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Grammar as a Part of Language as a Linguistic Discipline.

Grammar as a Part of Language as a Linguistic Discipline.

√ Parts of Grammar;
√ Syntagmatic Paradigmatic Relations;
√ Grammatical Meaning Form.

Parts of Grammar.

According to de Sosur we should differentiate between language & speech. Language is an abstract system of signs or sets of roots (grammatical, syntactic, etc.), which makes the basis of all speaking. Speech — manifestation, of language, «language in use». Where does grammar belong to? To language.

Other parts of language are phonetics & lexicology. It’s true that different parts of language are interconnected & interrelated. One & the same idea can be expressed by different means of language e.g. negation

I don’t like = / hate

The ties between lexicology & grammar are of primary importance because grammatical & lexicological meanings are interdependent. From the course of Normative Grammar we know that certain grammatical functions are possible only for the words whose lexical meaning makes them fit to fulfill these functions.

You need special lexical meaning to make the verb function as a link-verb and part of part of a predicate, e.g. come true, turn red. There is also the reverse case when the grammatical form affects the lexical meaning of a word. e.g. to go, I’m going.

It also happens in a language rather often that a form which was originally grammatical becomes lexicolized. e.g. an iron , iron , irons (окопы); colour — соluors(стяги).

There are also cases of survival of two grammatically equivalent forms of one & the same word. The language keeps them because they acquire different lexical meaning.

They usually call them «etymological synonyms», e.g. brothers, brethren. The ties between lexicology & grammar are particularly strong in a sphere of a word-formation.

What are the main objects of grammatical studies? — A’ word & a sentence. We also single out morphology as a branch of grammar which studies morphemes & structure of words & the rules of word-changing. Combinations of words into groups or sentences are treated under syntax. It’s not always easy to differentiate between them.

Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic Relations.

Every word may be used in a sentence. It can be analyzed from this point of view. e.g.
I read a book & I’m reading a book. We have an action performed by the doer of the action & we can analyze the relations in which the words stand within the sentence.

On the other hand we can analyze the same word «read» as part of system including all other forms of the same word. When we analyze the relations of this particular jform to other forms we analyze the paradigmatic relations, within the sentence — syntagmatic relations.

How many levels are there in Grammar? Are they objective or subjective?

A word may be divided into morphemes, sentence — into phrases, etc!’

Phoneme — phonology;
phonetics — sounds
Morpheme — morphology
Word — grammar,
lexicology,
word-formation, lexicography
Phrase — syntax
Sentence — syntax
Utterance (text, discourse) — syntax

The levels are objective since the units of these levels exist objectively.
So grammatical units enter into two types of relations in the language system :
paradigmatic relations in language & syntagmatic in speech. The system of all grammatical means of one given class constitutes a paradigm.

There is a new approach to the division of grammar into morphology & syntax. According to it morphology should study both paradigmatic & syntagmatic relations of words.

Correspondingly syntax should study both paradigmatic & syntagmatic relations of sentences.

Grammatical Meaning Form.

The basic notions of Grammar are grammatical meaning, form, category. Jhe grammatical meaning is a general abstract meaning, which embraces classes of words in a language.

Grammatical meaning depends on lexical & is connected with objective reality indirectly through the lexical meaning. The grammatical meaning is relative revealed in relations of word-forms. The grammatical meaning is

obligatory it must be expressed if the speaker wants to be understood.

The grammatical meaning must have a grammatical form of expression(inflexions or analytical form or word order)

The term «form» may be used in a wide sense to denote all means of expressing grammatical meaning. It may be also used in a narrow sense to denote means of expressing a particular grammar meaning e.g. plural form, present tense, etc.

Grammatical elements are unities of meaning & form, content & expression. In the language system there is no direct correspondence between meaning & form.

Two or more units of the plane of content may correspond to one unit of the plane of expression (polysemy & homonymy) & two or more units of the plane of expression may correspond to one unit of the plane of content (synonymy).

System is a unity of homogeneous elements. Structure — unity of heterogeneous elements, which make up in their turn the units of higher hierarchy.

In the system of language grammatical elements are connected on the basis of similarity & contrast. Partially similar elements that are having common & distinctive features constitute oppositions (write — wrote, sky — skies, best — worst). Let’s take » pencil — pencils«.

Members of this opposition differ in form & have different grammatical meanings. At the same time they express the same general meaning — number. And this gives us the chance to formulate: the unity of general meaning & its particular manifestation, which is revealed through the oppositions of forms, is a grammatical category.

