What is word formation ppt

MODERN ENGLISH LEXICOLOGY Word-Formation in Modern English

Problems for discussion l l l l l The notion of “word-formation” The notion of “derivational pattern” Derivation (affixation) Composition Conversion Shortening Sound interchange Distinctive stress Sound imitation

What is “word-formation”? Word-formation is the system of structural types of words and the process of creating new words from the material available in the language after certain structural and semantic formulas and patterns.

What is a “word-building pattern”? The word-building pattern is a structural and semantic formula more or less regularly reproduced, a meaningful arrangement that imposes rigid rules on the order and nature of the derivational bases and affixes that may be brought together.

What does a word-building pattern signal? l l l the type of the derivational element; order of the base and derivational elements; direction of the derivation: prf- + n; l the part of speech of the derivative: prf- + n V; l the lexical sets and semantic features of the derivatives;

What does the combining power (valency) of word building elements depend on? phono-morphological factors (–ance/-ence occurs only after b, t, d, dz, v, l, r, m, n); v morphological factors (-able can be added to verbs to form adjectives); v semantic factors (-ness (in nouns) the condition, quality, or degree of being: loudness). v

AFFIXATION Prefixation prefix + stem of a definite part of speech Suffixation stem of a definite part of speech + suffix

Prefixation What does a prefix do? q changes the lexical meaning of the same part of speech: valuable : : invaluable; q forms one part of speech from another: college – N; postcollege – Adj.

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFYING PREFIXES

According to the lexical meaning (semantic classification) a) prefixes of negative meaning: in- (invaluable), non(nonformals), un- (unfree); b) prefixes denoting repetition: re- (revegetation); c) prefixes denoting reversal actions: de- (decolonize); d) prefixes denoting time: ex- (ex-student), pre- (pre-election) e) prefixes denoting space: inter- (interplanetary) ; f) prefixes denoting degree relations: hyper- (hypertension), over- (overdrugging).

According to origin l l native prefixes: un-, over-, under-; borrowed prefixes: Greek prefixes sym-, hyper-;

According to productivity l l Highly productive; Productive (un-, re-, dis- ); Semi-productive; Non-productive.

According to the number of meanings monosemantic: agro- : concerning farming: agrobiology l polysemantic: mis 1) bad or badly: misfortune; 2) wrong or wrongly: a miscalculation; 3) showing an opposite or the lack of something: to mistrust. o

Suffixation What does a suffix do? Ш forms one part of speech from another: educate — verb, educatee — noun Ш changes the lexical meaning of the same part of speech: music : : musicdom.

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFYING SUFFIXES

Part-of-speech classification a) noun-forming suffixes: -er (criticizer), -dom (officialdom), ism (ageism); b) adjective-forming suffixes: -able (breathable), less (symptomless), -ous (prestigious); c) verb-forming suffixes: -ize (computerize) , -ify (micrify); d) adverb-forming suffixes: -ly (singly), -ward (tableward); e) numeral-forming suffixes: -teen (sixteen), -ty (seventy).

Semantic classification Noun-forming suffixes can denote: a) the agent of the action: -er (experimenter), -ist (taxist), -ent (student); b) nationality: -ian (Russian), -ese (Japanese), -ish (English); c) collectivity: -dom (moviedom), -ry (peasantry, -ship (readership), ati ( literati); d) diminutiveness: -ie (horsie), -let (booklet), -ling (gooseling), ette (kitchenette); e) quality: -ness (copelessness), -ity (answerability).

According to the lexico-grammatical character of the stem to which they are added a) suffixes added to verbal stems: -er (commuter), ing (suffering), — able (flyable), -ment (involvement), ation (computerization); b) suffixes added to noun stems: -less (smogless), ful (roomful), -ism (adventurism), -ster (pollster), -nik (filmnik), -ish (childish); c) suffixes added to adjective stems: -en (weaken), ly (pinkly), -ish (longish), -ness (clannishness).

According to productivity l l Highly productive; Productive: -er, -ize, -ly, -ness; Semi-productive: -eer, -ette, -ward; Non-productive: -ard (drunkard), -th (length).

