What is the definition of word recognition

Word recognition, according to Literacy Information and Communication System (LINCS) is «the ability of a reader to recognize written words correctly and virtually effortlessly». It is sometimes referred to as «isolated word recognition» because it involves a reader’s ability to recognize words individually from a list without needing similar words for contextual help.^[1] LINCS continues to say that «rapid and effortless word recognition is the main component of fluent reading» and explains that these skills can be improved by «practic[ing] with flashcards, lists, and word grids».

In her 1990 review of the science of learning to read, psychologist Marilyn Jager Adams wrote that «the single immutable and nonoptional fact about skilful reading is that it involves relatively complete processing of the individual letters of print.»^[2] The article «The Science of Word Recognition» says that «evidence from the last 20 years of work in cognitive psychology indicates that we use the letters within a word to recognize a word». Over time, other theories have been put forth proposing the mechanisms by which words are recognized in isolation, yet with both speed and accuracy.^[3] These theories focus more on the significance of individual letters and letter-shape recognition (ex. serial letter recognition and parallel letter recognition). Other factors such as saccadic eye movements and the linear relationship between letters also affect the way we recognize words.^[4]

An article in ScienceDaily suggests that «early word recognition is key to lifelong reading skills».^[5] There are different ways to develop these skills. For example, creating flash cards for words that appear at a high frequency is considered a tool for overcoming dyslexia.^[6] It has been argued that prosody, the patterns of rhythm and sound used in poetry, can improve word recognition.^[7]

Word recognition is a manner of reading based upon the immediate perception of what word a familiar grouping of letters represents. This process exists in opposition to phonetics and word analysis, as a different method of recognizing and verbalizing visual language (i.e. reading).^[8] Word recognition functions primarily on automaticity. On the other hand, phonetics and word analysis rely on the basis of cognitively applying learned grammatical rules for the blending of letters, sounds, graphemes, and morphemes.

Word recognition is measured as a matter of speed, such that a word with a high level of recognition is read faster than a novel one.^[3] This manner of testing suggests that comprehension of the meaning of the words being read is not required, but rather the ability to recognize them in a way that allows proper pronunciation. Therefore, context is unimportant, and word recognition is often assessed with words presented in isolation in formats such as flash cards^[8] Nevertheless, ease in word recognition, as in fluency, enables proficiency that fosters comprehension of the text being read.^[9]

The intrinsic value of word recognition may be obvious due to the prevalence of literacy in modern society. However, its role may be less conspicuous in the areas of literacy learning, second-language learning, and developmental delays in reading. As word recognition is better understood, more reliable and efficient forms of teaching may be discovered for both children and adult learners of first-language literacy. Such information may also benefit second-language learners with acquisition of novel words and letter characters.^[10] Furthermore, a better understanding of the processes involved in word recognition may enable more specific treatments for individuals with reading disabilities.

TheoriesEdit

Bouma shapeEdit

Bouma shape, named after the Dutch vision researcher Herman Bouma, refers to the overall outline, or shape, of a word.^[11] Herman Bouma discussed the role of «global word shape» in his word recognition experiment conducted in 1973.^[12] Theories of bouma shape became popular in word recognition, suggesting people recognize words from the shape the letters make in a group relative to each other.^[3] This contrasts the idea that letters are read individually. Instead, via prior exposure, people become familiar with outlines, and thereby recognize them the next time they are presented with the same word, or bouma.

The slower pace with which people read words written entirely in upper-case, or with alternating upper- and lower-case letters, supports the bouma theory.^[3] The theory holds that a novel bouma shape created by changing the lower-case letters to upper-case hinders a person’s recall ability. James Cattell also supported this theory through his study, which gave evidence for an effect he called word superiority. This referred to the improved ability of people to deduce letters if the letters were presented within a word, rather than a mix of random letters. Furthermore, multiple studies have demonstrated that readers are less likely to notice misspelled words with a similar bouma shape than misspelled words with a different bouma shape.

Though these effects have been consistently replicated, many of their findings have been contested. Some have suggested that the reading ability of upper-case words is due to the amount of practice a person has with them. People who practice become faster at reading upper-case words, countering the importance of the bouma. Additionally, the word superiority effect might result from familiarity with phonetic combinations of letters, rather than the outlines of words, according to psychologists James McClelland and James Johnson.^[13]

Parallel recognition vs. serial recognitionEdit

Parallel letter recognition is the most widely accepted model of word recognition by psychologists today.^[3] In this model, all letters within a group are perceived simultaneously for word recognition. In contrast, the serial recognition model proposes that letters are recognized individually, one by one, before being integrated for word recognition. It predicts that single letters are identified faster and more accurately than many letters together, as in a word. However, this model was rejected because it cannot explain the word superiority effect, which states that readers can identify letters more quickly and accurately in the context of a word rather than in isolation.

