Derivative
structure of English words:The
nature, type and arrangement of the ICs (immediate constituent —
непосредственная составляющая) of the
word is known as its derivative structure. The derivative base – is
the part of the word from which the word was built. The derivative
pattern – is formed by derivative base and derivative affixes.
Though the
derivative structure of the word is closely connected with its
morphemic or morphological structure and often coincides with it, it
differs from it in principle.
According
to the derivative structure all words fall into two big classes:
simplexes
or simple, non-derived words and complexes or derivatives.
Simplexes
are words which derivationally can’t be segmented into ICs. The
morphological stem of simple words, i.e. the part of the word which
takes on the system of grammatical inflections is semantically
non-motivated and independent of other words, e.g. hand, come, blue,
etc.
Derivatives
are words which depend on some other simpler lexical items that
motivate them structurally and semantically, i.e. the meaning and the
structure of the derivative is understood through the comparison with
the meaning and the structure of the source word. Hence derivatives
are secondary, motivated units, made up as a rule of two ICs, i.e.
binary units, e.g. words like teacher is made up of the ICs “to
teach” and “-er”. The ICs are brought together according to
specific rules of order and arrangement preconditioned by the system
of the language. It follows that all derivatives are marked by the
fixed order of their ICs.
Types of
derivational bases:
— bases
that coincide with morphemes (morphological stamps) – dutiful
— bases
that coincide with grammatical word-forms – unknown
— bases the
coincide with word-groups – second-rateness
Types of
derivations:
—
Derivative words (Affixational Conversions)
— Compound
words (Compound words proper Derivational compounds.)
The
distinction between morphological stem and derivational base:
Derivational
morphemes makes
new words from old ones.Thus creation is
formed from create ,
but they are two separate words. Inflectional
morphemes:
vary (or «inflect») the form of words in order to express
grammatical features, such as singular/plural or past/present
tense. Thus Boy and boys, for
example, are two different forms of the «same» word; the
choice between them, singular vs. plural, is a matter of grammar and
thus the business of inflectional morphology.
Derivational
morphemes generally:
1) Change the part of speech or the basic meaning of a word.
Thus -ment added
to a verb forms a noun (judg-ment). re-activate means
«activate again.»2) Are not required by syntactic relations
outside the word. Thus un-kind combines un- and kind into
a single new word, but has no particular syntactic connections
outside the word — we can say he
is unkind or he
is kind or they
are unkind or they
are kind,
depending on what we mean.3) Are often not productive — derivational
morphemes can be selective about what they’ll combine with, and may
also have erratic effects on meaning. Thus the suffix -hood occurs
with just a few nouns such as brother,
neighbor, and knight,
but not with most others. 4) Typically occur between the stem and any
inflectional affixes. Thus in governments,-ment,
a derivational suffix, precedes -s, an inflectional suffix. 5) In
English, may appear either as prefixes or suffixes: pre-arrange,
arrange-ment.
Inflectional
Morphemes generally:1)
Do not change basic meaning or part of speech, e.g., big,
bigg-er, bigg-est are
all adjectives.2) Express grammatically-required features or indicate
relations between different words in the sentence. Thus in Lee
love-s Kim: -s marks
the 3rd person singular present form of the verb, and also relates it
to the 3rd singular subject Lee.3)
Are productive. Inflectional morphemes typically combine freely with
all members of some large class of morphemes, with predictable
effects on usage/meaning. Thus the plural morpheme can be combined
with nearly any noun, usually in the same form, and usually with the
same effect on meaning.4) Occur outside any derivational morphemes.
Thus in ration-al-iz-ation-s the
final -s is
inflectional, and appears at the very end of the word, outside
the derivational morphemes -al, -iz, -ation.5)
In English, are suffixes only.
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DERIVATION LECTURE 9
Derivation I. Derivational Structure. II. Derivational Relations. III. Derivational Bases. 3. 1. Structural Classification of Derivational Bases. IV. Derivational Affixes. 4. 1. Semantic Characteristics of Derivational Affixes. 4. 2. Semi-affixes. V. Derivational Patterns. 5. 1. Structural-semantic Classification of Derivational Patterns.
I. DERIVATIONAL STRUCTURE • Word-derivation in morphology is a wordformation process by which a new word is built from a stem – usually through the addition of an affix – that changes the word class and / or basic meaning of the word.
Derivational structure — the nature, type and arrangement of the ICs of the word. Prefixational derivative Unmistakable — the prefixational morpheme is added to the sequence of the root and suffixational morphemes. Un- and -mistakable = ‘not mistakable’ Suffixational derivative Discouraging – the suffixational morpheme is added to the combination of the prefixational and the root morphemes. Discourage- and –ing = ‘something that discourages’.
II. DERIVATIONAL RELATIONS SIMPLEXES – • are words which derivationally cannot be segmented into ICs. • The morphological stem of simple words, i. e. the part of the word which takes on the system of grammatical inflections is semantically non-motivated and independent of other words, for example, hand, come, blue, etc.
Morphemically it may be monomorphic in which case its stem coincides with the free root-morpheme as in, e. g. , hand, come, blue, etc. or polymorphic in which case it is a sequence of bound morphemes as in, e. g. , anxious, theory, public, etc.