According to origin l l native suffixes: -er, -ful, -less, -ly; borrowed suffixes: Greek suffixes -ist, -ism, -ize; Russian suffix –nik (narodnik, sputnik, lunnik);

According to the number of meanings monosemantic: — nik: a person who is connected with or keen on: a peacenik = someone who supports peace. o polysemantic: -y: 1) composed of, full of (bony, stony); 2) characterized by (rainy, cloudy); 3) having the character of, resembling what the base denotes (inky, bushy). l

COMPOSITION

The relations of the members to each other steamboat = a large boat that moves by steam power steamboat determining part determined (basic) part determinatum determinant

Endocentric compounds sunbeam = beam that shines down from the sunbeam determinatum determinant

Exocentric compounds killjoy — someone who makes it difficult for other people to enjoy themselves = someone who kills joy killjoy determinant

The relation of the meaning of the whole compound to the meaning of its members Transparent compounds Hairbrush — a brush for arranging hair and making it tidy Dancing-hall – a large room where people practise dancing Idiomatic compounds Blackboard – a dark smooth surface (usually black or green) used especially in schools for writing or drawing on, usually with chalk Blackmail , v — the crime of making someone give you money or do what you want by threatening to tell people embarrassing information about them

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPOUNDS

According to the part of speech 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) nouns: baby-moon, globe-trotter; adjectives: free-for-all, power-happy; verbs: to honey-moon, to baby-sit, to henpeck; adverbs: downdeep, headfirst; prepositions: into, within; numerals: fifty-five.

According to the way components are joined together 1. neutral: ball-point, to windowshop; 2. morphological: astrospace, handicraft, sportsman; 3. syntactical: here-and-now, free-for-all. , do-or-die.

According to their structure 1) 2) 3) 4) compound words proper: to job-hunt, train-sick, go-go; derivational compounds: ear-minded, hydroskimmer; compounds consisting of more than 2 stems: cornflower-blue, eggshell-thin, singer-songwriter; compound-shortened words: boatel, tourmobile, VJ-day, motocross, intervision, Eurodollar, Camford.

According to the relations between the components 1. subordinative compounds: a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) with comparative relations: honey-sweet, eggshell-thin; with limiting relations: breast-high, knee-deep; with emphatic relations: dog-cheap; with objective relations: gold-rich; with cause relations: love-sick; with space relations: top-heavy; with time relations: spring-fresh; with subjective relations: foot-sore.

According to the relations between the components 2. coordinative compounds: secretary-stenographer woman-doctor Oxbridge fifty-fifty no-no criss-cross walkie-talkie.

According to the order of the components 1. compounds with direct order kill-joy 2. compounds with indirect order: nuclear-free rope-ripe

A compound or a free phrase? l l l Graphic criteria: airline, air-line, air line; Phonological criteria: `ice-cream, `ice `cream; Semantic criteria: “tallboy” — a chest of drawers supported by a low stand; “a tall boy” – a high male child; Morphological criteria: a chatter-box – two chatterboxes; Syntactic criteria: Do you see that tall boy? They bought a new tallboy.

Conversion

Approaches to treating nature and character of conversion morphological (Prof. A. I. Smirntitsky) paradigm of a noun paradigm of a verb: l dial, n — a dial, dials to dial, v — I dial, he dials, dialed, dialing morphologico-syntactical (A. Marchand) Change of the paradigm + change of the syntactic function l I need some good paper for my room. I paper my room every year. l syntactic (functional approach)

Conversion is the process of coining a new word in a different part of speech, with new meaning and with a different distribution characteristics — new syntactic function and paradigm — without adding any derivative element. I. B. Arnold

The most frequent types of conversion noun verb The man pocketed his change and went away. verb noun She only wanted to want such wants for her soul’s sake. adjective noun She’s a dear! adjective verb He negatived the idea emphatically. form words nouns — No whys, Hastings – there will be time for that later. whys

Semantic relations within a conversion pair N V a) instrumental meaning: to eye, to finger, to hammer; b) an action characteristic of the living being denoted by the noun from which they have been converted: to crowd, to wolf, to ape; c) acquisition, addition or deprivation: to fish, to dust, to paper; d) an action performed at the place denoted by the noun from which they have been converted: to garage, to bottle, to corner; e) an action performed at the time denoted by the noun from which they have been converted: to winter, to week-end.

Criteria of semantic derivation (A. I. Smirnitsky, P. A. Soboleva) 1. Compare the lexical meaning of the root morpheme and the lexicogrammatical meaning of the stem. If they coincide, the word is primary: pen, n — to pen, v

2. Compare a converted pair with a synonymic word pair which was formed by means of suffixation: chat, n — chat, v conversation, n – converse, v

3. If the root stem of the word-cluster has suffixes added to a noun stem the noun is primary in the converted pair and vica versa: hand, n — hand, v handy, handful

Shortening Clipping initial medial Blending final Back-formation

Clipping prof (professor), ad (advertisement), poli-sci (political science), phys-ed (physical education), disco (dicotheque), expo (exposition), intro (introduction) mike (microphone), Coke (coca-cola), fax( facsimile), teck (technical college), trank (tranquilizer).

