revelation

rule

rumour

saying

sense

statement

thought

threat

understanding

warning

wish

Some of these nouns can also be followed by a to-infinitive clause:

agreement

claim

decision

hope

promise

threat

warning

wish

The decision to go had not been an easy one to make.
Barnaby’s father had fulfilled his promise to buy his son a horse.

Note that some nouns that are not related to reporting verbs can be followed by that-clauses, because they refer or relate to facts or beliefs. Here is a list of some of these nouns:

advantage

benefit

confidence

danger

disadvantage

effect

evidence

experience

fact

faith

idea

impression

news

opinion

possibility

principle

risk

sign

story

tradition

view

vision

word

He didn’t want her to get the idea that he was rich.
She can’t accept the fact that he’s gone.
Eventually a distraught McCoo turned up with the news that his house had just burned down.