Neural networksEdit

A more modern approach to word recognition has been based on recent research on neuron functioning.^[3] The visual aspects of a word, such as horizontal and vertical lines or curves, are thought to activate word-recognizing receptors. From those receptors, neural signals are sent to either excite or inhibit connections to other words in a person’s memory. The words with characters that match the visual representation of the observed word receive excitatory signals. As the mind further processes the appearance of the word, inhibitory signals simultaneously reduce activation to words in one’s memory with a dissimilar appearance. This neural strengthening of connections to relevant letters and words, as well as the simultaneous weakening of associations with irrelevant ones, eventually activates the correct word as part of word recognition in the neural network.

Physiological backgroundEdit

The brainEdit

Using positron emission tomography (PET) scans and event-related potentials, researchers have located two separate areas in the fusiform gyrus that respond specifically to strings of letters. The posterior fusiform gyrus responds to words and non-words, regardless of their semantic context.^[14] The anterior fusiform gyrus is affected by the semantic context, and whether letter combinations are words or pseudowords (novel letter combinations that mimic phonetic conventions, ex. shing). This role of the anterior fusiform gyrus may correlate to higher processing of the word’s concept and meaning. Both these regions are distinct from areas that respond to other types of complex stimuli, such as faces or colored patterns, and are part of a functionally specialized ventral pathway. Within 100 milliseconds (ms) of fixating on a word, an area of the left inferotemporal cortex processes its surface structure. Semantic information begins to be processed after 150 ms and shows widely distributed cortical network activation. After 200 ms, the integration of the different kinds of information occurs.^[15]

The accuracy with which readers recognize words depends on the area of the retina that is stimulated.^[16] Reading in English selectively trains specific regions of the left hemiretina for processing this type of visual information, making this part of the visual field optimal for word recognition. As words drift from this optimal area, word recognition accuracy declines. Because of this training, effective neural organization develops in the corresponding left cerebral hemisphere.^[16]

Saccadic eye movements and fixationsEdit

Eyes make brief, unnoticeable movements called saccades approximately three to four times per second.^[17] Saccades are separated by fixations, which are moments when the eyes are not moving. During saccades, visual sensitivity is diminished, which is called saccadic suppression. This ensures that the majority of the intake of visual information occurs during fixations. Lexical processing does, however, continue during saccades. The timing and accuracy of word recognition relies on where in the word the eye is currently fixating. Recognition is fastest and most accurate when fixating in the middle of the word. This is due to a decrease in visual acuity that results as letters are situated farther from the fixated location and become harder to see.^[18]

Frequency effectsEdit

The word frequency effect suggests that words that appear the most in printed language are easier to recognize than words that appear less frequently.^[19] Recognition of these words is faster and more accurate than other words. The word frequency effect is one of the most robust and most commonly reported effects in contemporary literature on word recognition. It has played a role in the development of many theories, such as the bouma shape. Furthermore, the neighborhood frequency effect states that word recognition is slower and less accurate when the target has an orthographic neighbor that is higher in frequency than itself. Orthographic neighbors are words of all the same length that differ by only one letter of that word.^[19]

Real world applicationsEdit

Inter-letter spacingEdit

Serif fonts, i.e.: fonts with small appendages at the end of strokes, hinder lexical access. Word recognition is quicker with sans-serif fonts by an average of 8 ms.^[20] These fonts have significantly more inter-letter spacing, and studies have shown that responses to words with increased inter-letter spacing were faster, regardless of word frequency and length.^[21] This demonstrates an inverse relationship between fixation duration and small increases in inter-letter spacing,^[22] most likely due to a reduction in lateral inhibition in the neural network.^[20] When letters are farther apart, it is more likely that individuals will focus their fixations at the beginning of words, whereas default letter spacing on word processing software encourages fixation at the center of words.^[22]

Tools and measurementsEdit

Both PET and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) are used to study the activation of various parts of the brain while participants perform reading-based tasks.^[23] However, magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG) provide a more accurate temporal measurement by recording event-related potentials each millisecond. Though identifying where the electrical responses occur can be easier with an MEG, an EEG is a more pervasive form of research in word recognition. Event-related potentials help measure both the strength and the latency of brain activity in certain areas during readings. Furthermore, by combining the usefulness of the event-related potentials with eye movement monitoring, researchers are able to correlate fixations during readings with word recognition in the brain in real-time. Since saccades and fixations are indicative of word recognition, electrooculography (EOG) is used to measure eye movements and the amount of time required for lexical access to target words. This has been demonstrated by studies in which longer, less common words induce longer fixations, and smaller, less important words may not be fixated on at all while reading a sentence.