Blending motel = motor + hotel, brunch = breakfast + lunch, selectric = select + electric, dancercise = dance + exercise.

Back-formation to accreditate (from accreditation), to bach (from bachelor), to collocate (from collocation), to enthuse (from enthusiasm), to compute (from computer), to emote (from emotion), to reminisce (from reminiscence), to televise (from television)

Abbreviation Graphical abbreviation a. m. — in the morning (ante meridiem), No — number (numero), p. a. — a year (per annum), d — penny (dinarius), lb — pound (libra), i. e. — that is (id est)

Abbreviation Initial abbreviation a) initialisms with alphabetical reading: UK, BUP, CND; b) initialisms which are read as if they are words: UNESCO, UNO, NATO; c) initialisms which coincide with English words in their sound form (acronyms): CLASS — Computorbased Laboratory for Automated School System.

Sound Interchange food, n – feed, v; speak, v – speech, n; life, n – live, v; strong, adj. – strength, n;

Stress Interchange `accent — to ac`cent, to af`fix -`affix, to con`flict- `conflict, to ex`port -`export, to ex`tract — `extract.

Sound Imitation a) sounds produced by human beings: to whisper, to giggle, to mumble, to sneeze, to whistle; b) sounds produced by animals, birds, insects: to hiss, to buzz, to bark, to moo, to twitter; c) sounds produced by nature and objects: to splash, to rustle, to clatter, to bubble, to ding-dong, to tinkle.

Presentation on theme: «WORD FORMATION.»— Presentation transcript:

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WORD FORMATION

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СЛОВООБРАЗОВАНИЕ (WORD-BUILDING)
В английском языке имеется несколько способов словообразо­вания: 1) конверсия (образование новых слов без изменения их написания и произношения) 2) словосложение (образова­ние нового слова путем сложения двух слов в одно) 3) изменение ударения в слове (и получение нового слова другой части речи). 4) аффиксация (прибавление к корню суффикса или префикса)

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Словообразование с помощью аффиксации.
  Словообразование с помощью аффиксации. Prefixes Meaning Examples anti — = against antisocial bi — = two biannual co — = with co-driver ex- = previous, former ex-husband inter- = between international mis- = done wrongly or badly misbehave mono- = one monorail multi- =many multinational non- = not non-fiction out- = more, better outnumber

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Словообразование с помощью аффиксации.
Prefixes Meaning Examples over- = done to a great extent overwork post = after postdate pre- = before prehistoric pro- = in favour of pro-government re- = again redecorate semi- = half semi-final sub- = under, less submarine super- =big, more superhuman trans- = travel from one side , to another transcontinental under- = not enough undercooked

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Словообразование с помощью аффиксации.
To express opposite meaning: de defrost, decompose dis dishonest, dislike in indirect, independent But: il- (before l ) illogical im- (before m, p) immoral, impractical ir- (before r) irresponsible But: unreliable, unreasonable non non-smoke, non-stop un unacceptable, unemployed

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Ex. 1. Переведите следующие слова, выделите в них суффиксы и префиксы
Untrue, prehistoric, ultramodern, postwar, ex-champion, anti-body, de­compose, decode, deform, depart, discover, disappearance, reread, re­construct, coauthor, unequal, misunderstand, undress, disarm, anti-fascist, cooperation, co-existence, interaction, superhuman, ultra-violet.

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Suffixes Nouns referring to people
Verb + er/or/ar teach-teacher; sail-sailor; Noun/ verb/ adjective + ist motor-motorist; tour-tourist; Verb + ant/ ent study-student; Noun + an/ ian republic-republican; library librarian

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Suffixes Nouns formed from verbs -age pack- package -al refuse-refusal
-ance accept-acceptance -ation realize-realization -ence differ-difference -ion revise-revision -ment enjoy-enjoyment -sion comprehend-comprehension -sis hypnotise -hypnosis -tion prescribe- prescription

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Suffixes Nouns formed from adjectives -ance important-importance
-ance important-importance -cy vacant-vacancy -ence competent-competence -ion desolate-desolation -ness lonely-loneliness -ity formal-formality -ty loyal-loyalty -y modest-modesty