There may be different definitions of category laying stress either on its notional or formal aspect. But the category exists only if there is an opposition of at least two forms, if one — there is no category.

The minimal or two-member opposition is called binary. Oppositions may be of three main types:

I. Privative (отрицательный).
One member has a certain distinctive feature. This member is called «marked (strong)”. The other is characterized by the absence of this distinctive feature. It’s called “unmarked (weak)” (e.g. speak — speaks).

II. Equipollent (равноценный).
Both members of the opposition are marked (e.g. am — is).

III. Gradual.
Members of the opposition differ by the degree of certain property (e.g. good — better — best)

Most grammatical oppositions are privative. The marked (strong) member has a narrow & definite meaning. The unmarked (weak) member has a wide general meaning.Grammatical forms express meanings of different categories. The form «goes» denotes Present Tense, 3-d person, singular.

Active voice. Indicative mood. These meanings are revealed in different oppositions.

goes	is going has gone will be gone went will be going

But grammatical forms cannot express different meanings of the same category. In certain contexts the difference between members of the opposition is lost.

The opposition is reduced to one member. Usually the weak member acquires the meaning of the strong member (e.g. He leave for Paris tomorrow). This kind of oppositional reduction is called neutralization.

On the other hand the strong member may be used in the context typical for the weak member. Usually this use is stylistically marked e.g.
She is always complaining of her neighbors.
This kind of reduction is called transposition.

Grammatical categories reflect phenomena of objective reality.

The category of number in nouns reflects the essential properties of noun reference. Such categories can ( be called «notional» or «referential»).

Other categories reflect peculiarities of grammatical structure of the language (e.g. number in verbs in English). Such categories may be called «formal» or «relation».’

Besides grammatical or inflectional categories based on the oppositions of forms there are categories based on the oppositions of classes of words.

Such categories are called «lexico-grammatical» or «selective». The formal difference between members of a lexico-grammatical opposition is shown syntagmatically e.g. большой стол.

Grammatical categories may be influenced by the lexical meaning. Such categories as number, case, voice strongly depend on the lexica] meaning. They are proper to certain subclasses of words.

Thus, only objective verbs have the voice opposition, subjective verbs have only one form — that of the weak member of opposition.

Other categories as tense, mood are more abstract. They cover all words of a class.

As grammatical categories reflect relations existing in objective reality, different languages may have the same categories but the system & character of grammatical categories are determined by the grammatical structure of a given language.

Synthetical vs Analytical Forms.

The verb in synthetical form presents an inseparable unity of form & meaning. This unity can’t be broken without the destruction of the word. We have different ways to create synthetical forms in the language. The first one is affixation. Many affixes are polysemantic.

Another device is sound interchange. The third way is suppletivity. The number of morphemes used to derive new forms in the English is rather small.

Many of them are polysemantic. In sound interchange changes take place in frames of one root & suppletive formation involves different roots.

Analytical grammatical forms are those presented by words of full lexical meaning So some formal auxiliary words, which are free (or devoid) of any lexical meaning. This combination functions in the language as the grammatical form of one word e.g. is being written.

But the grammatical meaning of analytical form is not equivalent to the grammatical meaning of the auxiliary verb; it is distributed between auxiliary & the verb-form (or the ending of the verb- form). There are four criteria to establish the difference between the analytical grammatical forms & the free syntactic word combinations:

1. The existence of one purely grammatical element
2. The distribution of the total grammatical meaning between this purely grammatical auxiliary & grammatical ending of the main form.
3. Concentration of the lexical meaning only in one word.
4. The existence of simple synthetical form in the paradigm.

From the structural point of view it is a combination of words which are united according to certain syntactic rales but functionally it is only a form of a certain verb. In other words they are phrases in form & word-forms in function.

The Morphemic Analysis for English Words.

Morphemes, Morphs & Attomorphs.

Morpheme is the smallest meaningful part of a word. It can be free or bound. A word consisting of a single morpheme — monomorphemic, opposite — polymorphic. In terms of structuralism according to Bloomfield“ a word is a minimum free form».

Morphemes are commonly classified into suffixes, prefixes, infixes. According to their meaning & function they can also be subdivided into lexical (roots) lexico-grammatical (word-building affixes) & grammatical or form-building affixes (inflexions).

Morphemes are abstract units represented in speech by morphs or аllomorphs. Most morphemes are realised by single morphemes e.g. un/self/ish. Some morphemes can be manifested by more than one morph according to their position.

