What is word building or word formation

Word Building (word formation)

1. Affixation as a basic
   means of forming words. Types of
   affixes.

2. Conversion.

3. Composition.

4. Other ways of word formation.

Scientists differ in the opinion how many ways of
WB there are in English, but all in all they distinguish: affixation,
composition,
conversion,
abbreviation
(shortening, clipping, acronymy),
back formation (disaffixation),
sound
interchange
and distinctive change,
onomatopoeia
(sound imitation).

Affixation
— the addition of an affix — is a basic means of forming words
in English. It has been productive in all periods of the history of
English.

Linguists distinguish among
three types of affixes. An affix that is attached to the front of its
base is called a prefix,
whereas an affix
that is attached to the end of its base is termed a suffix.
Both types of
affix occur in English. Far less common than prefixes and suffixes
are
infixes
— a type of affix that occurs within a base of a word to express
such
notions as tense, number, or gender. English has no system of
infixes, though many languages make great use of infixes.

Affixation is divided into
suffixation and prefixation. In Modern English, suffixation is
characteristic of noun and adjective formation, while
prefixation is typical of verb formation.

As a rule,
prefixes
modify the
lexical meaning of stems to which they are added.
The prefixal derivative
usually joins the part of speech the unprefixed word belongs to,
e.g. usual / un- usual.

In a suffixal derivative the
suffix does not only
modify the lexical meaning of the stem it is added to,
but the word itself is usually
transferred to another part of speech, e.g. care
(n) / care-less (adj).

Suffixes and prefixes may be classified along different lines. The
logical classification of suffixes is according to:

(a)
their origin: Romanic (e.g. -age, -ment,
-tion), Native (-er,
dom, -ship), Greek (-ism,
-ize), etc.;

1. meaning, e.g. -er denotes the agent of the
   action, -ess denotes
   leminine gender, -ence/ance has
   abstract meaning, -ie and
   -let express
   iliminutiveness, -age, -dom —
   collectivity, -an, -ese, -ian —
   appurtenance, etc.;

2. part of speech they form, e.g. noun suffixes
   -er, -ness, -ment; adjective-forming
   suffixes -ish, -ful, -less, -y;
   verb-suffixes -en,
   -fy, etc.;

3. productivity, i.e. the relative freedom with
   which they can combine
   with bases of the appropriate category, e.g. productive suffixes are
   -er, -ly, -ness, -ie, -let,
   non-productive (-dom,
   -th) and semi-productive (-eer,
   -ward).

Since suffixes determine the part of speech of
words, we classify them
according to parts of speech. The meanings given for the suffixes are
very broad, and often they have little connection with the meaning of
the resulting word.

Some linguists distinguish
between suffixes and semi-suffixes such as —man
(postman);
—burger
(fishburger);
—aholic
(workaholic).
So words with such suffixes can be classified either as affixed words
or compound words.

Some prefixes are treated as
root morphemes because they are met as words: afternoon
– after
school;
overhead
– over
the wall.
American lexicographers treat such words as compound words, while
British lexicographers regard them as affixed words. There are also
semi-prefixes
such as —mini
(mini-plane);
—maxi
(maxi-taxi);
—aero
(aerospace); —eco
(eco menu),
etc.

The main function of prefixes in English is to
change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech. However in ME
there are prefixes that form one part of speech from another
(endanger, behead – verbs, asleep –
statives).

Thus, AFFIXATION
is a way of word formation consisting in adding an affix to the stem
of a word: sixteen, friendship,
unkindly, heartless, ex-husband, etc.

Conversion

Before we give the definition of this way of WB, let’s consider the
following examples:

He was knocked out in the first round.

Round the number off to the nearest tenth.

The neighbours gathered round our barbeque.

The moon was bright and round.

People came from all the
country round.

In each sentence round
is used as different part of speech … Lexemes are made without the
addition of an affix. This process is called conversion and dates
back to the MdE period.

CONVERSION is a process that assigns an already existing word
to a new syntactic category. For this reason it is sometimes called
zero-derivation.

Various opinions have been expressed on the nature
and character of conversion.

Prof. Smirnitsky A.I. treats conversion as a
morphological way of forming words, as the formation of a new word
through changes in its paradigm (explain).

Other linguists (H. Marchand,
V.N. Yartseva, I.V. Arnold and others)
treat conversion as a combined morphological and syntactic way of WB,
as it involves both a change of the paradigm and a change of the
syntactic function (distribution) of the word.

There is also purely syntactic approach known as a
functional approach to conversion.

There three most common types of conversion in
English are verbs (from nouns), nouns (from verbs), and verbs (from
adjectives). Less common are nouns (from adjectives, phrases,
affixes) and verbs (from prepositions).
Examples!

Verbs can be converted

from nouns: This
wine is
bottled
in Spain;

from adjectives: I’m
in charge of cleaning
the first floor;

from adverbs: The
train neared
the station;

from
pronouns:
Don’t
what
me, a little nobody;

from conjunctions: Stop
butting!

from interjections: to
blah-blah; to ha-ha; to pooh-pooh, etc.

There are also nouns formed from pronouns (the
impossible she),
adverbs (ups
and downs),
prepositions (a between),
conjunctions (Forget your ifs),
and articles (If ifs
and ans
were pots and pans!) or even from
affixes (How much I hate all those
isms!).
As a matter of fact, any part of speech can be formed from any part
of speech by conversion.

Opinions differ on the possibility of creating
adjectives from nouns through conversion (the so-called “stone-wall”
complexes – дать
задание).
We shall consider the indisputable cases, i.e. deverbal substantives
(nouns converted from verbs) and denominal verbs (verbs converted
from nouns).

There are different semantic groups of converted
words that are characterized by different semantic relations.

1. Verbs converted from nouns (denominal verbs) may
   denote: instrumental use of the object (); action characteristic of
   the object (to vacate);
   acquisition (); deprivation of the object ().

2. Nouns converted from verbs (deverbal substantives) may denote:
   instance of an action (); agent of an action (); place of an action
   (); result of an action ().

Conversion is a very productive way of forming words in English.

COMPOSITION
(the combination of two or more existing words to create a new word)
is one of the most common and important word-building processes in
English. Sometimes it is called compounding.

A compound is a unit of
vocabulary that consists of more than one lexical stem ().
With very few exceptions, it is a noun, a verb or an adjective. In
most compounds the rightmost morpheme determines the category of the
entire word ().

There is a certain problem of distinguishing between compounds and
word combinations.

Compounds in English can be written differently:
as single words, with a hyphen and as separate words.