COMPLEXES / DERIVATIVES • are words which depend on some other simpler lexical items that motivate them structurally and semantically, i. e. the meaning and the structure of the derivative is understood through the comparison with the meaning and the structure of the source word.
Derivatives are secondary, motivated units, made up as a rule of two ICs, i. e. binary units, for example, words like • Friendliness = friendly + -ness, • Unwifely = un- + wifely, • school-masterish = schoolmaster+-ish The ICs are brought together according to specific rules of order and arrangement preconditioned by the system of the language. Derivatives are marked by the fixed order of their ICs.
The basic elementary units of the derivative structure of words are: • derivational bases, • derivational affixes, • derivational patterns Derivational relations are the relations between words with a common root but of different derivational structure.
DERIVATIONAL BASE • is the part of the word, which establishes connection with the lexical unit that motivates the derivative and determines its individual lexical meaning describing the difference between words in the same derivational set. • dancer, rebuilder, whitewasher — active doers of the action, is signaled by the lexical meaning of the derivational bases: dance-, rebuild-, whitewash-, which establish connection with the motivating source verb.
Differential characteristics of morphological stem and derivational base A morphological stem 1) the starting point for the forms of the word (heart – hearts) A derivational base 1) the starting point for different words (heart – hearty – heartless, heartbeat) 2) predicts the part-of-speech meaning 2) does not predict the part-of-speech of the word (daydreamer (n)) meaning of the word (daydreamer (n) from daydream (v)) 3) stands for the whole semantic 3) represents only one meaning of structure of the word, represents all the source word (glassful – a drinking lexical meanings of the word (glass vessel; glassy – smooth and shiny like (n) – 1. a hard clear substance; glass) 2. a small container for drinking out of; 3. attractive objects made of glass; 4. mirror; 5. a barometer)
Derivatives • fiery, fire-place, to fire, fire-escape, firearm have bases built on the stem of the same source noun fire. • fire-escape, fire-engine, fire-alarm are semantically motivated by the meaning ‘destructive burning’. • firearms, ceasefire, (to) fire are motivated by another meaning ’shooting’. • fiery (as in fiery speech, eyes) is motivated by the meaning ’strong emotion, excited feeling’
• starlet, starry, starlike, starless are all motivated by the derivational base meaning ‘a heavenly body seen in the night as distant point of light’. • Stardom положение звезды, starlet, to star motivated by the base meaning ‘a person famous as actor, singer’ though both represent the same morphological stem of the word star.
3. 1. STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF DERIVATIONAL BASES • 1. Bases that coincide with morphological stems, for example, dutifully; to daydream, daydreamer; • Stems that serve as this class of bases may be of different derivational types thus forming derivational bases of different degrees of complexity: 1. simple stems, which consist of only one, semantically non-motivated constituent: pocket, motion, retain;
2. derived stems, which are semantically and structurally motivated. They are binary: girlish, girlishness. The derived stem of the word girlish is girl, whereas the derived stem of the word girlishness – girlish-; • to weekend derived from the noun weekend; • to daydream – from the noun daydream; • to parrot ◄ parrot; • a drive ◄ to drive; • a cut ◄ to cut.
3. compound stems are always binary and semantically motivated, but unlike the derived stems both ICs of compound stems are stems themselves: match-box (two simple stems), letter-writer (one simple and one derived stem); aircraft-carrier ( a compound and derived stem). But! girl ► girly, girlish, girlles, girl-friend; girlish ► girlishness & girlishly
2. Bases that coincide with word-forms: unsmiling, paper-bound. • This class of bases is represented by verbal wordforms the present and the past participles. The collocability of this class of derivational bases is confined to: a) a few derivational affixes such as the prefix un- and the suffix –ly: unnamed, unknown; smilingly, knowingly; b) other bases which coincide only with nominal and adjectival stems: mocking-bird, dancing -girl, ice-bound, easygoing.
3. Bases they coincide with wordgroups: flat-waisted сглаженная талия сердца, second-rateness посредственность. • Bases of this class allow a rather limited range of collocability. • They are mostly combined with derivational affixes in the class of adjectives and nouns: blue-eyed, long-fingered, old-worldish. Free word-groups make up the greater part of this class of bases.
IV. DERIVATIONAL AFFIXES are Immediate Constituents of derived words in all parts of speech. Semantically derivational affixes are characterized by a unity of • part-of-speech meaning, • lexical meaning, • differential meaning; • distributional meanings.
Derivational affixes have two basic functions: 1. stem building which is common to all affixational morphemes: derivational and non-derivational, cf. : -sh in the words girlish, greyish and –ish in the words publish, distinguish;
2. word-building, this is the function of repatterning a derivational base and thus forming new words. The repatterning may result in transferring a derivational base into the stem of another part of speech, for example, the derivational suffix –ness in the words friendliness and girlishness repattern the adjectival derivational bases friendly-, girlish- into the noun stems.
4. 1. SEMANTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF DERIVATIONAL AFFIXES • The part-of-speech meaning is proper to derivational suffixes and prefixes in different degrees. • Prefixes like en-, de-, out-, un-, be- possess the part-of-speech meaning and function as verb classifiers, for example, enlarge, deice, unhook, befriend. • The prefix over- evidently lacks the part-ofspeech meaning and is freely used both for verbs and adjectives, for example, oversleep, overeat, over-confident, over-worried.