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Suffixes Adjectives formed from nouns -ous fame-famous
-ous fame-famous -al addition-additional -ic hero-heroic -ive expense-expensive -ful (with) care-careful -less (without) care-careless -y health-healthy -ly friend-friendly

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Suffixes Adjectives formed from verbs -able like-likable
-able like-likable -ible defend-defensible -ive conclude-conclusive Verbs formed from adjectives -en light-lighten -ise legal-legalise

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Achievement — achieve, resistance — resistant,
Ex. 2. Определите, к какой части речи относятся следующие слова. Переведите их: Achievement — achieve, resistance — resistant, assistance — assist — assistant, celebration — celebrate, difference — different, city — citizen, na­tion — national — nationality, measure — measurement, develop — develop­ment, act — active — activity, contain — container, discover — discovery — dis­coverer, literature — literary, graduate — graduation — undergraduate — post-graduate, educate — education, progress — progressive, act — action — activity — active, govern — governor — government.

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Ex. З. Образуйте от данных глаголов существительные с по­мощью суффикса -ег или -or. Переведите на русский язык: to lead, to write, to read, to visit, to speak, to sleep, to act, to direct, to conduct, to drive, to fight, to mine, to report, to sing, to skate, to swim, to teach, to travel, to sail, to invent, to found, to compose.

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Образуйте от данных глаголов существительные с помощью суффикса -ment
Develop, achieve, move, arrange, treat, state, improve, agree, equip, govern, require, measure, announce, pave. Образуйте прилагательные с помощью суффиксов -ful и -less, переведите их на русский язык: Beauty, thank, hope, doubt, care, aim, use, shape, fruit, power, thought, harm, colour.

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Образуйте прилагательные с помощью суффиксов -able, -ible, переведите их на русский язык:
Change, convert, prevent, break, compare, desire, profit, read, comfort, respect, expect Образуйте наречия с помощью суффикса -lу и переведите их Bad, first, part, quick, strong, short, silent, rapid, wide, extreme, cruel, kind, happy

1. LECTURE 4 WORD STRUCTURE AND WORD FORMATION www.philology.bsu.by/кафедры/кафедра английского языкознания/учебные материалы/кафедра английского языкознания/папки преп

LEXICOLOGY COURSE
LECTURE 4
WORD STRUCTURE AND
WORD FORMATION
www.philology.bsu.by/кафедры/кафедра английского
языкознания/учебные материалы/кафедра английского
языкознания/папки преподавателей/Толстоухова В.Ф.

2. The questions under consideration

1. Morpheme. Allomorph
2. Word Structure
3. Immediate Constituents Analysis
4. Affixation
5. Conversion
6. Word-Composition
6.1. Properties of compounds
7. Other Types of Word Formation

3. Word-formation (definition)

Word-formation is the branch of
lexicology that studies
the derivative structure of existing words
and
the patterns on which a language builds
new words.
It is a certain principle of classification of
lexicon and
one of the main ways of enriching the
vocabulary.

4. Word-formation is studied

synchronically
Scholars investigate
the existing system
of the types of wordformation
Diachronically
Scholars investigate
the history of wordformation

5. 1. Morpheme. Allomorph

The smallest unit of language that carries
information about meaning or function is
the morpheme.
(Greek morphe «form»
+ -eme «the smallest distinctive unit»)

6. Examples of morphemes

BUILD+ER
build (with the meaning of «construct»)
-er (which indicates that the entire word
functions as a noun with the meaning
«one who builds»).
HOUSE+S
house (with the meaning of «dwelling»)
-s (with the meaning «more than one»)

7. simple words vs complex words

and
boy — boy-s
hunt — hunt-er —hunt-er-s
act act-ive — act-iv-ate ––re-act-iv-ate
Simple words cannot be divided into
smaller parts. Complex words contain
two or more morphemes.

8. morphemes are two-facet language units

A morpheme is a meaning and a stretch
of sound joined together.
It is the minimum meaningful language
unit.

9. Structure of morphemes

free morpheme
(can be a word by
itself,
coincides with the
stem or a word-form)
bound morpheme
(must be attached to
another element,
only can be a part of
a word )

10. allomorphs (from Greek allos «other»)

allomorphs (from Greek allos
«other»)
All the representatives of the given
morpheme are called allomorphs of that
morpheme.
An allomorph is a positional variant of
that or this morpheme occurring in a
specific environment.