In terms of pronunciation, however, there is an
important generalization to be made. Adjective-noun compounds are
characterized by a more prominent stress on their first component:
ice cream
(замороженные сливки)
– ice cream
(мороженное); or a
tall boy (высокий
мальчик) – a
tall-boy (бельевой
шкаф).

Tense and plural markers cannot typically be
attached to the 1^st
element, although they can be added to the compound as a whole
(exceptions passers-by
parks supervisor).

So, several criteria should be taken into account:

solid spelling
–nickname; underdog, whitewash;

stress –
`blue collar – `blue `collar; `green
house – `green `house;

connecting elements
– handicraft, speedometer,
spokesperson;

impossibility for members of a compound to
be modified – a
blackbird (дрозд);
a very black bird
(очень черная
птица);

semantic unity (compounds
always express a single idea) – baby-sit,
home town, sweetheart.

The last criterion is regarded to be the most reliable of all.

There are different classifications of compounds.

According to their part of speech
characteristic, compounds are
subdivided into nouns (globe-trotter,
waterfall), verbs (to
honeymoon, to outgrow), adjectives
(free-for-all, hard-working),
adverbs (downstairs, lip-deep),
prepositions (within, into)
and numerals (thirty-seven).

According to the way components are joined
together, compounds are subdivided into
neutral (formed by juxtaposition) (sunflower,
tallboy, bestseller), morphological
(joined by a linking element) (handicraft,
Franko-Prussian, microchip) and
syntactical (joined by means of form-word stems) (whodunit,
face-to-face, lily-of-the-valley).

According to their structure,
compounds are subdivided into compounds proper (earthquake,
to window-shop, sky-blue),
compound-derived (affixed) words (blue-eyed,
video-player, absent-mindedness),
compound words consisting of 3 or more stems (with 1 constituent as a
compound stem) (mother-in-law,
good-for-nothing, wastepaper basket),
compound-shortened words (h-bag, V-day).

According to the degree of semantic
independence of components, compounds
are subdivided into

a) subordinative compounds
(with 1 component as a semantic centre) – love-sick,
nanny-goat, silverware;
добавить
в
схему!!!

b) coordinative compounds (with both semantically
equal components) – Anglo-Saxon,
walkie-talkie, go-go.

According to the order of components (immediate
constituents), compounds are subdivided
into syntactic (direct order) (to
frontpage, giver-away, fair-haired) and
asyntactic (indirect order) (to
book-hunt, blood-thirsty, theatre-goer).

According to the meaning of the whole,
compounds are subdivided into idiomatic (night-cap,
butterfingers) and non-idiomatic
(homeland, swimming-pool, speedometer).

To idiomatic compounds we
can refer a group of compounds called bahuvrihi
(the term comes from
India). They
denote an object after its striking feature: blue-bell
(колокольчик);
cut-throat
(головорез);
Brown
Berets
(спецподразделение
армии
США);
skinhead,
etc.

Thus, composition
is the way of word-building consisting in joining 2 or more stems to
form one word: football, sky-blue,
off-the-record, touch-me-not. It should
be noted that such words can be written solidly (underfoot),
with a hyphen (war-ship)
or a break (in so far).

There is an interesting group of compounds called
pseudo compounds.
They are composed of meaningless root morphemes but when put together
present an idea: chit-chat –
cплетни; helter-skelter
– как попало;
razzle-dazzle
– кутерьма.

Affixation, compounding and conversion are regarded as the three
major types of WB. Apart from these a number of other ways of forming
words are referred to WF, such as:

• Back-formation or
  disaffixation
  (baby-sitter
  — to baby-sit). Back-formation
  is a process that creates a new word by removing a real or supposed
  affix from another word in the language. Resurrect
  was originally
  formed in this way from resurrection,
  enthuse from
  enthusiasm,
  donate from
  donation, orient or
  orientate from
  orientation, and
  self-destruct
  from self-destruction. Words
  that end in -or or -erhave proven susceptible
  to back-formation in English. Because hundreds of such words
  are the result of affixation (runner,
  walker, singer, etc.),
  any word with
  this shape is likely to be perceived as a verb + er
  combination.
  The words
  editor,
  peddler, and
  swindler
  were
  misanalyzed. The result was the
  creation of the verbs edit, peddle, and
  swindle. Back-formation
  continues to produce new words in modern English, for instance, the
  form
  attrit
  was
  formed from attrition,
  the
  verb lase
  from
  laser,
  liposuct from liposuction;

Sound-interchange (speak
— speech, blood — bleed), and
sound
imitation (walkie-talkie,
brag rags, to giggle);

Distinctive change (‘conduct
—
to
con ‘duct, ‘increase —
to
in ‘crease, ‘subject — to
subject);

Blending: these
are words that are created from parts of two already existing
items, usually the first part of one and the final part of the other:
brunch
from
breakfast
and
lunch,
smog
from
smoke
and
fog,
spam from
spiced
and
ham,
chunnel (for
the underwater link between Britain and
the continent) from channel and
tunnel,
and infomercial
from information
and commercial.

Blends (fusions,
telescopic words) are words formed from a word group or two synonyms:
bit ← binary digit; chunnel ←
channel + tunnel; slanguage ← slang + language.

Some blends have become so integrated into the
standard vocabulary of English that speakers are unaware of their
status, for example, motel from motor
and hotel,
bit (in computer jargon)
from binary
and
digit,
modem from
modulator
and
demodulator.
Sometimes a word is formed by a
process that is on the borderline between compounding and blending.
It combines all of one word with part of another, e.g. workaholic,
medicare, Eurotunnel, slanguage, guesstimate

According to other opinion,
in blends two ways of word-building are combined: abbreviation and
composition. It means putting together shortened words: Adidas
← Adi + Dassler; acromania ← acronym + mania, shimmer ← shine +
glimmer.

Ellipsis represents
a way of word formation consisting in omission of the second element
of a word combination: a
documentary ← a documentary film.

Clipping is a process that shortens a polysyllabic
word by deleting one or more syllables: prof
for professor, burger fox hamburger. The
word zoo, for
instance, was formed from zoological
gar­den; fax was formed from
facsimile (meaning
«exact copy or reproduction»). Some of the most common
products of clipping are names — Liz,
Bob, Sue, and so on. Many clipped forms
have been accepted in general usage: bike,
phone, specs, fancy, doc, ad, auto, lab, sub, deli, condo;

Acronymy NATO,
NASA, WAC, UNESCO. Acronyms
are formed by taking the initial
letters of the words in a phrase and pronouncing them as a word. This
type of word formation is especially common in names of organizations
and in terminology. NASA stands
for National Aeronautics
and Space Administration, NA
TO —
North Atlantic Treaty Organization,
NOAA —
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admini­stration. AIDS
stands for acquired immune deficiency
syndrome. Such commonly used words as radar
(from radio detecting and ranging), and
laser (light
amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) originated as
acronyms;

Onomatopoeia i.e.
formations of words from sounds that resemble those
associated with the object or action to be named, or that seem
suggestive of its qualities. Examples of such onomatopoeic words in
English include hiss, buzz, meow,
cock-a-doodle-doo, and cuckoo.