The lexical meaning in derivational affixes may be viewed at different levels: 1. the lexical meaning of a generic type proper to a set of affixes, forming a semantic subset. The meaning of resemblance found in the suffixes –ish, -like, -y, -ly (spiderish, spiderlike, spidery); The meaning of abstract quality conveyed by the suffixes –ness, -ty (blindness, equality); The meaning of absence conveyed by the prefix un- and the suffix –less (unclean, unlucky, speechless, heartless);
2. an individual lexical meaning shared by no other affix. The suffixes –ish, -like, -y all have the meaning of resemblance but –like conveys an overall resemblance, -ish conveys likeness to the most typical qualities of the object; -y conveys likeness to outer shape, form, size of the object.
• Derivational affixes may be monosemantic, for example, the prefix omni- meaning ‘all’ (omnipresence вездесущность, omniscience всезнание), and polysemantic, for example, the suffix – less meaning ‘lacking smth’ (brainless, endless) and ‘exceeding a category’ (timeless, countless).
4. 2. SEMI-AFFIXES • — are elements which stand midway between roots and affixes. • These are morphemes whose derivational function does not allow one to refer them either to derivational affixes or to bases, e. g. , half- in the word half-done, half-broken; self- in the words self-made, self-interest; ill- in the word ill-dressed, ill-behaved. On the one hand, these morphemes retain certain lexical ties with the root-morphemes of independent words, on the other hand, they function as derivational prefixes.
SEMI-AFFIXES well • Well-fed • Well-dressed • Well-educated • Well-done • Well-mannered • Well-armed man • Postman • Cabman • Chairman • Salesman • Sportsman • Fisherman
V. DERIVATIONAL PATTERNS • DP is a regular meaningful arrangement, a structure that imposes rigid rules on the order and the nature of the derivational bases and affixes that may be brought together. • Small letters v, n, a, d, num stand for the bases which coincide with the stems of the respective parts of speech: verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs; • ved, ving stand for the bases which are the past and present participles respectively. • In words of the long-fingered or sit-inner участник сидячей забастовки type the derivational bases are represented by bracketed symbols of the parts of speech making up the corresponding collocations, for example (a+n)+ +-ed), (v+d) + er.
5. 1. STRUCTURAL-SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF DERIVATIONAL PATTERNS 1. at the level of structural types patterns are known as structural formulas. They specify only the class membership of ICs and the direction of motivation, such as a+sf → N, prf +n → V, prf + n → N, n + sf → V, etc. •
In terms of patterns of this type, all words may be classified into four classes: 1. suffixal derivatives: friendship, glorified, blackness, skyward, etc. ; 2. prefixal derivatives: rewrite, exboxer, non-smoker, un-happy, etc. ; 3. conversions: a cut, to parrot, to winter, etc. ; 4. compound words: key-ring, musiclover, wind-driven, etc.
2. at the level of structural patterns which specify the base classes and individual affixes thus indicating the lexical-grammatical and lexical classes of derivatives within certain structural classes of words. The affixes refer derivatives to specific parts of speech and lexical subsets as, for example, DP n + ish → A signals a set of adjectives with the lexical meaning of resemblance, for example, boyish, girlish, womanish, whereas a + -ish → A signals adjectives meaning a small degree of quality, for example, pinkish, whitish, wildish, etc.
3. at the level of structural-semantic patterns the latter specify semantic peculiarities of bases and individual meanings of affixes. The nominal bases in the pattern n+-ess → N are confined to nouns having in their semantic structures a component ‘a male animate being’: lioness, traitress, stewardess, etc. ; The nominal bases in n+-ful 2 → N are limited by nouns having a semantic component ‘container’: lungful, carful, mouthful, whereas in n+ -ful 1 → A the nominal bases are confined to nouns of abstract meaning.
• The same is true of the pattern n + -y → A which represents different semantic sets of derivatives specified by semantic constraints imposed on both the bases and the suffix: nominal bases denoting living beings are collocated with the suffix -y meaning ‘resemblance’: birdy, spidery, doggy, etc. , but nominal bases denoting material, parts of the body attract another meaning of the suffix -y that of ‘considerable amount, size’ resulting in the adjectives like powdery, grassy, leggy, starry, etc.
6. HISTORICAL CHANGEABILITY OF WORDSTRUCTURE 1. Process of simplification: a. root-morphemes may turn into affixational or semi-affixational morphemes; b. polymorphic words may become monomorphic; c. compound words may be transformed into derived or even simple words. E. g. friendship – frēōndscipe; husband – hus-bond-a; cupboard [k 0 bqd]
Summary and Conclusions 1. Derivational level of analysis aims at finding out the derivative types of words, the interrelation between them and at finding out how different types of derivatives are constructed.
2. Derivationally all words form two structural classes: simplexes, i. e. simple, non-derived words and complexes, or derivatives. Derivatives fall into: suffixal derivatives, prefixal derivatives, conversions and compounds. The relative importance of each structural type is conditioned by its frequency value in actual speech and its importance in the existing word-stock.