LearningEdit

According to the LINCS website, the role of word recognition results in differences between the habits of adults and the habits of children learning how to read.^[8] For non-literate adults learning to read, many rely more on word recognition than on phonics and word analysis. Poor readers with prior knowledge concerning the target words can recognize words and make fewer errors than poor readers with no prior knowledge.^[24] Instead of blending sounds of individual letters, adult learners are more likely to recognize words automatically.^[8] However, this can lead to errors when a similarly spelled, yet different word, is mistaken for one the reader is familiar with. Errors such as these are considered to be due to the learner’s experiences and exposure. Younger and newer learners tend to focus more on the implications from the text and rely less on background knowledge or experience. Poor readers with prior knowledge utilize the semantic aspects of the word, whereas proficient readers rely on only graphic information for word recognition.^[24] However, practice and improved proficiency tend to lead to a more efficient use of combining reading ability and background knowledge for effective word recognition.^[8]

The role of the frequency effect has been greatly incorporated into the learning process.^[8] While the word analysis approach is extremely beneficial, many words defy regular grammatical structures and are more easily incorporated into the lexical memory by automatic word recognition. To facilitate this, many educational experts highlight the importance of repetition in word exposure. This utilizes the frequency effect by increasing the reader’s familiarity with the target word, and thereby improving both future speed and accuracy in reading. This repetition can be in the form of flash cards, word-tracing, reading aloud, picturing the word, and other forms of practice that improve the association of the visual text with word recall.^[25]

Role of technologyEdit

Improvements in technology have greatly contributed to advances in the understanding and research in word recognition. New word recognition capabilities have made computer-based learning programs more effective and reliable.^[8] Improved technology has enabled eye-tracking, which monitors individuals’ saccadic eye movements while they read. This has furthered understanding of how certain patterns of eye movement increases word recognition and processing. Furthermore, changes can be simultaneously made to text just outside the reader’s area of focus without the reader being made aware. This has provided more information on where the eye focuses when an individual is reading and where the boundaries of attention lie.

With this additional information, researchers have proposed new models of word recognition that can be programmed into computers. As a result, computers can now mimic how a human would perceive and react to language and novel words.^[8] This technology has advanced to the point where models of literacy learning can be digitally demonstrated. For example, a computer can now mimic a child’s learning progress and induce general language rules when exposed to a list of words with only a limited number of explanations. Nevertheless, as no universal model has yet been agreed upon, the generalizability of word recognition models and its simulations may be limited.^[26]

Despite this lack of consensus regarding parameters in simulation designs, any progress in the area of word recognition is helpful to future research regarding which learning styles may be most successful in classrooms. Correlations also exist between reading ability, spoken language development, and learning disabilities. Therefore, advances in any one of these areas may assist understanding in inter-related subjects.^[27] Ultimately, the development of word recognition may facilitate the breakthrough between «learning to read» and «reading to learn».^[28]

ReferencesEdit

CitationsEdit

Last Update: Jan 03, 2023

This is a question our experts keep getting from time to time. Now, we have got the complete detailed explanation and answer for everyone, who is interested!

Asked by: Mr. Emiliano Lueilwitz

Score: 4.8/5
(62 votes)

Word recognition, according to Literacy Information and Communication System is «the ability of a reader to recognize written words correctly and virtually effortlessly».

What is word recognition example?

For example, when a student in this phase knows the words ‘thought‘ and ‘ought,’ the student will be able to decode the word ‘brought’ without assistance. Structural elements of words such as prefixes, suffixes, and root words are identified and used to decode word parts.

What is word recognition in the simple view of reading?

The Simple View of Reading (SVR)-Part 1. … Word recognition is the ability to read and understand the words on a page, and language comprehension is the ability to make sense of the language we hear and the language we read.

How do you teach word recognition?

Teachers can scaffold readers as they build word recognition skills in three main ways:

What is the importance of word recognition?

With little effort word recognition is the main component of fluent reading and it can be improved by practicing with flash cards, lists, and word grids. Word recognition is important because it help individuals to read fluently and be able recognize words easily.