KEY TERMS:
paradigm, composition, derivation,
conversion, blending, clipping back-formation, productivity

Антрушина Г.Б., Афанасьева О.В., Морозова
Н.Н. Лексикология английского языка. –
М.: Дрофа, 1999 – стр.

Дубенец Э.М.
Modern English Lexicology. Theory and Practice. – М.
Глосса-Пресс,
2002 – стр.

Елисеева В.В. Лексикология английского
языка.

Lecture 3.
Word-building: affixation, conversion, composition, abbreviation.
THE WORD-BUILDING SYSTEM OF ENGLISH
1.
Word-derivation
2.
Affixation
3.
Conversion
4.
Word-composition
5.
Shortening
6.
Blending
7.
Acronymy
8.
Sound interchange
9.
Sound imitation
10. Distinctive stress
11. Back-formation
Word-formation is a branch of Lexicology which studies the process of building new
words, derivative structures and patterns of existing words. Two principle types of wordformation are distinguished: word-derivation and word-composition. It is evident that wordformation proper can deal only with words which can be analyzed both structurally and
semantically. Simple words are closely connected with word-formation because they serve as the
foundation of derived and compound words. Therefore, words like writer, displease, sugar free,
etc. make the subject matter of study in word-formation, but words like to write, to please, atom,
free are irrelevant to it.
WORD-FORMATION
WORD-DERIVATION
AFFIXATION
WORD-COMPOSITION
CONVERSION
1. Word-derivation.
Speaking about word-derivation we deal with the derivational structure of words which
basic elementary units are derivational bases, derivational affixes and derivational patterns.
A derivational base is the part of the word which establishes connection with the lexical
unit that motivates the derivative and determines its individual lexical meaning describing the
difference between words in one and the same derivative set. For example, the individual lexical
meaning of the words singer, writer, teacher which denote active doers of the action is signaled by
the lexical meaning of the derivational bases: sing-, write-, teach-.
Structurally derivational bases fall into 3 classes:
1. Bases that coincide with morphological stems of different degrees оf complexity, i.e.,
with words functioning independently in modern English e.g., dutiful, day-dreamer. Bases are
functionally and semantically distinct from morphological stems. Functionally the morphological
stem is a part of the word which is the starting point for its forms: heart – hearts; it is the part
which presents the entire grammatical paradigm. The stem remains unchanged throughout all
word-forms; it keeps them together preserving the identity of the word. A derivational base is the
starting point for different words (heart – heartless – hearty) and its derivational potential
outlines the type and scope of existing words and new creations. Semantically the stem stands for
the whole semantic structure of the word; it represents all its lexical meanings. A base represents,
as a rule, only one meaning of the source word.
2. Bases that coincide with word-forms, e.g., unsmiling, unknown. The base is usually
represented by verbal forms: the present and the past participles.
3. Bases that coincide with word-groups of different degrees of stability, e.g., blue-eyed,
empty-handed. Bases of this class allow a rather limited range of collocability, they are most
active with derivational affixes in the class of adjectives and nouns (long-fingered, blue-eyed).
Derivational affixes are Immediate Constituents of derived words in all parts of speech.
Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes to
different types of bases. Affixation is subdivided into suffixation and prefixation. In Modern
English suffixation is mostly characteristic of nouns and adjectives coining, while prefixation is
mostly typical of verb formation.
A derivational pattern is a regular meaningful arrangement, a structure that imposes
rigid rules on the order and the nature of the derivational base and affixes that may be brought
together to make up a word. Derivational patterns are studied with the help of distributional
analysis at different levels. Patterns are usually represented in a generalized way in terms of
conventional symbols: small letters v, n, a, d which stand for the bases coinciding with the stems
of the respective parts of speech: verbs, etc. Derivational patterns may represent derivative
structure at different levels of generalization:
- at the level of structural types. The patterns of this type are known as structural
formulas, all words may be classified into 4 classes: suffixal derivatives (friendship) n + -sf →
N, prefixal derivatives (rewrite), conversions (a cut, to parrot) v → N, compound words (musiclover).
- at the level of structural patterns. Structural patterns specify the base classes and
individual affixes thus indicating the lexical-grammatical and lexical classes of derivatives
within certain structural classes of words. The suffixes refer derivatives to specific parts of
speech and lexical subsets. V + -er = N (a semantic set of active agents, denoting both animate
and inanimate objects - reader, singer); n + -er = N (agents denoting residents or occupations Londoner, gardener). We distinguish a structural semantic derivationa1 pattern.
- at the level of structural-semantic patterns. Derivational patterns may specify semantic
features of bases and individual meaning of affixes: N + -y = A (nominal bases denoting living
beings are collocated with the suffix meaning "resemblance" - birdy, catty; but nominal bases
denoting material, parts of the body attract another meaning "considerable amount" - grassy,
leggy).
The basic ways of forming new words in word-derivation are affixation and conversion.
Affixation is the formation of a new word with the help of affixes (heartless, overdo).
Conversion is the formation of a new word by bringing a stem of this word into a different
paradigm (a fall from to fall).
2. Affixation
Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding derivational affixes
to different types of bases. Affixation includes suffixation and prefixation. Distinction between
suffixal and prefixal derivates is made according to the last stage of derivation, for example,
from the point of view of derivational analysis the word unreasonable – un + (reason- + -able) is
qualified as a prefixal derivate, while the word discouragement – (dis- + -courage) + -ment is
defined as a suffixal derivative.
Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes. Suffixes usually modify
the lexical meaning of the base and transfer words to a different part of speech.
Suffixes can be classified into different types in accordance with different principles.
According to the lexico-grammatical character suffixes may be: deverbal suffixes, e.d.,
those added to the verbal base (agreement); denominal (endless); deadjectival (widen,
brightness).
According to the part of speech formed suffixes fall into several groups: noun-forming
suffixes (assistance), adjective-forming suffixes (unbearable), numeral-forming suffixes
(fourteen), verb-forming suffixes (facilitate), adverb-forming suffixes (quickly, likewise).
Semantically suffixes may be monosemantic, e.g. the suffix –ess has only one meaning
“female” – goddess, heiress; polysemantic, e.g. the suffix –hood has two meanings “condition or
quality” falsehood and “collection or group” brotherhood.