3. Each structural type of complexes shows preference for one or another part of speech. Within each part of speech derivative structures are characterised by a set of derivational patterns. 4. The basic elementary units of the derivative structure are: derivational bases, derivational affixes, derivational patterns.
5. Derivational bases differ from stems both structurally and semantically. Derivational bases are built on the following language units: a) stems of various structure, b) wordforms, c) word-groups or phrases. Each class and subset of bases has its own range of collocability and shows peculiar ties with different parts of speech.
6. Derivational affixes form derived stems by repatterning derivational bases. Semantically derivational affixes present a unity of lexical meaning and other types of meaning: functional, distributional and differential unlike non-derivational affixes which lack lexical meaning.
7. Derivational patterns (DP) are meaningful arrangements of various types of ICs that can be observed in a set of words based on their mutual interdependence. DPs can be viewed in terms of collocability of each IC. There are two types of DPs — structural that specify base classes and individual affixes, and structuralsemantic that specify semantic peculiarities of bases and the individual meaning of the affix.
• DPs of different levels of generalisation signal: 1. 1) the class of source unit that motivates the derivative and the direction of motivation between different classes of words; 2. 2) the part of speech of the derivative; 3. 3) the lexical sets and semantic features of derivatives.
REFERENCES: 1. Gunzburg R. Z. A Course in Modern English Lexicology, M. , 1979. 2. Zykova I. V. Practical Course of English Lexicology, M. , 2006.
Presentation on theme: «DERIVATION LECTURE 9. Derivation I.Derivational Structure. II.Derivational Relations. III.Derivational Bases. 3.1. Structural Classification of Derivational.»— Presentation transcript:
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DERIVATION LECTURE 9
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Derivation I.Derivational Structure. II.Derivational Relations. III.Derivational Bases. 3.1. Structural Classification of Derivational Bases. IV.Derivational Affixes. 4.1. Semantic Characteristics of Derivational Affixes. 4.2. Semi-affixes. V.Derivational Patterns. 5.1. Structural-semantic Classification of Derivational Patterns.
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I. DERIVATIONAL STRUCTURE Word-derivation in morphology is a word- formation process by which a new word is built from a stem – usually through the addition of an affix – that changes the word class and / or basic meaning of the word.
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Derivational structure — the nature, type and arrangement of the ICs of the word. Prefixational derivative Unmistakable — the prefixational morpheme is added to the sequence of the root and suffixational morphemes. Un- and -mistakable = ‘not mistakable’ Suffixational derivative Discouraging – the suffixational morpheme is added to the combination of the prefixational and the root morphemes. Discourage- and –ing = ‘something that discourages’.
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II. DERIVATIONAL RELATIONS Derivational relations are the relations between words with a common root but of different derivational structure. According to the derivational structure all words fall into two big classes: simplexes, non-derived words and complexes or derivatives.
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SIMPLEXES — are words which derivationally cannot be segmented into ICs. The morphological stem of simple words, i.e. the part of the word which takes on the system of grammatical inflections is semantically non- motivated and independent of other words, for example, hand, come, blue, etc.
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COMPLEXES/DERIVATIVES are words which depend on some other simpler lexical items that motivate them structurally and semantically, i.e. the meaning and the structure of the derivative is understood through the comparison with the meaning and the structure of the source word.
8
Derivatives are secondary, motivated units, made up as a rule of two ICs, i.e. binary units, for example, words like Friendliness = friendly + -ness, Unwifely = un- + wifely, school-masterish = schoolmaster+-ish The ICs are brought together according to specific rules of order and arrangement preconditioned by the system of the language. Derivatives are marked by the fixed order of their ICs.
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DERIVATIONAL BASE is the part of the word, which establishes connection with the lexical unit that motivates the derivative and determines its individual lexical meaning describing the difference between words in the same derivational set. dancer, rebuilder, whitewasher — active doers of the action, is signaled by the lexical meaning of the derivational bases: dance-, rebuild-, whitewash-, which establish connection with the motivating source verb.
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Differential characteristics of morphological stem and derivational base A morphological stemA derivational base 1) the starting point for the forms of the word (heart – hearts) 1) the starting point for different words (heart – hearty – heartless, heartbeat) 2) predicts the part-of-speech meaning of the word (daydreamer (n)) 2) does not predict the part-of-speech meaning of the word (daydreamer (n) from daydream (v)) 3) stands for the whole semantic structure of the word, represents all lexical meanings of the word (glass (n) – 1. a hard clear substance; 2. a small container for drinking out of; 3. attractive objects made of glass; 4. mirror; 5. a barometer) 3) represents only one meaning of the source word (glassful – a drinking vessel; glassy – smooth and shiny like glass)
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3.1. STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION OF DERIVATIONAL BASES 1. Bases that coincide with morphological stems, for example, dutiful, dutifully; to day- dream, daydreamer; Stems that serve as this class of bases may be of different derivational types thus forming derivational bases of different degrees of complexity: 1.simple stems, which consist of only one, semantically non-motivated constituent: pocket, motion, retain;
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2.derived stems, which are semantically and structurally motivated. They are binary: girlish, girlishness. The derived stem of the word girlish is girl, whereas the derived stem of the word girlishness – girlish-;
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3.compound stems are always binary and semantically motivated, but unlike the derived stems both ICs of compound stems are stems themselves: match-box (two simple stems), letter-writer (one simple and one derived stem); aircraft-carrier ( a compound and derived stem).