11. Examples of allomorphs

an orange, an accent, a car
cats, dogs, judges (the plural morpheme –
s)
assert /assert-ion, permit/permiss-ive,
include/inclus-ive, electric/electric-ity,
impress/impress-ion

12. 2. Word Structure

Words that can be divided have two or
more parts:
a root
affixes (a prefix, a suffix )
inflection

13. Word Structure

A root constitutes the core of the word
and carries the major component of its
meaning. It has more specific and
definite meaning
Affixes are morphemes that modify the
meaning of the root. An affix added
before the root is called a prefix (unending); an affix added after the root is
called a suffix (kind-ness).

14. Examples of word structure

un-work-able
govern-ment
fright-en-ing
re-play
A word may have one or more affixes of
either kind, or several of both kinds.

15. A base

A base is the form to which an affix is
added. In many cases, the base is also the
root. In other cases, however, the base
can be larger than a root.
Blackened
Blacken (verbal base) +ed
Blacken
Black (not only the root for the entire word
but also the base for) +en

16. suffixes vs inflections

Suffixes can form a new part of speech,
e.g.: beauty — beautiful. They can also
change the meaning of the root, e.g.:
black — blackish.
Inflections are morphemes used to
change grammar forms of the word, e.g.:
work — works — worked—working.
English is not a highly inflected language.

17. Four structural types of words in English

simple (root) words consist of one root
morpheme and an inflexion (boy, warm, law,
tables, tenth);
derived words consist of one root
morpheme, one or several affixes and an
inflexion (unmanageable, lawful);
compound words consist of two or more root
morphemes and an inflexion (boyfriend,
outlaw);
compound-derived words consist of two or
more root morphemes, one or more affixes
and an inflexion (left-handed, warm-hearted,
blue-eyed).

18. Two main types of word-formation

word-derivation
(encouragement,
irresistible, worker)
Subdivided into
Affixation
Conversion
Derivational
Composition
word-composition
(blackboard,
daydream, weekend)
Subdivided into
• Derivational
Composition

19. 3. Immediate Constituents Analysis (L. Bloomfield)

Why is it used? (to discover the
derivational structure of lexical units).
How? First we separate a free and a
bound forms. At any level we obtain only
two ICs.

20. Ungentlemanly

1.un— + gentlemanly
2. gentleman + -ly
3. gentle + man
4. as a result, un + (gentle + man) + ly

21. eatable uneatable

eatable
The adjective eatable
consists of two ICs
eat + able and may
be described as a
suffixal derivative
uneatable
the adjective
uneatable is a
prefixal derivative
(the two ICs are un +
eatable)

22. 4. Affixation is a basic means of forming words

suffixation
• is characteristic of
noun and adjective
formation
• does not only modify
the lexical meaning
of the stem,
• but transfers the
word to another part
of speech care (n) /
care — less (adj).
prefixation
• is typical of verb
formation
modifies the lexical
meaning of stems
• joins the part of
speech the
unprefixed word
belongs to, e.g. usual
/un — usual.

23. classification of suffixes

their origin
meaning
part of speech they form
productivity

24. according to their origin:

Romanic (e.g. -age, -ment, -tion),
Native (-er, -dom, -ship),
Greek (-ism, -ize), etc

25. according to their meaning :

-er denotes the agent of the action,
-ess denotes feminine gender,
-ence/ance has abstract meaning,
-age, -dom — collectivity

26. according to their part of speech they form :

noun suffixes -er, -ness, -ment;
adjective-forming suffixes -ish, -ful, -less,
-y;
verb-suffixes -en, -fy,

27. according to their productivity :

What is productivity? It is the relative
freedom with which they can combine
with bases of the appropriate category
productive suffixes are -er, -ly, -ness, ie, -let,
non-productive (-dom, -th)
semi-productive (-eer, -ward).

28. Classification of Prefixes

their origin
meaning
productivity

29. according to their origin:

Native, e.g. un-;
Romanic, e.g. in-;
Greek, e.g. sym-;

30. according to meaning

negative prefixes in-, un-, поп-, a-, dis-;
prefixes of time and order ex-, neo-, after, fore-, post-, proto-;
prefix of repetition re-;
size and degree: hyper-, mega-, mini-,
super-, sur-, ultra-, vice-, etc

31. according to productivity

What is productivity? It is the ability to
make new words:
e.g. un- is highly productive.

32. 5. Conversion (definition)

It is a kind of word formation.
The process of making new parts of
speech without the addition of an affix.
It is a productive way of forming words
in English.
It is sometimes called zero derivation.

33. Examples of coversion

He was knocked out in the first round.
Round the number off to the nearest
tenth.
The neighbors gathered round our
barbecue.
The moon was bright and round.
People came from all the country round.