Such alternative morphs or positional variants of a morpheme are called allomorphs. Morphemic variants are identified in the text on the basis of their со-occurrence with other morphs or their environment. The total of environments constitutes the distribution.

There may be three types of morphemic distribution: contrastive, non- contrastive & complimentary.

Morphs are in contrastive distribution „ if their position is the same & their meanings are different, g. charming vs charmed).

Morphs are in non-contrastive distribution if their position is the same & their meanings are the same (e.g. learned vs learnt). Such morphs constitute free variants of the same morpheme.

Morphs are in complimentary distribution if their positions are different & their meanings are the same. Such morphs are allomorphs of the same 1 morpheme (e.g. -tion or -sion).

Grammatical meanings may be expressed by the absence of the morpheme (e.g. book- books). The meaning of plurality is expressed by the morpheme «-s», singularity -by the absence of the morpheme.

Such meaningful absence of the morpheme is called zero-morpheme. The function of the morpheme may be performed by a separate word. In the opposition «play — will play» the meaning of the future is expressed by the word «will».

«Will» is a contradictory unit, formally it is a word, functionally — it is a morpheme. As it has the features of a word & a morpheme it is called «a word-morpheme».

Word-morphemes may be called semibound morphemes. Means of form-building & grammatical forms are divided into synthetic & analytical.

Synthetic forms are built with the help of bound-morphemes. All analytical forms are built with the help of semi-bound morphemes.

Synthetic means of form-building are affixation, sound interchange (inner flexion), suppletivity. Typical features of English affixation are ’scarcity & homonymy.

Another characteristic feature is a great number of zero-morphemes.Though English grammatical affixes are few in number, affixation is a productive means of form-building.

Sound interchange may be of two types: vowel & consonant. It is often accompanied by affixation (e.g. bring — brought). Sound interchange is not productive now, but it is used to build the forms of irregular verbs.

Prefixes modify the lexical meaning of the word while suffixes not only change the meaning but also change the form often shifting the word from one part of speech to another.

Sometimes the basic & the resulted forms belong tо the same class of words. In this case we say that a suffix serves to differentiate between subclasses within the same part of speech.

But even a prefix may modify the meaning of word (e.g. to stay — outstay). We have only one infix in English (e.g. stand- stood). In the course of historic development the boundaries between the morphemes may change & in this case words change morphologically.

The main factors of this process: were described by Bogoroditskiy:

Simplification (e.g. Good-bye = God be with you
Decomposition (e.g. dazy = eye of the day)

If a word consists of one root-morpheme it is called a root-word. One root-morpheme + affix constitute a derived word (a derivative e.g. a girl — girlish), two or more roots constitute a compound word (e.g. girl — friend), two or more roots + affix constitute compound derivative (e.g. all-the-madish).

Parts of Speech. Principles of Classification of the Parts of Speech.

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What
is grammar?

Grammar

1.
as
a phenomenon
– a subsystem of language

2.
as
a linguistic discipline
– type of describing/ interpreting the phenomenon

3.
as
a university course – subject
to learn

Subsystems
of language

Subsystems

Disciplines

—
phonetics — phonology

-lexicon/vocabulary
— lexicology

-grammar
— grammar

Expressing
meanings

e.g.
Quantity

-Lexically
-Grammatically

one
this-these

many
dog-dogs

few
ask-asks

one
item 2 items

Grammar
as
a phenomenon

???
!!!!

What
is it is
a subsystem in language which expresses meanings through

What
does it do the opposition of variants of

How
one and the same unit.

Types
of grammar

as
a
linguistic discipline

Descriptive
gr. — WHAT
Prescriptive
gr. — WHAT
Normative
gr. — WHAT (what ко
всем)

Categorial
gr. —
Functional
gr. —
Communiative
— HOW (ко
всем
how, why)
Generative
gr. — WHY
Semantic
gr./ case gr. —
Cognitive
gr. –

Grammar

as
a university course

may
be

WHAT?
HOW? WHY?

practical
theoretical

-describes
the grammatical — gives a scientific
explanation of the

system
of a given nature and
peculiarities of the grammatical

language
system of the
language

Main
units of grammar are a word and a sentence. A word may be divided
into morphemes, a sentence may be divided into phrases (word groups).
A morpheme, a word, a phrase and a sentence are units of different
levels of language structure. A unit of a higher level consists of
one or more units of a lower level.