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2. Bases that coincide with word- forms: unsmiling, paper-bound. This class of bases is represented by verbal word-forms the present and the past participles. The collocability of this class of derivational bases is confined to: a)a few derivational affixes such as the prefix un- and the suffix –ly: unnamed, unknown; smilingly, knowingly; b)other bases which coincide only with nominal and adjectival stems: mocking-bird, dancing-girl, ice-bound, easygoing.
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3. Bases they coincide with word- groups: flat-waisted, second-rateness. Bases of this class allow a rather limited range of collocability. They are mostly combined with derivational affixes in the class of adjectives and nouns: blue-eyed, long-fingered, old-worldish. Free word-groups make up the greater part of this class of bases.
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IV. DERIVATIONAL AFFIXES — are Immediate Constituents of derived words in all parts of speech. Semantically derivational affixes are characterized by a unity of part-of-speech meaning, lexical meaning, differential meaning; distributional meanings.
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Derivational affixes have two basic functions: 1.stem building which is common to all affixational morphemes: derivational and non-derivational, cf.: -sh in the words girlish, greyish and –ish in the words publish, distinguish;
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2.word-building, this is the function of repatterning a derivational base and thus forming new words. The repatterning may result in transferring a derivational base into the stem of another part of speech, for example, the derivational suffix –ness in the words friendliness and girlishness repattern the adjectival derivational bases friendly-, girlish- into the noun stems.
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4.1. SEMANTIC CHARACTERISTICS OF DERIVATIONAL AFFIXES The part-of-speech meaning is proper to derivational suffixes and prefixes in different degrees. Prefixes like en-, de-, out-, un-, be- possess the part-of-speech meaning and function as verb classifiers, for example, enlarge, deice, unhook, befriend. The prefix over- evidently lacks the part-of- speech meaning and is freely used both for verbs and adjectives, for example, oversleep, overeat, over-confident, over-worried.
20
The lexical meaning in derivational affixes may be viewed at different levels: 1.the lexical meaning of a generic type proper to a set of affixes, forming a semantic subset. The meaning of resemblance found in the suffixes –ish, -like, -y, -ly (spiderish, spiderlike, spidery); The meaning of abstract quality conveyed by the suffixes –ness, -ty (blindness, equality); The meaning of absence conveyed by the prefix un- and the suffix –less (unclean, unlucky, speechless, heartless);
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2.an individual lexical meaning shared by no other affix. The suffixes –ish, -like, -y all have the meaning of resemblance but –like conveys an overall resemblance, -ish conveys likeness to the most typical qualities of the object; -y conveys likeness to outer shape, form, size of the object.
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Derivational affixes may be monosemantic, for example, the prefix omni- meaning ‘all’ (omnipresence, omniscience), and polysemantic, for example, the suffix –less meaning ‘lacking smth’ (brainless, endless) and ‘exceeding a category’ (timeless, countless).
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4.2. SEMI-AFFIXES — are elements which stand midway between roots and affixes. These are morphemes whose derivational function does not allow one to refer them either to derivational affixes or to bases, e.g., half- in the word half-done, half-broken; self- in the words self-made, self-interest; ill- in the word ill-dressed, ill-behaved. On the one hand, these morphemes retain certain lexical ties with the root-morphemes of independent words, on the other hand, they function as derivational prefixes.
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V. DERIVATIONAL PATTERNS DP is a regular meaningful arrangement, a structure that imposes rigid rules on the order and the nature of the derivational bases and affixes that may be brought together. Small letters v, n, a, d, num stand for the bases which coincide with the stems of the respective parts of speech: verbs, nouns, adjectives, adverbs; v ed, v ing stand for the bases which are the past and present participles respectively. In words of the long-fingered or sit-inner type the derivational bases are represented by bracketed symbols of the parts of speech making up the corresponding collocations, for example (a+n)+ +- ed), (v+d) + er.
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5.1. STRUCTURAL-SEMANTIC CLASSIFICATION OF DERIVATIONAL PATTERNS 1.at the level of structural types patterns are known as structural formulas. They specify only the class membership of ICs and the direction of motivation, such as a+sf → N, prf +n → V, prf + n → N, n + sf → N, n + sf → V, etc.
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In terms of patterns of this type, all words may be classified into four classes: 1.suffixal derivatives: friendship, glorified, blackness, skyward, etc.; 2.prefixal derivatives: rewrite, exboxer, non-smoker, un-happy, etc.; 3.conversions: a cut, to parrot, to winter, etc.; 4.compound words: key-ring, music- lover, wind-driven, etc.
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2.at the level of structural patterns which specify the base classes and individual affixes thus indicating the lexical-grammatical and lexical classes of derivatives within certain structural classes of words. The affixes refer derivatives to specific parts of speech and lexical subsets as, for example, DP n + ish → A signals a set of adjectives with the lexical meaning of resemblance, for example, boyish, girlish, womanish, whereas a + -ish → A signals adjectives meaning a small degree of quality, for example, pinkish, whitish, wildish, etc.