23 related questions found

Распознавание слов, согласно Информационной и коммуникационной системе грамотности (LINCS), — это «способность читателя распознавать написанные слова правильно и практически без усилий ». Иногда это называют «распознаванием отдельных слов», потому что оно включает в себя способность читателя распознавать слова индивидуально из списка, не требуя похожих слов для контекстной справки. LINCS продолжает говорить, что «быстрое и легкое распознавание слов является основным компонентом беглого чтения», и объясняет, что эти навыки можно улучшить, «практикуя карточки, списки и сетки слов».

В своем обзоре науки о чтении в 1990 году психолог Мэрилин Джагер Адамс написала, что «единственный неизменный и необязательный факт, связанный с умелым чтением, заключается в том, что оно включает в себя относительно полную обработку личности печатные буквы «. В статье «Наука распознавания слов» говорится, что «данные последних 20 лет работы в области когнитивной психологии показывают, что мы используем буквы в слове для распознавания слова». Со временем были выдвинуты другие теории, предлагающие механизмы, с помощью которых слова распознаются изолированно, но при этом быстро и точно. Эти теории больше фокусируются на значении отдельных букв и распознавания формы букв (например, распознавания последовательных букв и распознавания параллельных букв). Другие факторы, такие как саккадические движения глаз и линейное соотношение между буквами, также влияют на то, как мы распознаем слова.

В статье в ScienceDaily говорится, что «раннее распознавание слов — это ключ к навыкам чтения на протяжении всей жизни ». Есть разные способы развить эти навыки. Например, создание карточек для слов, которые появляются часто, считается средством преодоления дислексии. Утверждалось, что просодия, образцы ритма и звука, используемые в поэзии, могут улучшить распознавание слов.

Распознавание слов — это способ чтения, основанный на мгновенное восприятие того, какое слово представляет собой знакомая группа букв. Этот процесс существует в противоположность фонетике и анализу слов как другому методу распознавания и вербализации визуального языка (т. Е. Чтения). Распознавание слов работает в основном автоматически. С другой стороны, фонетика и анализ слов основаны на когнитивном применении усвоенных грамматических правил для смешивания букв, звуков, графем и морфем.

Распознавание слов оценивается как материальная величина. скорости, так что слово с высоким уровнем распознавания читается быстрее, чем новое. Такой способ тестирования предполагает, что понимание смысла читаемых слов не требуется, а скорее способность распознавать их таким образом, чтобы это позволяло правильное произношение. Таким образом, контекст не важен, и распознавание слов часто оценивается с помощью слов, представленных изолированно в таких форматах, как флэш-карты. Тем не менее, простота распознавания слов, как в беглость, обеспечивает уровень владения языком, который способствует пониманию читаемого текста..

Внутренняя ценность распознавания слов может быть очевидна из-за преобладания грамотности в современном обществе. Однако его роль может быть менее заметной в областях обучения грамоте, изучения второго языка и задержек в развитии чтения. По мере того как распознавание слов становится более понятным, могут быть открыты более надежные и эффективные формы обучения как для детей, так и для взрослых, изучающих грамотность на первом языке. Такая информация также может быть полезна изучающим второй язык благодаря усвоению новых слов и буквенных знаков. Кроме того, лучшее понимание процессов, задействованных в распознавании слов, может дать возможность более специфического лечения людей с нарушениями чтения.

Содержание

• 1 Теории
  • 1.1 Форма Баума
  • 1.2 Параллельное распознавание и последовательное распознавание
  • 1.3 Нейронные сети
• 2 Физиологический фон
  • 2.1 Мозг
  • 2.2 Саккадические движения глаз и фиксации
• 3 Частотные эффекты
• 4 Реальные приложения
  • 4.1 Межбуквенный интервал
  • 4.2 Инструменты и измерения
  • 4.3 Обучение
  • 4.4 Роль технологии
• 5 Ссылки
• 6 Цитаты

Теории

Форма Баума

Форма Баума, названная в честь голландского исследователя зрения Германа Баума, относится к общему контуру или форме слова. Герман Баума обсуждал роль «глобальной формы слова» в своем эксперименте по распознаванию слов, проведенном в 1973 году. Теории формы бумы стали популярными в распознавании слов, предполагая, что люди узнают слова по форме, которую буквы образуют в группе относительно друг друга. Это контрастирует с идеей, что буквы читаются индивидуально. Вместо этого, через предварительное знакомство, люди знакомятся с очертаниями и, таким образом, узнают их в следующий раз, когда им показывают то же слово, или bouma.