34. Conversion

Prof. Smirnitsky A. I. in his works on the
English language treats conversion as a
morphological way of forming words.
Other linguists (H. Marchand, V.N.
Yartseva, Yu.A. Zhluktenko, A.Y.
Zagoruiko, I.V. Arnold) treat conversion
as a combined morphological and
syntactic way of word-building, as a new
word appears not in isolation but in a
definite environment of other words.

35. The three most common types of conversion

verbs derived from nouns (to butter, to
ship),
nouns derived from verbs (a survey, a
call),
verbs derived from adjectives (to empty).

36. Less common types of conversion

nouns from:
adjectives (a bitter, the poor, a final),
from phrases, e.g. a down-and-out,
verbs from prepositions (up the price, out
e.g. diplomats were outed from the
country; Truth will out. — Истина станет
известной)

37. Verbs converted from nouns

instrumental use of the object, e.g.
screw — to screw, eye — to eye;
action characteristic of the object, e.g.
ape — to ape;
acquisition: fish — to fish;
deprivation of the object, e.g. dust — to
dust

38. Nouns converted from verbs

instance of an action, e.g. to move — a
move;
word — agent of an action, e.g. to bore
— a bore;
place of an action, e.g. to walk — a
walk;
result of the action, e.g. to cut — a cut

39. 6.Word-Composition

Word-composition is the combination of
two or more existing words to create a
new word
e.g. campsite (N+N), bluebird (A+N),
whitewash (A+V), in-laws (P+N), jumpsuit
(V+N).

40. Word-Composition

In most compounds the rightmost
morpheme determines the category of
the entire word,
e.g. greenhouse is a noun because its
rightmost component is a noun,
spoonfeed is a verb because feed also
belongs to this category, and
nationwide is an adjective just as wide is.

41. 6.1. Properties of compounds

How can compounds in English be
written? — Differently:
as single words,
with an intervening hyphen,
as separate words.

42. endocentric compounds

If a compound denotes a subtype of the
concept denoted by its head it is called
endocentric.
Thus, cat food is a type of food, sky blue is a
type of blue
airplane, steamboat, policeman, bathtowel

43. exocentric compounds

If the meaning of the compound does not
follow from the meanings of its parts it is
said to be exocentric
e.g. redneck is a person and not a type of
neck;
walkman is a type of portable radio.

44. Classification of compounds according to the principle

1) of the parts of speech compound words
represent:
nouns: night-gown, waterfall, looking-glass;
verbs: to honeymoon, to outgrow;
adjectives: peace-loving, hard-working,
pennywise;
adverbs: downstairs, lip-deep;
prepositions: within, into, onto;
numerals: thirty-seven;

45. Classification of compounds according to the principle

2.of the means of composition used to link the
two ICs together:
neutral — formed by joining together two
stems without connecting elements
(juxtaposition), e.g. scarecrow, goldfish,
crybaby;
morphological — components are joined by a
linking element, i.e. vowels ‘o’ and ‘i’ or the
consonant ‘s’, e.g. videophone, tragicomic,
handicraft, craftsman, microchip;
syntactical — the components are joined by
means of form-word stems, e.g. man-of-war,
forget-me-not, bread-and-butter, face-to-face;

46. 7. Other Types of Word Formation

back-formation or disaffixation (baby-sitter —
to baby-sit). Back-formation is a process that
creates a new word by removing a real or
supposed affix from another word in the
language.
sound interchange (speak — speech, blood —
bleed), and sound imitation (walkie-talkie, brag
rags, to giggle);
distinctive change (‘conduct — to con ‘duct,
‘increase — to in crease, ‘subject — to subject);

47. Other Types of Word Formation

blending: these are words that are created
from parts of two already existing items,
usually the first part of one and the final
part of the other:
brunch from breakfast and lunch,
smog from smoke and fog
clipping is a process that shortens a
polysyllabic word by deleting one or
more syllables: prof for professor, burger
for hamburger.

48. Other Types of Word Formation

acronymy: NATO, NASA, WAC, UNESCO.
Acronyms are formed by taking the initial
letters of the words in a phrase and
pronouncing them as a word. (names of
organizations and in terminology).
NASA stands for National Aeronautics
and Space Administration, NA TO —
North Atlantic Treaty Organization

49. Other Types of Word Formation

onomatopoeia, i.e. formations of words
from sounds that resemble those
associated with the object or action to be
named, or that seem suggestive of its
qualities.
e.g. hiss, buzz, meow, cock-a-doodle-doo,
and cuckoo