According to their generalizing denotational meaning suffixes may fall into several
groups: the agent of the action (baker, assistant); collectivity (peasantry); appurtenance
(Victorian, Chinese); diminutiveness (booklet).
Prefixation is the formation of words with the help of prefixes. Two types of prefixes can
be distinguished: 1) those not correlated with any independent word (un-, post-, dis-); 2) those
correlated with functional words (prepositions or preposition-like adverbs: out-, up-, under-).
Diachronically distinction is made between prefixes of native and foreign origin.
Prefixes can be classified according to different principles.
According to the lexico-grammatical character of the base prefixes are usually added to,
they may be: deverbal prefixes, e.d., those added to the verbal base (overdo); denominal
(unbutton); deadjectival (biannual).
According to the part of speech formed prefixes fall into several groups: noun-forming
prefixes (ex-husband), adjective-forming prefixes (unfair), verb-forming prefixes (dethrone),
adverb-forming prefixes (uphill).
Semantically prefixes may be monosemantic, e.g. the prefix –ex has only one meaning
“former” – ex-boxer; polysemantic, e.g. the prefix –dis has four meanings “not” disadvantage
and “removal of” to disbrunch.
According to their generalizing denotational meaning prefixes may fall into several
groups: negative prefixes – un, non, dis, a, in (ungrateful, nonpolitical, disloyal, amoral,
incorrect); reversative prefixes - un, de, dis (untie, decentralize, disconnect); pejorative prefixes
– mis, mal, pseudo (mispronounce, maltreat, pseudo-scientific); prefix of repetition (redo),
locative prefixes – super, sub, inter, trans (superstructure, subway, intercontinental,
transatlantic).
3. Conversion
Conversion is a process which allows us to create additional lexical terms out of those
that already exist, e.g., to saw, to spy, to snoop, to flirt. This process is not limited to one syllable
words, e.g., to bottle, to butter, nor is the process limited to the creation of verbs from nouns, e.g.,
to up the prices. Converted words are extremely colloquial: "I'll microwave the chicken", "Let's
flee our dog", "We will of course quiche and perrier you".
Conversion came into being in the early Middle English period as a result of the leveling
and further loss of endings.
In Modern English conversion is a highly-productive type of word-building. Conversion
is a specifically English type of word formation which is determined by its analytical character,
by its scarcity of inflections and abundance of mono-and-de-syllabic words in different parts of
speech. Conversion is coining new words in a different part of speech and with a different
distribution but without adding any derivative elements, so that the original and the converted
words are homonyms.
Structural Characteristics of Conversion: Mostly monosyllabic words are converted,
e.g., to horn, to box, to eye. In Modern English there is a marked tendency to convert
polysyllabic words of a complex morphological structure, e.g., to e-mail, to X-ray. Most converted
words are verbs which may be formed from different parts of speech from nouns, adjectives,
adverbs, interjections.
Nouns from verbs - a try, a go, a find, a loss
From adjectives - a daily, a periodical
From adverbs - up and down
From conjunctions - but me no buts
From interjection - to encore
Semantic Associations / Relations of Conversion:
The noun is the name of a tool or implement, the verb denotes an action performed by the
tool, e.g., to nail, to pin, to comb, to brush, to pencil;
The noun is the name of an animal, the verb denotes an action or aspect of behavior
considered typical of this animal, e.g., to monkey, to rat, to dog, to fox;
When the noun is the name of a part of a human body, the verb denotes an action
performed by it, e.g., to hand, to nose, to eye;
When the noun is the name of a profession or occupation, the verb denotes the activity
typical of it, e.g., to cook, to maid, to nurse;
When the noun is the name of a place, the verb will denote the process of occupying the
place or by putting something into it, e.g., to room, to house, to cage;
When the word is the name of a container, the verb will denote the act of putting
something within the container, e.g., to can, to pocket, to bottle;
When the word is the name of a meal, the verb means the process of taking it, e.g., to
lunch, to supper, to dine, to wine;
If an adjective is converted into a verb, the verb may have a generalized meaning "to be
in a state", e.g., to yellow;
When nouns are converted from verbs, they denote an act or a process, or the result, e.g.,
a try, a go, a find, a catch.
4. Word-composition
Compound words are words consisting of at least two stems which occur in the language
as free forms.
Most compounds in English have the primary stress on the first syllable. For example,
income tax has the primary stress on the in of income, not on the tax.
Compounds have a rather simple, regular set of properties. First, they are binary in
structure. They always consist of two or more constituent lexemes. A compound which has three
or more constituents must have them in pairs, e.g., washingmachine manufacturer consists of
washingmachine and manufacturer, while washingmachine in turn consists of washing and
machine. Compound words also usually have a head constituent. By a head constituent we mean
one which determines the syntactic properties of the whole lexeme, e.g., the compound lexeme
longboat consists of an adjective, long and a noun, boat. The compound lexeme longboat is a
noun, and it is а noun because boat is a noun, that is, boat is the head constituent of longboat.
Compound words can belong to all the major syntactic categories:
• Nouns: signpost, sunlight, bluebird, redwood, swearword, outhouse;
• Verbs: window shop, stargaze, outlive, undertake;
• Adjectives: ice-cold, hell-bent, undersized;
• Prepositions: into, onto, upon.
From the morphological point of view compound words are classified according to the
structure of immediate constituents:
• Compounds consisting of simple stems - heartache, blackbird;
• Compounds where at least one of the constituents is a derived stem -chainsmoker,
maid-servant, mill-owner, shop-assistant;
• Compounds where one of the constituents is a clipped stem - V-day, A-bomb, Xmas,
H-bag;
• Compounds where one of the constituents is a compound stem - wastes paper basket,
postmaster general.
Compounds are the commonest among nouns and adjectives. Compound verbs are few in
number, as they are mostly the result of conversion, e.g., to blackmail, to honeymoon, to
nickname, to safeguard, to whitewash. The 20th century created some more converted verbs, e.g.,
to weekend, to streamline,, to spotlight. Such converted compounds are particularly common in
colloquial speech of American English. Converted verbs can be also the result of backformation.
Among the earliest coinages are to backbite, to browbeat, to illtreat, to housekeep. The 20th
century gave more examples to hitch-hike, to proof-read, to mass-produce, to vacuumclean.
One more structural characteristic of compound words is classification of compounds
according to the type of composition. According to this principle two groups can be singled out:

words which are formed by a mere juxtaposition without any connecting elements,
e.g., classroom, schoolboy, heartbreak, sunshine;