Более медленный темп, с которым люди читают слова, написанные полностью заглавными буквами или чередующимися прописными и строчными буквами, подтверждает теорию бумы. Теория утверждает, что новая форма бумы, созданная заменой строчных букв на прописные, препятствует способности человека вспоминать. Джеймс Кеттелл также поддержал эту теорию в своем исследовании, которое показало эффект, который он назвал превосходством слов. Это относилось к улучшенной способности людей выводить буквы, если они были представлены в слове, а не в смеси случайных букв. Более того, многочисленные исследования показали, что читатели с меньшей вероятностью заметят слова с ошибками с похожей формой бумы, чем слова с ошибками с другой формой бумы.

Хотя эти эффекты постоянно воспроизводились, многие их выводы были оспорены. Некоторые предполагают, что способность читать прописные слова обусловлена ​​объемом практики, которую имеет с ними человек. Люди, которые практикуют, быстрее читают заглавные буквы, что снижает важность бумы. Кроме того, по мнению психологов Джеймса Макклелланда и Джеймса Джонсона, эффект превосходства слов может быть результатом знакомства с фонетическими комбинациями букв, а не с контурами слов.

Параллельное распознавание или последовательное распознавание

Распознавание параллельных букв — это наиболее широко используемая сегодня психологами модель распознавания слов. В этой модели все буквы в группе воспринимаются одновременно для распознавания слов. Напротив, модель последовательного распознавания предполагает, что буквы распознаются индивидуально, одна за другой, прежде чем они будут интегрированы для распознавания слов. Он предсказывает, что отдельные буквы идентифицируются быстрее и точнее, чем несколько букв вместе, как в слове. Однако эта модель была отвергнута, поскольку она не может объяснить эффект превосходства слова, который гласит, что читатели могут быстрее и точнее определять буквы в контексте слова, а не изолированно.

Нейронные сети

Более современный подход к распознаванию слов основан на недавних исследованиях функционирования нейронов. Считается, что визуальные аспекты слова, такие как горизонтальные и вертикальные линии или кривые, активируют рецепторы, распознающие слова. От этих рецепторов посылаются нейронные сигналы, которые либо возбуждают, либо запрещают связи с другими словами в памяти человека. Слова с символами, соответствующими визуальному представлению наблюдаемого слова, получают возбуждающие сигналы. По мере того, как разум обрабатывает появление слова, тормозящие сигналы одновременно снижают активацию слов в памяти с другим внешним видом. Это нейронное усиление связей с соответствующими буквами и словами, а также одновременное ослабление ассоциаций с нерелевантными, в конечном итоге активирует правильное слово как часть распознавания слов в нейронной сети.

Физиологический фон

Мозг

Используя позитронно-эмиссионную томографию (ПЭТ) и связанные с событием потенциалы, исследователи расположены две отдельные области в веретенообразной извилине, которые специально реагируют на цепочки букв. Задняя веретенообразная извилина реагирует на слова и не слова, независимо от их семантического контекста. На переднюю веретенообразную извилину влияет семантический контекст, а также то, являются ли комбинации букв словами или псевдословами (новые сочетания букв, имитирующие фонетические соглашения, например shing). Эта роль передней веретенообразной извилины может коррелировать с более высокой обработкой концепции и значения слова. Обе эти области отличаются от областей, которые реагируют на другие типы сложных стимулов, таких как лица или цветные узоры, и являются частью функционально специализированного вентрального пути. В течение 100 миллисекунд (мс) после фиксации слова область левой нижневисочной коры обрабатывает его поверхностную структуру. Семантическая информация начинает обрабатываться через 150 мс и демонстрирует широко распространенную активацию корковой сети. Через 200 мс происходит интеграция различных видов информации.

Точность, с которой читатели распознают слова, зависит от области сетчатки, которая стимулируется. Чтение на английском языке выборочно тренирует определенные области левого гемиретина для обработки этого типа визуальной информации, что делает эту часть поля зрения оптимальной для распознавания слов. По мере того, как слова уходят из этой оптимальной области, точность распознавания слов снижается. Благодаря этой тренировке эффективная нейронная организация развивается в соответствующем левом полушарии головного мозга.

саккадические движения и фиксации глаз

Глаза совершают короткие незаметные движения, называемые саккадами примерно от трех до четырех раз в секунду. Саккады разделяются фиксациями — моментами, когда глаза неподвижны. Во время саккад зрительная чувствительность снижается, что называется подавлением саккад. Это гарантирует, что большая часть восприятия визуальной информации происходит во время фиксации. Однако во время саккад лексическая обработка продолжается. Время и точность распознавания слов зависят от того, на каком месте слова в данный момент фиксируется взгляд. Распознавание происходит быстрее и точнее всего при фиксации в середине слова. Это происходит из-за снижения остроты зрения, которое возникает из-за того, что буквы расположены дальше от фиксированного места и их становится труднее увидеть.