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3.at the level of structural-semantic patterns the latter specify semantic peculiarities of bases and individual meanings of affixes. The nominal bases in the pattern n+-ess → N are confined to nouns having in their semantic structures a component ‘a male animate being’: lioness, traitress, stewardess, etc.; The nominal bases in n+-ful 2 → N are limited by nouns having a semantic component ‘container’: lungful, carful, mouthful, whereas in n+ -ful 1 → A the nominal bases are confined to nouns of abstract meaning.
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6. HISTORICAL CHANGEABILITY OF WORD- STRUCTURE 1.Process of simplification: a.root-morphemes may turn into affixational or semi-affixational morphemes; b.polymorphic words may become monomorphic; c. compound words may be transformed into derived or even simple words. E.g. friendship – frēōndscipe; husband – hus-bond-a; cupboard [k 0bqd ]
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Summary and Conclusions 1.Derivational level of analysis aims at finding out the derivative types of words, the interrelation between them and at finding out how different types of derivatives are constructed.
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2.Derivationally all words form two structural classes: simplexes, i.e. simple, non-derived words and complexes, or derivatives. Derivatives fall into: suffixal derivatives, prefixal derivatives, conversions and compounds. The relative importance of each structural type is conditioned by its frequency value in actual speech and its importance in the existing word-stock.
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3.Each structural type of complexes shows preference for one or another part of speech. Within each part of speech derivative structures are characterised by a set of derivational patterns. 4.The basic elementary units of the derivative structure are: derivational bases, derivational affixes, derivational patterns.
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5.Derivational bases differ from stems both structurally and semantically. Derivational bases are built on the following language units: a) stems of various structure, b) word-forms, c) word-groups or phrases. Each class and subset of bases has its own range of collocability and shows peculiar ties with different parts of speech.
34
6.Derivational affixes form derived stems by repatterning derivational bases. Semantically derivational affixes present a unity of lexical meaning and other types of meaning: functional, distributional and differential unlike non-derivational affixes which lack lexical meaning.
35
7.Derivational patterns (DP) are meaningful arrangements of various types of ICs that can be observed in a set of words based on their mutual interdependence. DPs can be viewed in terms of collocability of each IC. There are two types of DPs — structural that specify base classes and individual affixes, and structural- semantic that specify semantic peculiarities of bases and the individual meaning of the affix.
36
DPs of different levels of generalisation signal: 1.1) the class of source unit that motivates the derivative and the direction of motivation between different classes of words; 2.2) the part of speech of the derivative; 3.3) the lexical sets and semantic features of derivatives.
37
REFERENCES: 1.Gunzburg R.Z. A Course in Modern English Lexicology, M., 1979. 2.Zykova I.V. Practical Course of English Lexicology, M., 2006.
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10.1. The morphological structure of English words.
10.2. Definition of word-formation. Synchronic and diachronic approaches to word formation.
10.3. Main units of word-formation. Derivational analysis.
10.4. Ways of word-formation.
10.5. Functional approach to word-formation.
10.6. The communicative aspect of word-formation.
10.1. Structurally, words are divisible into smaller units which are called morphemes. Morphemes are the smallest indivisible two-facet (significant) units. A morpheme exists only as a constituent part of the word.
One morpheme may have different phonemic shapes, i.e. it is represented by allomorphs (its variants),
e.g. in please, pleasure, pleasant [pli: z], [ple3-], [plez-] are allomorphs of one morpheme.
Semantically, all morphemes are classified into roots and affixes. The root is the lexical centre of the word, its basic part; it has an individual lexical meaning,
e.g. in help, helper, helpful, helpless, helping, unhelpful — help- is the root.
Affixes are used to build stems; they are classified into prefixes and suffixes; there are also infixes. A prefix precedes the root, a suffix follows it; an infix is inserted in the body of the word,
e.g. prefixes: re -think, mis -take, dis -cover, over -eat, ex -wife;
suffixes: danger- ous, familiar- ize, kind- ness, swea- ty etc.
Structurally, morphemes fall into: free morphemes, bound morphemes, semi-bound (semi-free) morphemes.
A free morpheme is one that coincides with a stem or a word-form. A great many root-morphemes are free,
e.g. in friendship the root -friend — is free as it coincides with a word-form of the noun friend.
A bound morpheme occurs only as a part of a word. All affixes are bound morphemes because they always make part of a word,
e.g. in friendship the suffix -ship is a bound morpheme.
Some root morphemes are also bound as they always occur in combination with other roots and/or affixes,
e.g. in conceive, receive, perceive — ceive — is a bound root.
To this group belong so-called combining forms, root morphemes of Greek and Latin origin,
e.g. tele -, mega, — logy, micro -, — phone: telephone, microphone, telegraph, etc.
Semi-bound morphemes are those that can function both as a free root morpheme and as an affix (sometimes with a change of sound form and/or meaning),
e.g. proof, a. » giving or having protection against smth harmful or unwanted» (a free root morpheme): proof against weather;
-proof (in adjectives) » treated or made so as not to be harmed by or so as to give protection against» (a semi-bound morpheme): bulletproof, ovenproof, dustproof, etc.
Morphemic analysis aims at determining the morphemic (morphological) structure of a word, i.e. the aim is to split the word into morphemes and state their number, types and the pattern of arrangement. The basic unit of morphemic analysis is the morpheme.