composition with a vowel or a consonant placed between the two stems. e.g.,
salesman, handicraft.
Semantically compounds may be idiomatic and non-idiomatic. Compound words may be
motivated morphologically and in this case they are non-idiomatic. Sunshine - the meaning here
is a mere meaning of the elements of a compound word (the meaning of each component is
retained). When the compound word is not motivated morphologically, it is idiomatic. In
idiomatic compounds the meaning of each component is either lost or weakened. Idiomatic
compounds have a transferred meaning. Chatterbox - is not a box, it is a person who talks a great
deal without saying anything important; the combination is used only figuratively. The same
metaphorical character is observed in the compound slowcoach - a person who acts and thinks
slowly.
The components of compounds may have different semantic relations. From this point of
view we can roughly classify compounds into endocentric and exocentric. In endocentric
compounds the semantic centre is found within the compound and the first element determines
the other as in the words filmstar, bedroom, writing-table. Here the semantic centres are star,
room, table. These stems serve as a generic name of the object and the determinants film, bed,
writing give some specific, additional information about the objects. In exocentric compound
there is no semantic centre. It is placed outside the word and can be found only in the course of
lexical transformation, e.g., pickpocket - a person who picks pockets of other people, scarecrow an object made to look like a person that a farmer puts in a field to frighten birds.
The Criteria of Compounds
As English compounds consist of free forms, it's difficult to distinguish them from
phrases, because there are no reliable criteria for that. There exist three approaches to distinguish
compounds from corresponding phrases:
Formal unity implies the unity of spelling

solid spelling, e.g., headmaster;

with a hyphen, e.g., head-master;

with a break between two components, e.g., head master.
Different dictionaries and different authors give different spelling variants.
Phonic principal of stress
Many compounds in English have only one primary stress. All compound nouns are
stressed according to this pattern, e.g., ice-cream, ice cream. The rule doesn't hold with
adjectives. Compound adjectives are double-stressed, e.g., easy-going, new-born, sky-blue.
Stress cannot help to distinguish compounds from phrases because word stress may depend on
phrasal stress or upon the syntactic function of a compound.
Semantic unity
Semantic unity means that a compound word expresses one separate notion and phrases
express more than one notion. Notions in their turn can't be measured. That's why it is hard to
say whether one or more notions are expressed. The problem of distinguishing between
compound words and phrases is still open to discussion.
According to the type of bases that form compounds they can be of :
1.
compounds proper – they are formed by joining together bases built on the stems
or on the ford-forms with or without linking element, e.g., door-step;
2.
derivational compounds – by joining affixes to the bases built on the word-groups
or by converting the bases built on the word-groups into the other parts of speech, e.g., longlegged → (long legs) + -ed, a turnkey → (to turn key) + conversion. More examples: do-gooder,
week-ender, first-nighter, house-keeping, baby-sitting, blue-eyed blond-haired, four-storied. The
suffixes refer to both of the stems combined, but not to the final stem only. Such stems as nighter,
gooder, eyed do not exist.
Compound Neologisms
In the last two decades the role of composition in the word-building system of English has
increased. In the 60th and 70th composition was not so productive as affixation. In the 80th
composition exceeded affixation and comprised 29.5 % of the total number of neologisms in
English vocabulary. Among compound neologisms the two-component units prevail. The main
patterns of coining the two-component neologisms are Noun stem + Noun stem = Noun;
Adjective stem + Noun stem = Noun.
There appeared a tendency to coin compound nouns where:
 The first component is a proper noun, e.g., Kirlian photograph - biological field of
humans.
 The first component is a geographical place, e.g., Afro-rock.
 The two components are joined with the help of the linking vowel –o- e.g.,
bacteriophobia, suggestopedia.
 The number of derivational compounds increases. The main productive suffix to coin
such compound is the suffix -er - e.g., baby-boomer, all nighter.
 Many compound words are formed according to the pattern Participle 2 + Adv =
Adjective, e.g., laid-back, spaced-out, switched-off, tapped-out.
 The examples of verbs formed with the help of a post-positive -in -work-in, die-in,
sleep-in, write-in.
Many compounds formed by the word-building pattern Verb + postpositive are numerous
in colloquial speech or slang, e.g., bliss out, fall about/horse around, pig-out.
ATTENTION: Apart from the principle types there are some minor types of modern wordformation, i.d., shortening, blending, acronymy, sound interchange, sound imitation, distinctive
stress, back-formation, and reduplicaton.
5. Shortening
Shortening is the formation of a word by cutting off a part of the word. They can be
coined in two different ways. The first is to cut off the initial/ middle/ final part:
 Aphaeresis – initial part of the word is clipped, e.g., history-story, telephone-phone;
 Syncope – the middle part of the word is clipped, e.g., madam- ma 'am; specs
spectacles
 Apocope – the final part of the word is clipped, e.g., professor-prof, editored, vampirevamp;
 Both initial and final, e.g., influenza-flu, detective-tec.
Polysemantic words are usually clipped in one meaning only, e.g., doc and doctor have
the meaning "one who practices medicine", but doctor is also "the highest degree given by a
university to a scholar or scientist".
Among shortenings there are homonyms, so that one and the same sound and graphical
complex may represent different words, e.g., vac - vacation/vacuum, prep —
preparation/preparatory school, vet — veterinary surgeon/veteran.
6. Blending
Blending is a particular type of shortening which combines the features of both clipping
and composition, e.g., motel (motor + hotel), brunch (breakfast + lunch), smog (smoke + fog),
telethon (television + marathon), modem , (modulator + demodulator), Spanglish (Spanish +
English). There are several structural types of blends:

Initial part of the word + final part of the word, e.g., electrocute (electricity +
execute);

initial part of the word + initial part of the word, e.g., lib-lab (liberal+labour);

Initial part of the word + full word, e.g., paratroops (parachute+troops);