Эффекты частоты

Эффект частоты слов предполагает, что слова, которые чаще всего встречаются в печатном языке, легче распознать, чем слова, которые встречаются реже. Эти слова распознаются быстрее и точнее, чем другие слова. Эффект частотности слов — один из самых надежных и наиболее часто описываемых в современной литературе эффектов распознавания слов. Он сыграл роль в развитии многих теорий, таких как форма бумы. Кроме того, эффект частоты соседства утверждает, что распознавание слов происходит медленнее и менее точно, когда у цели есть ортогональный сосед, который по частоте выше, чем он сам. Ортографические соседние слова — это слова одинаковой длины, которые отличаются только одной буквой этого слова.

Реальные приложения

Межбуквенный интервал

Шрифты с засечками, например: шрифты с небольшими придатками на конце штрихов, затрудняют лексический доступ. Распознавание слов выполняется быстрее при использовании шрифтов без засечек в среднем на 8 мс. Эти шрифты имеют значительно больший межбуквенный интервал, и исследования показали, что реакция на слова с увеличенным межбуквенным интервалом была быстрее, независимо от частоты и длины слов. Это демонстрирует обратную зависимость между длительностью фиксации и небольшим увеличением межбуквенного интервала, скорее всего, из-за уменьшения латерального торможения в нейронной сети. Когда буквы расположены дальше друг от друга, более вероятно, что люди сосредоточат свои фиксации на начале слов, тогда как расстояние между буквами по умолчанию в программном обеспечении для обработки текстов способствует фиксации в центре слова.

Инструменты и измерения

И ПЭТ, и функциональная магнитно-резонансная томография (фМРТ) используются для изучения активации различных частей мозга, когда участники выполняют задания, основанные на чтении. Однако магнитоэнцефалография (МЭГ) и электроэнцефалография (ЭЭГ) обеспечивают более точное временное измерение путем записи связанных с событием потенциалов каждую миллисекунду. Хотя определить, где возникают электрические реакции, может быть проще с помощью МЭГ, ЭЭГ является более распространенной формой исследования в области распознавания слов. Потенциалы, связанные с событием, помогают измерить как силу, так и задержку активности мозга в определенных областях во время чтения. Кроме того, сочетая полезность связанных с событиями потенциалов с мониторингом движения глаз, исследователи могут соотносить фиксации во время чтения с распознаванием слов в мозгу в режиме реального времени. Поскольку саккады и фиксации указывают на распознавание слов, электроокулография (EOG) используется для измерения движений глаз и количества времени, необходимого для лексического доступа к целевым словам. Это было продемонстрировано исследованиями, в которых более длинные, менее распространенные слова вызывают более длительную фиксацию, а более мелкие, менее важные слова могут вообще не фиксироваться при чтении предложения.

Обучение

Согласно веб-сайту LINCS, роль распознавания слов приводит к различиям между привычками взрослых и привычками детей, обучающихся чтению. Для неграмотных взрослых, обучающихся чтению, многие больше полагаются на распознавание слов, чем на фонетику и анализ слов. Плохие читатели с предварительными знаниями о целевых словах могут распознавать слова и делать меньше ошибок, чем плохие читатели без предварительных знаний. Вместо того, чтобы смешивать звуки отдельных букв, взрослые учащиеся с большей вероятностью распознают слова автоматически. Однако это может привести к ошибкам, когда похожее по написанию, но другое слово ошибочно принимается за знакомое читателю. Подобные ошибки считаются результатом опыта и воздействия учащегося. Более молодые и новые ученики, как правило, больше сосредотачиваются на выводах из текста и меньше полагаются на базовые знания или опыт. Бедные читатели с предварительными знаниями используют семантические аспекты слова, тогда как опытные читатели полагаются только на графическую информацию для распознавания слов. Однако практика и повышение уровня владения языком, как правило, приводят к более эффективному использованию сочетания умения читать и базовых знаний для эффективного распознавания слов.