Units
of grammar

Morpheme
– form building morphemes/ inflections (1)
Word
(2)
Word
group/ phrase (3)
Sentence
(4)
Units
larger than a sentence – supra sentential unities/ supraphrasal
unities/ clause clasters etc. / texts (5)

1,2,3
– Naming function, do not convey any information

4,5
– Nominative and communicative functions; they exist only in speech

Grammatical
units enter into 2 types of relations: in the language system
(paradigmatic relations) and in speech (syntagmatic relations)

Paradigmaic

In
the language system each unit is included into a set of connections
based on different properties .
Ex. Word forms child,
children, child’s, children’s have
the same lexical meaning and have different grammatical meanings.
They constitute a lexeme.

Word-forms
children,
boys, men, books.. have
the same grammatical meaning and have different lexical meanings.
They constitute a grammeme ( a categorical form, a form class).

The
system of all grammemes ( gram. Forms) of all lexemes (words) of a
given class constitutes a
paradigm.

Paradigmatic
relations
– relations outside the lines of the sentence, exist in language

between
classes of language units of a similar structural type or having
similar elements. Ex. Between word- forms of one categorial line –
asking, making, doing OR
between
categorial forms of one unit – ask, asked, has asked, was asked..

Syntagmatic
relations
are the relations in an utterance:

I
like children.

They
are linear relations – we observe them in a line, it means in
speech. They are observed between units in speech

Ex.
Between phonemes within a morpheme : [ɑ:] [s] [k] in asks;

morphemes
within a word: ask- and- ing in asking; words within a sentence

Syntagmatic
connection between words and word groups is called syntactic
relations.( Barkhudarov)

Functions

The
word is
– a unit of language, both gram. and lexicon

—
a semantic and structural unity

—
a ready- made unit

—
a naming unit( used to name smth actions, processes)

NAMING/NOMINATIVE
function

The
sentence is
— a unit of language and a unit of speech

—
not a ready-made unit

—
a naming and communicative unit

NOMINATIVE
AND COMMUNICATIVE functions

Word

Sentence

As
an individual entity – blue as an
event

exam

Exam!

names
a phenomenon (it is real, is
happening right now –

the
time, we know the participants)

names
a situation( an event)

indicates
the time of the event,
shows
whether the event is real or unreal

Main
grammatical units are studied by different sections of grammar :
Morphology and Syntax. Morphology studies the structure, forms and
the classification of words. In other words it studies paradigmatic
relations of words.

gram.
forms making up gram. categories typical of a given part of speech
means
of grammatical word- changing (form-building morphemes)
types
of gram. meanings…

Syntax
studies the structure, forms and the classification of sentences. In
other words it studies syntagmatic relations of words and
paradigmatic relations of sentences.

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Continue Learning about English Language Arts

Is spelling considered part of grammar?

Spelling is not officially a part of grammar.

What is another word for grammar?

another word for grammar would be sentence construction.

Use of word being in english grammar?

Grammar*

What part of grammar is the word why?

«Why» is an interrogative or relative adverb. Originally, it was
the instrumental case of the interrogative or relative pronoun
«what.»

What part of English grammar is the word ‘the’?

«The» is an article. Articles are a kind of determiner. There
are only 3 articles in English — a, an, the

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A part of speech is a term used in traditional grammar for one of the nine main categories into which words are classified according to their functions in sentences, such as nouns or verbs. Also known as word classes, these are the building blocks of grammar.

Parts of Speech

Word types can be divided into nine parts of speech:
nouns
pronouns
verbs
adjectives
adverbs
prepositions
conjunctions
articles/determiners
interjections
Some words can be considered more than one part of speech, depending on context and usage.
Interjections can form complete sentences on their own.

Every sentence you write or speak in English includes words that fall into some of the nine parts of speech. These include nouns, pronouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, articles/determiners, and interjections. (Some sources include only eight parts of speech and leave interjections in their own category.)

Learning the names of the parts of speech probably won’t make you witty, healthy, wealthy, or wise. In fact, learning just the names of the parts of speech won’t even make you a better writer. However, you will gain a basic understanding of sentence structure and the English language by familiarizing yourself with these labels.

Open and Closed Word Classes

The parts of speech are commonly divided into open classes (nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs) and closed classes (pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles/determiners, and interjections). The idea is that open classes can be altered and added to as language develops and closed classes are pretty much set in stone. For example, new nouns are created every day, but conjunctions never change.

In contemporary linguistics, the label part of speech has generally been discarded in favor of the term word class or syntactic category. These terms make words easier to qualify objectively based on word construction rather than context. Within word classes, there is the lexical or open class and the function or closed class.