Full word + final part of the word, e.g., slimnastics (slim+gymnastics).
7. Acronymy
Acronyms are words formed from the initial letters of parts of a word or phrase,
commonly the names of institutions and organizations. No full stops are placed between the
letters. All acronyms are divided into two groups. The first group is composed of the acronyms
which are often pronounced as series of letters: EEC (European Economic Community), ID
(identity or identification card), UN (United Nations), VCR (videocassette recorder), FBI
(Federal Bureau of Investigation), LA (Los Angeles), TV (television), PC (personal computer),
GP (General Practitioner), ТВ (tuberculosis). The second group of acronyms is composed by the
words which are pronounced according to the rules of reading in English: UNESCO (United
Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization), AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency
Syndrome), ASH (Action on Smoking and Health). Some of these pronounceable words are
written without capital letters and therefore are no longer recognized as acronyms: laser (light
amplification by stimulated emissions of radiation), radar (radio detection and ranging).
Some abbreviations have become so common and normal as words that people do not think
of them as abbreviations any longer. They are not written in capital letters, e.g., radar (radio
detection and ranging), laser (light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation) yuppie,
gruppie, sinbads, dinkies.
Some abbreviations are only written forms but they are pronounced as full words, e.g.,
Mr, Mrs, Dr. Some abbreviations are from Latin. They are used as part of the language etc. - et
cetera, e.g., (for example) — exampli gratia, that is - id est.
Acromymy is widely used in the press, for the names of institutions, organizations,
movements, countries. It is common to colloquial speech, too. Some acronyms turned into
regular words, e.g., jeep -came from the expression general purpose car.
There are a lot of homonyms among acronyms:
MP - Member of Parliament/Military Police/Municipal Police
PC - Personal Computer/Politically correct
8. Sound-interchange
Sound-interchange is the formation of a new word due to an alteration in the phonemic
composition of its root. Sound-interchange falls into two groups: 1) vowel-interchange, e.g., food
– feed; in some cases vowel-interchange is combined with suffixation, e.g., strong – strength; 2)
consonant-interchange e.g., advice – to advise. Consonant-interchange and vowel-interchange
may be combined together, e.g., life – to live.
This type of word-formation is greatly facilitated in Modern English by the vast number
of monosyllabic words. Most words made by reduplication represent informal groups:
colloquialisms and slang, hurdy-gurdy, walkie-talkie, riff-raff, chi-chi girl. In reduplication new
words are coined by doubling a stem, either without any phonetic changes as in bye-bye or with a
variation of the root-vowel or consonant as in ping-pong, chit-chat.
9. Sound imitation or (onomatopoeia)
It is the naming of an action or a thing by more or less exact reproduction of the sound
associated with it, cf.: cock-a-do-doodle-do – ку-ка-ре-ку.
Semantically, according to the source sound, many onomatopoeic words fall into the
following definitive groups: 1) words denoting sounds produced by human beings in the process of
communication or expressing their feelings, e.g., chatter; 2) words denoting sounds produced by
animals, birds, insects, e.g., moo, buzz; 3) words imitating the sounds of water, the noise of metallic
things, movements, e.g., splash, whip, swing.
10. Distinctive stress
Distinctive stress is the formation of a word by means of the shift of the stress in the
source word, e.g., increase – increase.
11. Back-formation
Backformation is coining new words by subtracting a real or supposed suffix, as a result
of misinterpretation of the structure of the existing word. This type of word-formation is not
highly productive in Modern English and it is built on the analogy, e.g., beggar-to beg, cobbler to cobble, blood transfusion — to blood transfuse, babysitter - to baby-sit.

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  WORD FORMATION
  Borrowing and word-building (or word-formation) provide for enlarging and enriching the vocabulary of the language.
  Word formation is the creation of new words from elements already existing in the language.

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  Groups of morphological word-formation
  Major −highly productive

  affixation
  conversion
  compounding
  Minor − less productive

  shortening
  sound alteration
  stress interchange
  back-formation
  ellipsis
  onomatopoeia

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  Affixation
  Affixation (derivation) is the formation of new words by means of attaching affixes to a stem.

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  A STEM AND A ROOT
  A Stem − the part of a word which remains unchanged throughout its grammatical paradigm.
  singer:
  singer, singers, singer’s, singers’

  possesses both lexical and grammatical (part-of-speech) meaning.

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  A STEM AND A ROOT
  A Root − the basic part of a word which remains unchanged in the process of morphological derivation.
  shows the lexical meaning of a word

  heart, hearten, dishearten, heartily, heartless, hearty, heartiness, sweet­heart, heart-broken, kind-hearted, whole-heartedly

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  Types of stems
  Simple stems coincide with the roots of words.
  a work, a port, a book
  Derived stems contain one or more affixes.
  a worker, bookish, skilful
  Compound stems are made up of two or more simple stems.
  a room-mate, a girlfriend

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  a suffix
  a derivational morpheme following the stem and forming a new derivative in a different part of speech or a different word class
  –ify horr-ify, pur-ify, simpl-ify

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  a prefix
  a derivational morpheme standing before the root and modifying meaning.
  hearten — dishearten, sleep — asleep
  an infix
  an affix placed within the word, like -n~ in stand or between stems. It is not productive.

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  Classifications of English affixes
  according to their:
  grammatical functions
  etymology
  productivity
  meaning

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  According to their grammatical functions:
  noun-forming
  -al (refusal), -er (driver), -ure (picture)
  verb-forming
  -ate (navigate), -ite (unite), -ify (simplify)
  adjective-forming
  -ous (famous), -y (windy), -en (wooden)
  adverb-forming
  -ly (daily), -ward (forward), -wise (clockwise)

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  According to their etymology:
  native
  -ling (OE)
  duckling
  -th (OE)
  length, strength
  borrowed
  -ess (French)
  actress, poetess
  -ist (Greek)
  artist, economist

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  According to their productivity:
  productive
  take part in deriving new words in a particular period of language development
  -dom (OE)
  kingdom, wisdom
  non-productive
  -ade (Latin)
  blocade, lemonade
  -ary (Latin)
  legendary, reactionary
  -ce (OE,Middle E)
  once, twice

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  Conversion
  a highly productive way of coining new words in Modem English
  an affixless way of word-building
  making a new word from some existing root word by changing the category of a part of speech, without changing the morphemic shape of the original word

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  The telephone rang while I was eating my toast.
  He would send a cable or telephone as soon as he returned.
  I have just received a bill from the telephone company.

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  The most frequent types of conversion:
  from noun to verb:
  to hand, to back, to face, to eye, to mouth
  from verb to noun:
  do, go, make, run, find, catch, cut, walk, worry
  from adjective to noun and to verb:
  to pale, to yellow, to cool, to grey

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  Compounding
  — morphological joining of two or more stems in one word.
  Peculiarities of compounding in English:
  1. The regular pattern for the English language is a two-stem compound.
  2. Both stems of an English compound can function as independent words with a distinct meaning of their own.