Роль частотного эффекта была в значительной степени включена в процесс обучения. Хотя подход к анализу слов чрезвычайно полезен, многие слова не поддаются обычным грамматическим структурам и легче включаются в лексическую память с помощью автоматического распознавания слов. Чтобы облегчить это, многие эксперты в области образования подчеркивают важность повторения слов. При этом используется частотный эффект за счет увеличения знакомства читателя с целевым словом и, таким образом, повышения скорости и точности чтения в будущем. Это повторение может быть в форме флеш-карточек, отслеживания слов, чтения вслух, изображения слова и других форм практики, которые улучшают ассоциацию визуального текста с воспроизведением слов.

Роль технологий

Усовершенствования технологий в значительной степени способствовали прогрессу в понимании и исследованиях в области распознавания слов. Новые возможности распознавания слов сделали компьютерные обучающие программы более эффективными и надежными. Усовершенствованная технология позволила отслеживать саккадические движения глаз человека во время чтения. Это способствовало пониманию того, как определенные модели движения глаз увеличивают распознавание и обработку слов. Кроме того, изменения могут быть одновременно внесены в текст, находящийся за пределами области внимания читателя, без ведома читателя. Это предоставило больше информации о том, на чем фокусируется взгляд, когда человек читает, и где находятся границы внимания.

С помощью этой дополнительной информации исследователи предложили новые модели распознавания слов, которые можно запрограммировать в компьютеры. В результате компьютеры теперь могут имитировать то, как человек будет воспринимать язык и новые слова и реагировать на них. Эта технология продвинулась до такой степени, что модели обучения грамоте могут быть продемонстрированы в цифровом виде. Например, теперь компьютер может имитировать процесс обучения ребенка и вводить общие языковые правила, когда ему предлагается список слов с ограниченным количеством объяснений. Тем не менее, поскольку универсальная модель еще не согласована, возможность обобщения моделей распознавания слов и их моделирования может быть ограничена.

Несмотря на отсутствие консенсуса относительно параметров в проектах моделирования, любой прогресс в области распознавания слов полезен для будущих исследований относительно того, какие стили обучения могут быть наиболее успешными в классах. Также существует корреляция между способностью к чтению, развитием разговорной речи и неспособностью к обучению. Следовательно, достижения в любой из этих областей могут помочь в понимании взаимосвязанных вопросов. В конечном счете, развитие распознавания слов может облегчить прорыв между «обучением чтению» и «чтением для обучения».

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Word recognition, according to LINCS is «the ability of a reader to recognize written words correctly and virtually effortlessly». It is sometimes referred to as «isolated Word Recognition» because it involves a reader’s ability to recognize words individually from a list, that is, without needed similar words for contextual help.^[1] The article continues to say that «Rapid and effortless Word Recognition is the main component of fluent reading» and explains that these skills can be improved by «practic[ing] with flash cards, lists, and word grids».

The article «The Science of Word Recognition» says that «evidence from the last 20 years of work in cognitive psychology indicate that we use the letters within a word to recognize a word». However, it also says that «we recognize words from their word shape [which] modern psychologists call…the ‘Bouma shape'». Other factors such as: Serial Letter Recognition, Parallel Letter Recognition, Saccadic eye movements, and the Linear relationship between letters available in moving window and reading rate also affect the way we recognise words.^[2]
It has been argued that prosody, the patterns of rhythm and sound used in poetry, can improve word recognition.^[3] Word recognition has been described as «an optimal Baysian decision process»^[4]

Word recognition is a manner of reading based upon immediate perception of what word a familiar grouping of letters represents. This process exists in opposition to phonetics and word analysis, as a different method of recognizing and verbalizing visual language (ie. reading).^[5] Word recognition functions primarily on automaticity. Phonetics and word analysis, on the other hand, rely on the basis of cognitively applying learned grammatical rules for the blending of letters, sounds, graphemes, and morphemes.

Word recognition is measured as a matter of speed, such that a word with a high level of recognition is read faster than a novel one.^[6] This manner of testing suggests that comprehension of the meaning of the words being read is not required, but rather the ability to recognize them in a way that allows proper pronunciation. Therefore, context is unimportant, and word recognition is often assessed with words presented in isolation in formats such as flashcards^[5] Nevertheless, ease in word recognition, as in fluency, enables the proficiency that fosters comprehension of the text being read.^[7]

The intrinsic value of word recognition may be obvious due to the prevalence of literacy in modern society. However, its role in the areas of literacy learning, second-language learning, and developmental delays in reading may be less conspicuous. As word recognition is better understood, more reliable and efficient forms of teaching may be discovered for both children and adult learners of first-language literacy. Such information may also benefit second-language learners with acquisition of novel words and letter characters.^[8] Furthermore, a better understanding of the processes involved in word recognition may enable more specific treatments for individuals with reading disabilities.