Read about each part of speech below and get started practicing identifying each.

Noun

Nouns are a person, place, thing, or idea. They can take on a myriad of roles in a sentence, from the subject of it all to the object of an action. They are capitalized when they’re the official name of something or someone, called proper nouns in these cases. Examples: pirate, Caribbean, ship, freedom, Captain Jack Sparrow.

Pronoun

Pronouns stand in for nouns in a sentence. They are more generic versions of nouns that refer only to people. Examples: I, you, he, she, it, ours, them, who, which, anybody, ourselves.

Verb

Verbs are action words that tell what happens in a sentence. They can also show a sentence subject’s state of being (is, was). Verbs change form based on tense (present, past) and count distinction (singular or plural). Examples: sing, dance, believes, seemed, finish, eat, drink, be, became

Adjective

Adjectives describe nouns and pronouns. They specify which one, how much, what kind, and more. Adjectives allow readers and listeners to use their senses to imagine something more clearly. Examples: hot, lazy, funny, unique, bright, beautiful, poor, smooth.

Adverb

Adverbs describe verbs, adjectives, and even other adverbs. They specify when, where, how, and why something happened and to what extent or how often. Examples: softly, lazily, often, only, hopefully, softly, sometimes.

Preposition

Prepositions show spacial, temporal, and role relations between a noun or pronoun and the other words in a sentence. They come at the start of a prepositional phrase, which contains a preposition and its object. Examples: up, over, against, by, for, into, close to, out of, apart from.

Conjunction

Conjunctions join words, phrases, and clauses in a sentence. There are coordinating, subordinating, and correlative conjunctions. Examples: and, but, or, so, yet, with.

Articles and Determiners

Articles and determiners function like adjectives by modifying nouns, but they are different than adjectives in that they are necessary for a sentence to have proper syntax. Articles and determiners specify and identify nouns, and there are indefinite and definite articles. Examples: articles: a, an, the; determiners: these, that, those, enough, much, few, which, what.

Some traditional grammars have treated articles as a distinct part of speech. Modern grammars, however, more often include articles in the category of determiners, which identify or quantify a noun. Even though they modify nouns like adjectives, articles are different in that they are essential to the proper syntax of a sentence, just as determiners are necessary to convey the meaning of a sentence, while adjectives are optional.

Interjection

Interjections are expressions that can stand on their own or be contained within sentences. These words and phrases often carry strong emotions and convey reactions. Examples: ah, whoops, ouch, yabba dabba do!

How to Determine the Part of Speech

Only interjections (Hooray!) have a habit of standing alone; every other part of speech must be contained within a sentence and some are even required in sentences (nouns and verbs). Other parts of speech come in many varieties and may appear just about anywhere in a sentence.

To know for sure what part of speech a word falls into, look not only at the word itself but also at its meaning, position, and use in a sentence.

For example, in the first sentence below, work functions as a noun; in the second sentence, a verb; and in the third sentence, an adjective:

Bosco showed up for work two hours late.
- The noun work is the thing Bosco shows up for.
He will have to work until midnight.
- The verb work is the action he must perform.
His work permit expires next month.
- The attributive noun [or converted adjective] work modifies the noun permit.

Learning the names and uses of the basic parts of speech is just one way to understand how sentences are constructed.

Dissecting Basic Sentences

To form a basic complete sentence, you only need two elements: a noun (or pronoun standing in for a noun) and a verb. The noun acts as a subject and the verb, by telling what action the subject is taking, acts as the predicate.

Birds fly.

In the short sentence above, birds is the noun and fly is the verb. The sentence makes sense and gets the point across.

You can have a sentence with just one word without breaking any sentence formation rules. The short sentence below is complete because it’s a command to an understood «you».

Go!

Here, the pronoun, standing in for a noun, is implied and acts as the subject. The sentence is really saying, «(You) go!»

Constructing More Complex Sentences

Use more parts of speech to add additional information about what’s happening in a sentence to make it more complex. Take the first sentence from above, for example, and incorporate more information about how and why birds fly.

Birds fly when migrating before winter.

Birds and fly remain the noun and the verb, but now there is more description.

When is an adverb that modifies the verb fly. The word before is a little tricky because it can be either a conjunction, preposition, or adverb depending on the context. In this case, it’s a preposition because it’s followed by a noun. This preposition begins an adverbial phrase of time (before winter) that answers the question of when the birds migrate. Before is not a conjunction because it does not connect two clauses.