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  by the juxtaposition of the parts:
  heart­ache n, heart-beat n, mankind, peace-loving, take-off, everything
  with the help of the linking vowel / consonant o, e, s:
  electromotive adj, speedometer n, Afro-Asian adj, statesman
  Ways of forming compounds:

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  Shortening (Contraction)
  a rather highly productive way of word-building
  involves the shortening of both words and word-groups
  is used especially in American English

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  Shortenings /clippings are produced in two different ways:
  a new word is made from a syllable of the original word:
  — phone from telephone
  — hols from holidays, vac from vacation
  — flu from influenza, fridge from refrigerator
  a new word from the initial letters of a word group:
  — UN from the United Nations

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  informal shortenings
  — Who’s the letter from?
  — My g. f.
  — Didn’t know you had girl-friends. A nice girl?
  — Idiot! It’s from my grandfather!
  More examples of informal shortenings:
  moving-picture — movie;
  gentleman — gent;
  spectacles — specs;

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  Sound interchange or gradation
  a productive way of word building in OE
  important for a diachronic study of the English language
  lost its productivity in ME and no new word can be coined by means of sound gradation
  an alternation in the phonemic composition of the root

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  Two groups of sound interchange
  Vowel interchange
  full (adj.) — fill (v.)
  food (n.) — feed (v.)
  blood (n.) — bleed (v.)
  strong (adj.) – strength (n.)
  long (adj) – length (n.).
  Consonant interchange
  use — to use
  belief – to believe
  house — to house
  advice – to advise
  life (n.) — live (v.)
  bath (n.) — bathe (v.)

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  Stress Interchange
  is neither productive nor regular
  mostly happens in disyllabic nouns and verbs of Romanic origin
  accent, compact, impact, compress, impress, conflict, contest, contract, extract, contrast, convict, essay, export, import, transport, increase, insult, object, subject, project, perfume, permit, present, produce, progress, protest, record, survey, transfer.

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  Back-formation
  the derivation of new words by subtracting a real or supposed affix from existing words through misinterpretation of their structure
  to beg from the French borrowing beggar
  to burgle from burglar
  to cobble from cobbler

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  Ellipsis
  leaving out a word or words in a phrase or in a sentence when their absence does not affect the meaning

  is used for reasons of economy, emphasis, or style
  may be grammatical and lexical.

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  Grammatical ellipsis — when grammatical words are omitted.
  When (I was) a child, I often played in this garden.

  Lexical ellipsis may be considered one of the ways of word-formation.
  weekly < from “weekly paper”
  finals < from “final examinations”
  мило < from “мильна опера”

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  ONOMATOPOEIA
  the naming of an action or thing by a more or less exact reproduction of a natural sound associated with it
  Words coined by this type of word-building are made by imitating different kinds of sounds that may be produced by animals, birds, insects, human beings and inanimate objects.

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  The cock cries:
  — in Russian ку-кa-pe-кy
  — in Ukrainian кy-кa-pi-кy
  — in English cock-a-doodle-doo

  In England ducks quack and frogs croak.

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  Some names of animals and especially of birds and insects are also produced by sound-imitation:
  crow, cuckoo, humming-bird, whip-poor-will, (жалобный козодой) cricket (сверчок)

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WORD-BUILDING IN ENGLISH

Word-formation l process of creating new words from resources of a particular language according to certain semantic and structural patterns existing in the language

Word-formation l branch of Lexicology l studies the patterns on which the English language builds words l may be studied synchronically and diachronically

Main types of word-formation word-derivation affixation conversion word-composition shortening and abbreviation

Minor types of word-formation sound- and stress interchange back formation sound imitation lexicalizatio of grammatical

Derivational Pattern is a meaningful combination of stems and affixes l regularly reproduced l indicates the grammatical part-of-speech meaning e. g. verbal stem + -ee = noun (‘one who is V-ed’) examine + -ee = examinee addressee, employee, divorcee l

Affixation l l formation of words by adding derivational affixes to stems one of the most productive ways of wordbuilding

Types of Affixation affixation suffixation prefixation mixed affixation

Affixation Suffixation l words are formed with the help of suffixes l changes a part-of-speech meaning (e. g. work – worker) l transfers a word into a different semantic group (e. g. child – childhood) l is characteristic of noun and adjective formation Prefixation l words are formed with the help of prefixes l does not change a part-ofspeech meaning (e. g. usual – unusual) l about 25 prefixes form one part of speech from another (e. g. head – to behead) l is characteristic of verb formation

Mixed Affixation l l l formation by both prefixation and suffixation semantic structure becomes more limited the more affixes added the less polysemantic the word becomes e. g. speak – unspeakable place – irreplaceable

Conversion l l process of creating a new word in a different part of speech with different distributional characteristic but without adding any affixes so that the basic form of the original and the basic form of a derived word are homonymous

Conversion A new word: l has a meaning different from the original one l has a new paradigm peculiar to its new category as a part of speech l the morphemic shape of the original word remains unchanged

Conversion l l face, noun -s, pl. -’s, poss. c. , sg -s’, poss. c. , pl a front part of the head from the forehead to the chin l l to face, verb -s, 3 rd p. sg. -ed, past ind. , past part. -ing, pres. part. , gerund to turn the face towards sb/smth

Reasons for the widespread development of conversion absence of morphological elements which mark the part of speech of the word e. g. back (noun) – If you use mirrors you can see the l back of your head to back – Their houses back onto the river. back (adverb) – Put the book back on the shelf. back (adjective) – a back garden, back teeth

Reasons for the widespread development of conversion l simplicity of paradigms of English parts of speech l a great number of one-syllable words that are mobile and flexible

Conversion in Present-Day English l l l typical of one-syllable words not common to affixed words (e. g. a commission – to commission) the predominant way of verb formation verbs are mainly formed from nouns and rarely from other parts of speech highly productive

Conversion in Different Parts of Speech l noun verb e. g. an eye – to eye, a bag – to bag, a room – to room l verb noun e. g. to jump – a jump, to do – a do l adjective verb e. g. pale – to pale l adjective noun e. g. private – a private, blind – the blind

Conversion in Different Parts of Speech form word noun e. g. He was familiar with ups and downs of life. I shan’t go into whys and wherefores. l affix noun e. g. Freudism, existentialism and all other ‘isms’ of l modern life. interjection verb e. g. pooh – to pooh-pooh l

Conversion and Other Types of Word. Formation l conversion and composition e. g. pin-point — to pin point, black-list – to blacklist l composition, conversion and shortening e. g. to drive in – a drive-in theater – a drive-in l conversion and composition in phrases and sentences e. g. Old man what-do-you-call-him’s book is on sale.

Traditional and Occasional Conversion Traditional Conversion l the use of a word is recorded in the dictionary e. g. to cook, to look, find, aim, etc. Occasional Conversion l the use of a word is not registered by the dictionary l occurs momentarily, through the immediate need of the situation, brings out the meaning more vividly e. g. If anybody oranges me again tonight, I’ll knock his face off!