In segmenting words into morphemes, we use the method of Immediate and Unltimate Constituents. At each stage of the analysis, a word is broken down into two meaningful parts (ICs, i.e. Immediate Constituents). At the next stage, each IC is broken down into two smaller meaningful elements. The analysis is completed when we get indivisible constituents, i.e. Ultimate Constituents, or morphs, which represent morphemes in concrete words,
e.g. 
Friend-, -ly, -ness are indivisible into smaller meaningful units, so they are Ultimate Constituents (morphs) and the word friendliness consists of 3 morphemes: friend-+-li+-ness.
There are two structural types of words at the morphemic level of analysis: monomorphic (non-segmentable, indivisible) and polymorphic words (segmentable, divisible). The former consist only of a root morpheme, e.g. cat, give, soon, blue, oh, three. The latter consist of two or more morphemes, e.g. disagreeableness is a polymorphic word which consists of four morphemes, one root and three affixes: dis- + -agree- + -able + -ness. The morphemic structure is Pr + R + Sf1 + Sf2.
10.2. Word-Formation (W-F) is building words from available linguistic material after certain structural and semantic patterns. It is also a branch of lexicology that studies the process of building words as well as the derivative structure of words, the patterns on which they are built and derivational relations between words.
Synchronically, linguists study the system of W-F at a given time; diachronically, they are concerned with the history of W-F, and the history of building concrete words. The results of the synchronic and the diachronic analysis may not always coincide,
e.g. historically, to beg was derived from beggar, but synchronically the noun beggar is considered derived from the verb after the pattern v + -er/-ar → N, as the noun is structurally and semantically more complex. Cf. also: peddle- ← -pedlar/peddler, lie ← liar.
10.3. The aim of derivational analysis is to determine the derivational structure of a word, i.e. to state the derivational pattern after which it is built and the derivational base (the source of derivation).
Traditionally, the basic units of derivational analysis are: the derived word (the derivative), the derivational base, the derivational pattern, the derivational affix.
The derivational base is the source of a derived word, i.e. a stem, a word-form, a word-group (sometimes even a sentence) which motivates the derivative semantically and on which the latter is based structurally,
e.g. in dutifully the base is dutiful-, which is a stem;
in unsmiling it is the word-form smiling (participle I);
in blue-eyed it is the word-group blue eye.
In affixation, derivational affixes are added to derivational bases to build new words, i.e. derivatives. They repattern the bases, changing them structurally and semantically. They also mark derivational relations between words,
e.g. in encouragement en- and -ment are derivational affixes: a prefix and a suffix; they are used to build the word encouragement: (en- + courage) + -ment.
They also mark the derivational relations between courage and encourage, encourage and encouragement.
A derivational pattern is a scheme (a formula) describing the structure of derived words already existing in the language and after which new words may be built,
e.g. the pattern of friendliness is a+ -ness- → N, i.e. an adjective stem + the noun-forming suffix -ness.
Derivationally, all words fall into two classes: simple (non-derived) words and derivatives. Simple words are those that are non-motivated semantically and independent of other linguistic units structurally, e.g. boy, run, quiet, receive, etc. Derived words are motivated structurally and semantically by other linguistic units, e.g. to spam, spamming, spammer, anti-spamming are motivated by spam.
Each derived word is characterized by a certain derivational structure. In traditional linguistics, the derivational structure is viewed as a binary entity, reflecting the relationship between derivational bases and derivatives and consisting of a stem and a derivational affix,
e.g. the structure of nationalization is nationaliz- + -ation
(described by the formula, or pattern v + -ation → N).
But there is a different point of view. In modern W-F, the derivational structure of a word is defined as a finite set of derivational steps necessary to produce (build) the derived word,
e.g. [(nation + -al) + — ize ] + -ation.
To describe derivational structures and derivational relations, it is convenient to use the relator language and a system of oriented graphs. In this language, a word is generated by joining relators to the amorphous root O. Thus, R1O describes the structure of a simple verb (cut, permiate); R2O shows the structure of a simple noun (friend, nation); R3O is a simple adjective (small, gregarious) and R4O is a simple adverb (then, late).
e.g. The derivational structure of nationalization is described by the R-formula R2R1R3R2O; the R-formula of unemployment is R2R2R1O (employ → employment → unemployment).
In oriented graphs, a branch slanting left and down » /» correspond to R1; a vertical branch » I» corresponds to R2; a branch slanting right and down » » to R3, and a horizontal right branch to R4.
Thus we can show the derivational structure of unemployment like this:
and dutifulness like this:
Words whose derivational structures can be described by one R-formula are called monostructural, e.g. dutifulness, encouragement; words whose derivational structures can be described by two (or more) R-formulas are polystructural,
e.g. disagreement R2R2R1O / R2R1R1O
(agree → disagree → disagreement R2R1R1O or
agree → agreement → disagreement R2R2R1O)
There are complex units of word-formation. They are derivational clusters and derivational sets.