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Описание презентации по отдельным слайдам:

1 слайд

GRAMMATICAL MEANING
OF THE WORD
2 слайд

1. The problem of word definition.
2. The notion of the word-form.
3. The notion of «grammatical meaning».
4. Types of grammatical meaning.
5. The notion of «grammatical category».
6. The notion of «opposition».

3
3 слайд

1.The Problem of Word Definition

The word is considered to be the central (though not the only) linguistic unit of language.
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4 слайд

The Problem of Word Definition

In the written language words are clearly identified by spaces between them.

3
5 слайд

The Problem of Word Definition

In the spoken language the problem cannot be solved this way.
↓
If we listen to an unfamiliar language, we find it difficult to divide up the speech into single words.

3
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The Problem of Word Definition

Approaches
to the problem of word definition:
the word is a semantic unit, a unit of meaning;
the word is a marked phonological unit;
the word is an indivisible unit.

3
7 слайд

The Problem of Word Definition

Semantic definition of the word:
“…a unit of a particular meaning with a particular complex of sounds capable of a particular grammatical employment».
↓
The word is a linguistic unit that has a single meaning.

3
8 слайд

The Problem of Word Definition

BUT:

heavy smoker ≠ heavy and
smoker
criminal lawyer;
the King of England’s hat.

3
9 слайд

The Problem of Word Definition

The problem:

the word is not always a single unit.

3
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The Problem of Word Definition

A phonological criterion

that stuff that’s tough
a nice cakean ice cake
grey day Grade A
↓

3
11 слайд

The Problem of Word Definition

It is hard to distinguish the real meaning without a proper context.
3
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The Problem of Word Definition

The word as an indivisible unit

“The word is a minimum free form“
(L. Bloomfield)
↓
The word is the smallest unit of speech that can occur in isolation.

3
13 слайд

The Problem of Word Definition

BUT:
a or the

3
14 слайд

The Problem of Word Definition

Thus,
the word is a linguistic unit larger than a morpheme but smaller than a phrase.

3
15 слайд

The Problem of Word Definition

In this case the word can be defined as:

• An orthographic word (something written with white spaces at both ends but no white space in the middle).

3
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The Problem of Word Definition

• A phonological word (something pronounced as a single unit).

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The Problem of Word Definition

• A lexical item, or lexeme, (a dictionary word).

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The Problem of Word Definition

• A grammatical word-form (GWF) (or morphosyntactic word) (any one of the several forms which a lexical item may assume for grammatical purposes).

3
19 слайд

The Problem of Word Definition

The item ice cream is:
two orthographic words,
but
— a single phonological word (it is pronounced as a unit),
— a single lexical item (it has its own entry in a dictionary),
— a single GWF (indeed, it hardly has another form unless you think the plural ice cream is good English).

3
20 слайд

The Problem of Word Definition

The singular dog and the plural dogs:
— a single orthographic word,
— a single phonological word,
a single GWF,
but they both
— represent the same lexical item (only one entry in the dictionary).

3
21 слайд

The Problem of Word Definition

???
take, takes, took, taken, is taking:

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The Problem of Word Definition

take, takes, took, taken and is taking:

— five orthographic words,
— five phonological words,
five GWFs (at least),
but only
— one lexical item.

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The Problem of Word Definition

???
the contraction hasn’t

3
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The Problem of Word Definition

The contraction hasn’t is:

— a single orthographic word,
a single phonological word,
— two lexical items (have and not),
— two GWFs (has and not).

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The Problem of Word Definition

???
The phrasal verb make up (as in She made up her face)

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The Problem of Word Definition

The phrasal verb make up (as in She made up her face):
— two orthographic words,
— two phonological words,
— one lexical item (because of its unpredictable meaning, it must be entered separately in the dictionary).
— has several GWFs (make up, makes up, made up, making up).

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The Problem of Word Definition

???
make up
(She made up a story)

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The Problem of Word Definition

make up (She made up a story):
— a different lexical item from the preceding one (a separate dictionary entry is required),
but
— this lexical item exhibits the same orthographic, phonological and grammatical forms as the first.

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The Problem of Word Definition

So,
the word is not a clearly definable linguistic unit.