Shortening l a way of word-formation when part of the original word or word group is taken away

Shortening A new word: l l l belongs to the same part of speech as a the original word (e. g. demo – demonstration) has the same lexical meaning as the original word capable of being used as a free form can take functional affixes (e. g. a bikes) mostly monosemantic

Shortening A new word: l may serve as basis for further word-formation by derivation and composition e. g. fancy (noun) fantasy (shortening) fancy (noun) to fancy (conversion) fancy (noun) fancier, fanciful (derivation) fancy (noun) fancy-ball, fancy-dress (composition)

Shortening A new word: l differs from the original word stylistically or emotionally, characteristic of colloquial speech e. g. Becky Rebecca (diminutive) Japs the Japanese examination (college slang) hanky handkerchief (nursery word) o’er over (bookish, poetic style)

Shortening in Different Parts of Speech l l nouns e. g. professor verbs e. g. to revolve adjectives (very few) e. g. dilly delightful (jargonism) interjection e. g. Shun! attention

Types of Shortening final clipping (apocope) — a word is shortened at the end e. g. ed editor, referee l initial clipping (apheresis) – a word is shortened at the beginning e. g. phone telephone, chute parachute l

Types of Shortening medial clipping (syncope) – some syllables or sounds are omitted from the middle of a word e. g. maths mathematics spectacles fancy fantasy l

Types of Shortening l a word is clipped both at the end at the beginning e. g. flu tec fridge influenza detective refridgerator

Abbreviation (graphical shortening) l l shortening of word or word-groups in written speech in speech the corresponding full forms are used e. g. lb — pound e. g. – for example i. e. – that is Dr. – Doctor Oct. — October

Composition l l is the way of word-building when a word is formed by joining two or more stems to form one word one of the most productive ways of wordbuilding in Modern English

Compound Words consist of at least two stems which occur in the language as free forms e. g. a brother-in-law, airbus, snow-white l

Criteria for Distinguishing between a Compound a Word-combination l l Compound Word graphic criterion: solid or hyphenated spelling e. g. sunbeam, warship semantic criterion: conveys one concept e. g. a green-house l l Word-Combination graphic criterion: spelling with a break e. g. a tall boy semantic criterion: conveys more than one concept e. g. a green house

Criteria for Distinguishing between a Compound a Word-combination Compound Word l phonetic criterion: a single uniting stress e. g. a ´greenhouse Word-Combination l phonetic criterion: each word in a group has a stress e. g. a ´green ´house

Criteria for Distinguishing between a Compound a Word-combination l Compound Word morphological and syntactic criteria: — only one component changes grammatically e. g. a tallboy – tallboys, a passer-by – passers-by Word-Combination l morphological and syntactic criteria: — each constituent is independent and open to grammatical changes e. g. a tall boy – They were the tallest boys in their form.

Criteria for Distinguishing between a Compound a Word-combination l Compound Word morphological and syntactic criteria: — no word can be inserted between the components Word-Combination l morphological and syntactic criteria: — other words may be inserted between the constituent parts e. g. a tall handsome boy

Classifications of Compounds l l l according to the parts of speech according to the joining element according to the structure of compounds according to the degree of semantic independence according to the order of components according to the motivation of the meaning of compounds

Classification of compounds according to the part of speech nouns and adjectives e. g. baby-sitter, power-hungry (энергоемкий) l adverbs and prepositions e. g. indoors, within, outside l verbs (formed by means of conversion or backformation) e. g. to handcuff hand-cuffs, to babysit baby-sitter l

Classification according to the joining element l neutral compounds are formed by joining two stems together without any joining morpheme e. g. classroom, dancing-hall l syntactical compounds – components are joined by means of form-word stems e. g. here-and-now, free-for-all

Classification according to the joining element l morphological compounds – components are joined by a linking element: — vowel “o”, “I” e. g. speedometer, handicraft — consonant “s” e. g. sportsman

Classification according to the structure of compounds l l compound words proper – formed by juxtaposition of two stems without any linking element e. g. top-notch (первоклассный), tiptop compound-affixed words – e. g. honeymooner

Classification according to the structure of compounds l l compound words consisting of three or more stems — e. g. eggshell-thin, cornflower-blue compound-shortened words – e. g. V-day, landsat

Classification according to the degree of semantic independence Subordinative Compound is a compound whose components are neither structurally nor semantically equal in importance, and one of them dominates the other e. g. color-blind, evergreen l Coordinative Compound is a compound whose components are structurally and semantically independent and constitutes two structural and semantic centers e. g. actor-manager l

Classification according to the order of components Syntactic Compound l is a compound that conforms to grammatical patterns current in the language e. g. northwest, for-free, maybe, killjoy, seashore Asyntactic Compound l is a compound that does not conform to grammatical patterns current in the language e. g. to babysit (to sit with a baby), rope-like (like a rope)

Classification according to the motivation of the meaning of compounds Idiomatic Compound l is a compound whose meaning is not deducible from the meaning of its components e. g. wallflower – Noun, a person, esp. a woman, who is not invited to dance at a party fifty-fifty – Adv. , being equally likely and unlikely butter-fingers – noun, a clumsy person Non-idiomatic Compound l is a compound whose meaning is deducible from the meaning of its components e. g. mother-in-law, day-long

Ways of forming compound words l l l reduplication – e. g. too-too, hush-hush partial conversion from word-groups e. g. can-do (исполнительный и энергичный) can do backformation from compound nouns and wordgroups e. g. to baby-sitter vowel interchange (ablaut compounds) e. g. chit-chat (сплетни), tip-top, riff-raff (сброд) rhyme compounds – e. g. willy-nilly (волей-неволей), hoity-toity(надменный)

Peculiarities of English Compounds l l l all components of compound words are free forms, can be used independently with a distinct meaning of their own e. g. motherland, day-off, everybody usually are two-stem compounds attributive compounds e. g. last-minute changes, four-year course

Sound Interchange l way of forming new words with the help of change of sounds within a word

Types of Sound Interchange l l l vowel change – e. g. full – to fill, blood – to bleed consonant interchange – e. g. to speakspeech, advice – to advise the combination of vowel and consonant change – e. g. life – to live, strong strength

Stress Interchange l e. g. ´import — to im´port, ´suspect – to sus´pect

Lexicalization of Grammatical Form l way of creating new words with the help of suffix “s” e. g. glass – glasses, custom – customs, colour — colours

Backformation l way of creating new words by subtracting a real or supposed suffix from the original word e. g. to beggar, to editor, to burgler

Sound Imitation (Onomatopoeia) l way of forming new words by imitating different kinds of sounds that may be produced by animals, birds, insects, human being and inanimate objects e. g. buzz, croak, moo, mew, purr, roar e. g. clink, whip, splash, bubble e. g. giggle, mutter, babble