A derivational cluster is a group of words that have the same root and are derivationally related. The structure of a cluster can be shown with the help of a graph,
e.g. READ
reread read
misreadreaderreadable
reading
readership ∙ unreadable
A derivational set is a group of words that are built after the same derivational pattern,
e.g. n + -ish → A: mulish, dollish, apish, bookish, wolfish, etc,
Table TWO TYPES OF STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
| MORPHEMIC ANALYSIS | DERIVATIONAL ANALYSIS | |
| AIM | to find out the morphemic structure (composition) | to determine the derivational structure |
| BASIC UNITS | morphemes (roots and affixes) | derived word, derivational pattern, derivational base, derivational step, derivational means (e.g. affix) |
| RESULTS: CLASSES OF WORDS | monomorphic (non-segmentable) and polymorphic (segmentable) words | simple and derived words |
| EXAMPLES | 1. cut, v. and cut, n. are monomorphic (root) words | 1. cut, v. is a simple word (R1O); cut, n. is derived from it (R2R1O) |
| 2. encouragement, unemployment consist of three morphemes and have the same morphemic composition: Pr + R + Sf | 2. encouragement and unemployment have different derivational structures: v + -ment → N (R2R1R2O) and un- + n → N (R2R2R1O) |
10.4. Traditionally, the following ways of W-F are distinguished:
affixation, compounding, conversion, shortening, blending, back-formation. Sound interchange, sound imitation, distinctive stress, lexicalization, coinage certainly do not belong to word-formation as no derivational patterns are used.
Affixation is formation of words by adding derivational affixes to derivational bases. Affixation is devided into prefixation and suffixation,
e.g. the following prefixes and suffixes are used to build words with negative or opposite meanings: un-, non-, a-, contra-, counter-, de-, dis-, in-, mis-, -less, e.g. non-toxic.
Compounding is building words by combining two (or more) derivational bases (stems or word-forms),
e.g. big -ticket (= expensive), fifty-fifty, laid-back, statesman.
Among compounds, we distinguish derivational compounds, formed by adding a derivational affix (usu. a suffix) to a word group,
e.g. heart-shaped (= shaped like a heart), stone-cutter (= one who cuts stone).
Conversion consists in making a word from some existing word by transferring it into another part of speech. The new word acquires a new paradigm; the sound form and the morphimic composition remain unchanged. The most productive conversion patterns are n → V (i.e. formation of verbs from noun-stems), v → N (formation of nouns from verb stems), a → V (formation of verbs from adjective stems),
e.g. a drink, a do, a go, a swim: Have another try.
to face, to nose, to paper, to mother, to ape;
to cool, to pale, to rough, to black, to yellow, etc.
Nouns and verbs can be converted from other parts of speech, too, for example, adverbs: to down, to out, to up; ifs and buts.
Shortening consists in substituting a part for a whole. Shortening may result in building new lexical items (i.e. lexical shortenings) and so-called graphic abbreviations, which are not words but signs representing words in written speech; in reading, they are substituted by the words they stand for,
e.g. Dr = doctor, St = street, saint, Oct = 0ctober, etc.
Lexical shortenings are produced in two ways:
(1) clipping, i.e. a new word is made from a syllable (or two syllables) of the original word,
e.g. back-clippings: pro ← professional, chimp ← chimpanzee,
fore-clippings: copter ← helicopter, gator ← alligator,
fore-and-aft clippings: duct ← deduction, tec ← detective,
(2) abbreviation, i.e. a new word is made from the initial letters of the original word or word-group. Abbreviations are devided into letter-based initialisms (FBI ← the Federal Bureau of Investigation) and acronyms pronounced as root words (AIDS, NATO).
Blending is building new words, called blends, fusions, telescopic words, or portmanteau words, by merging (usu.irregular) fragments of two existing words,
e.g. biopic ← biography + picture, alcoholiday ← alcohol + holiday.
Back-formation is derivation of new words by subtracting a real or supposed affix (usu. a suffix) from existing words (on analogy with existing derivational pairs),
e.g. to enthuse ← enthusiasm, to intuit ← intuition.
Sound interchange and distinctive stress are not ways of word-formation. They are ways of distinguishing words or word forms,
e.g. food -feed, speech — speak, life — live;
‘ insult, n. — in ‘ sult, v., ‘ perfect, a. — per ‘ fect, v.
Sound interchange may be combined with affixation and/or the shift of stress,
e.g. strong — strength, wide — width.
10.5. Productivity and activity of derivational ways and means.
Productivity and activity in W-F are close but not identical. By productivity of derivational ways/types/patterns/means we mean ability to derive new words,
e.g. The suffix -er/ the pattern v + -er → N is highly productive.
By activity we mean the number of words derived with the help of a certain derivational means or after a derivational pattern,
e.g. — er is found in hundreds of words so it is active.
Sometimes productivity and activity go together, but they may not always do.
| DERIVATIONAL MEANS | EXAMPLE | PRODUCTIVITY | ACTIVITY |
| -ly | nicely | + | + |
| -ous | dangerous | _ | + |
| -th | breadth | _ | _ |
In modern English, the most productive way of W-P is affixation (suffixation more so than prefixation), then comes compounding, shortening takes third place, with conversion coming fourth.
Productivity may change historically. Some derivational means / patterns may be non-productive for centuries or decades, then become productive, then decline again,
e.g. In the late 19th c. US -ine was a popular feminine suffix on the analogy of heroine, forming such words as actorine, doctorine, speakerine. It is not productive or active now.
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