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The Problem of Word Definition

For the sake of linguistic description, we will proceed from the following statements:
— the word is a meaningful unit differentiating word-groups at the upper level and integrating morphemes at the lower level;

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The Problem of Word Definition

— the word is the main expressive unit of human language, which ensures the thought-forming function of language;

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The Problem of Word Definition

the word It is also the basic nominative unit of language with the help of which the naming function of language is realized;

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The Problem of Word Definition

in the structure of language the word belongs to the upper stage of the morphological level;

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The Problem of Word Definition

the word is a unit of the sphere of «language» and it exists only through its speech actualization;

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The Problem of Word Definition

one of the most characteristic features of the word is its indivisibility.

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The Problem of Word Definition

the word is a bilateral entity

concept
WORD = ———————
sound image

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2. The Notion of the Word -Form

The term «word-form“ shows that the word is a carrier of grammatical information.
E.g.: speaks — the present tense third
person singular
speak, spoke, is speaking
↓
Here the relational property of grammatical meaning is revealed.

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The Notion of the Word -Form

Grammatical meanings of a word-form are very abstract and general.
They are peculiar of a whole class of words, unite it so that each word of the class expresses the corresponding grammatical meaning together with its individual, concrete semantics.

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The Notion of the Word -Form

E.g.:
the meaning of the plural is rendered by the regular plural suffix –(e)s, phonemic interchange and a few lexeme-bound suffixes.

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The Notion of the Word -Form

Due to the generalized character of the plural, we say that different groups of nouns «take» this form with strictly defined variations in the mode of expression.
The variations can be of more systemic (phonological conditioning) and less systemic (etymological conditioning) nature.

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The Notion of the Word -Form

Cf.: faces, branches, matches, judges;
books, rockets, boats, chiefs, proofs;
dogs, beads, films, stones, hens;
lives, wives, thieves, leaves;
oxen, children, brethren;
swine, sheep, deer;
men, women, feet, teeth, geese, mice, lice;
formulae, antennae;
data, errata, strata, addenda, memoranda;
radii, genii, nuclei;
crises, bases, analyses, axes;
phenomena, criteria.

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The Notion of the Word -Form

The lexical meaning of the word is irrelevant for the detection of the type of the word-form.

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The Notion of the Word -Form

A word-form may be analytical by structure. In this case it is equivalent to one word as it expresses one unified content of a word, both from the point of view of grammatical and lexical meaning.
E.g.: has spoken

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The Notion of the Word -Form

Words (as well as morphemes) are directly observable units by nature as they are characterized by a definite material structure of their own.

They can be registered and enumerated in any language.

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The Notion of the Word -Form

The system of morphological units is a closed system. It means that all its items are on the surface and can be embraced in an inventory of forms.

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The Notion of the Word -Form

Every word is a unit of grammar as a part of speech.

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The Notion of the Word -Form

Parts of speech are usually considered a lexico-grammatical categories since:
they show lexical groupings of words;
these groupings present generalized classes, each with a unified, abstract meaning of its own.

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3. The Notion of Grammatical Meaning

Notional words combine two meanings in their semantic structure:
lexical;
grammatical.

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The Notion of Grammatical Meaning
Lexical meaning is the individual meaning of the word
E.g.: table — a definite piece of furniture with a flat top supported by one or more upright legs,
speak – to express thoughts aloud, using the voice.

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The Notion of Grammatical Meaning
Grammatical (morphological) meaning is not individual.
↓
It is the meaning of the whole class or a subclass
E.g.: table (grammatical meaning of the class of nouns (thingness / substance) and the grammatical meaning of a subclass – countableness).

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?

What are grammatical meanings of:
— verbs;
adjectives;
adverbs?

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The Notion of Grammatical Meaning

There are some classes of words that are devoid of any lexical meaning and possess the grammatical meaning only.

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The Notion of Grammatical Meaning

Function words

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4.Types of Grammatical Meaning

The grammatical meaning may be:

explicit;
implicit.
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Types of Grammatical Meaning
The implicit grammatical meaning is not expressed formally

E.g.: table (the meaning of inanimate object)

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Types of Grammatical Meaning
The explicit grammatical meaning is always marked morphologically
E.g.: -s in cats (the grammatical meaning of plurality);
‘s in cat’s (the grammatical meaning of possessiveness);
is …ed in is asked (the grammatical meaning of passiveness)

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Types of Grammatical Meaning
Types of the implicit grammatical meaning:
general
dependent

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Types of Grammatical Meaning
general (the meaning of the whole word-class, of a part of speech)
E.g.: thingness of nouns

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Types of Grammatical Meaning
dependent (the meaning of a subclass within the same part of speech)
E.g.: the verb (transitivity/ intransitivity,
terminativeness / non-terminativeness,
stativeness / non-stativeness);
the noun (countableness / uncountableness,
animateness / inanimateness)

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Types of Grammatical Meaning
The dependent grammatical meaning influences the realization of grammatical categories restricting them to a subclass.
E.g.: the number category for the subclass of countable nouns;
the category of case for the subclass of animated nouns;
the category of voice for transitive verbs, etc.

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Types of Grammatical Meaning

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5. The Notion of Grammatical Category

A grammatical category is a linguistic category which has the effect of modifying the forms of some class of words in a language.

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The Notion of Grammatical Category
Its structure displays two or more forms applied to a definite class of words and used in somewhat different grammatical circumstances.
↓↓

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The Notion of Grammatical Category
Grammatical categories are made up by the unity of identical grammatical meanings that have the same form and meaning
E.g. singular : plural

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The Notion of Grammatical Category
Due to dialectal unity of language and thought, grammatical categories correlate, on the one hand, with the conceptual categories and, on the other hand, with the objective reality:

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The Notion of Grammatical Category
Thus,
grammatical categories are references of the corresponding objective categories.
E.g.: the objective category of time →
the grammatical category of tense,
the objective category of quantity → the grammatical category of number.

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The Notion of Grammatical Category

Grammatical categories that have references in the objective reality are referential.
Objective correlate
↓
Lingual correlate

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The Notion of Grammatical Category
Grammatical categories that do not correspond to anything in the objective reality and correlate only with conceptual matters are significational. They are few (e.g. the categories of mood and degree).
Conceptual correlate
↓
Lingual correlate

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The Notion of Grammatical Category
Classifications of Gr. Categories

According to the referent relation:
immanent;
— reflective.
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The Notion of Grammatical Category
Immanent gr. categories are:
1) innate for a given lexemic class, organically connected with its functional nature
E.g.: the number category of nouns,
the substantive-pronominal person
2) closed within a word-class
E.g.: the tense category of verbs,
the comparison of adjectives and adverbs

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The Notion of Grammatical Category

Reflective gr. categories are of a secondary, derivative semantic value
E.g.: the number category of verbs,
the verbal person

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The Notion of Grammatical Category
2. According to the changeability of the exposed feature
— unchangeable / derivational (constant feature categories)
E.g.: the gender category of nouns represented by the system of the 3rd person pronouns
— changeable / demutative (variable feature categories)
E.g.: the number category of nouns,
the degrees of comparison

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The Notion of Grammatical Category

NB:
1. The notion of grammatical category applies to the plane of content of morphological paradigmatic units;

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The Notion of Grammatical Category

2. It refers to grammatical meaning as a general notion;

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The Notion of Grammatical Category

3. It does not nominate things but expresses relations, that is why it has to be studied in terms of oppositions;

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The Notion of Grammatical Category

4. Grammatical categories of language represent a realization of universal categories produced by human thinking in a set of interrelated forms organized as oppositions;

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The Notion of Grammatical Category

5. Grammatical categories are not uniform, they vary in accordance with the part of speech they belong to and the meaning they express;

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The Notion of Grammatical Category

6. The expression of grammatical categories in language is based upon close interrelation between their forms and the meaning they convey.

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6. The Notion of Opposition

The concept of opposition is that it distinguishes something.

↓
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The Notion of Opposition
One thing can be distinguished from another only if it can be contrasted with something else or opposed to it.

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The Notion of Opposition

Any grammatical category must be represented by at least two grammatical forms
E.g. the grammatical category of number: singular and plural forms.

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The Notion of Opposition
Thus,
the relation between two grammatical forms that differ in meaning and external signs is called opposition.

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The Notion of Opposition
The most widely known opposition is the binary «privative» opposition.

In it one member of the contrastive pair is characterized by the presence of a certain feature which the other member lacks

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The Notion of Opposition
E.g. table::tables
↓ ↓
“unmarked” “marked”
(weak) member (strong) member
↓ ↓
non-plural plural
↓ ↓
more general and abstract more particular and
concrete
(used in a wider range of contexts)

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The Notion of Opposition
FYI:
Some scholars, however, hold the opinion that oppositions can be
gradual (different degree of a feature)
E.g.: big — bigger — biggest
equipollent (different positive features)
E.g.: am — is — are.

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The Notion of Opposition

NB:
A grammatical category is definable only on the basis of oppositions.

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The Notion of Opposition

Means of realization of grammatical categories:
synthetic (near — nearer);
analytical (beautiful — more beautiful).

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