Several theories have been put forth proposing the mechanisms by which words are recognized in isolation, yet with both speed and accuracy.^[6] While these theories originally suggested a system that recognized words as whole units (ex. Bouma shape), over time, the theories became more focussed on the significance of individual letters and letter-shape recognition (ex. Serial letter recognition and parallel letter recognition).

Theories of word recognition

Bouma shape

Bouma shape, named after the Dutch psychologist Herman Bouma, refers to the overall outline, or shape, of a word.^[9] Herman Bouma discussed the role of “global word shape” in his word recognition experiment conducted in 1973.^[10] Theories of bouma shape became popular in word recognition, suggesting people recognize words from the shape the letters make in a group, relative to each other.^[6] This contrasts the idea that letters are read individually. Instead, via prior exposure, people become familiar with outlines, and thereby recognize them the next time they are presented with the same word, or bouma.

The slower pace with which people read words written entirely in uppercase, or with alternating upper and lower case letters, supports the bouma theory.^[6] It was put forth that a novel bouma shape created by changing the lower-case letters to capitals hinders a person’s recall ability. James Cattell also supported this theory through his study which gave evidence for an effect he called “Word Superiority.” This referred to the improved ability of people to deduce which letters had been shown to them if they were presented for a short period of time within a word, rather than a mix of random letters. Furthermore, multiple studies have demonstrated that misspelled words with similar bouma shape are less likely to be noticed than misspelled words that have a non-matching bouma shape.

Though these effects have been consistently replicated, many of the reasons for them have been contested. Some have suggested that the reduced reading of uppercase words is due to practice effects. People with practice become faster at reading uppercase words, and this counters the importance of the bouma. Also, the effect of word superiority might result from familiarity with phonetic combinations of letters, rather than the outline of the word, according to McClelland & Johnson.^[11]

Parallel processing vs. serial processing

Currently, the most consensus on models of word recognition lies in the model of Parallel Letter Recognition.^[6] In this model, all letters within a group are perceived simultaneously and this information is used for word recognition. In contrast, the serial recognition model proposed that letters are recognized individually, one by one, before being integrated for word recognition. However, this model was rejected because it cannot explain the Word Superiority Effect, which states readers can identify letters more quickly and accurately in the context of a word rather than isolation. The serial recognition model would predict that single letters are identified faster and more accurately than many letters together, as with a word. In fact, according to this model, letters presented in a word would impede individual letter recognition because each letter is attended to one at a time, and in order.

Neural networks of word recognition

A more modern approach to word recognition has been based on recent research on neuron function.^[6] The visual aspects of a word, such as horizontal and vertical lines or curves, are suspected to activate word-recognizing receptors. From those receptors, neural signals are sent to either excite or inhibit connections to other words in a person’s memory. Those words with characters that match the visual representation of the word one is observing, receive excitatory signals. As the mind processes the appearance of the word further, inhibitory signals simultaneously reduce activation to words in one’s memory with a dissimilar appearance. This neural strengthening of connections to relevant letters and words, as well as simultaneous weakening of associations with irrelevant ones, eventually activates the correct word as part of word recognition in the neural network.

Physiological background

Word recognition and the brain

Using PET scans and Event-Related Potentials, researchers have located two, separate areas in the fusiform gyrus that respond specifically to strings of letters. A region of the posterior fusiform gyrus responds to words and non-words, regardless of their semantic context.^[12] Conversely, the anterior fusiform gyrus is affected by the semantic context, and whether letter combinations are words or pseudowords (letter combinations that mimic phonetic conventions, in novel combinations. Ex. shing). This role of the anterior fusiform gyrus may correlate to higher processing of the word’s concept and meaning. Both of these regions are distinct from areas that respond to other types of complex stimuli, such as faces or colored patterns and are part of a functionally specialized ventral pathway. Within 100 ms of fixating on a word, an area of the left inferotemporal cortex processes its surface structure. Semantic information begins to be processed after 150 ms, and shows widely distributed cortical network activation. After 200ms, the integration of different kinds of information occurs.^[13]

The accuracy with which words are recognized is dependent on the area of the retina receiving stimulation.^[14] Reading in English selectively trains specific regions of the left hemi-retina for processing of this type of visual information, making this part of the visual field optimal for word recognition. As words drift from this optimal area, word recognition accuracy declines. Because of this training, effective neural organization is developed in the corresponding left cerebral hemisphere.^[14]

Saccadic eye movements, fixations and word recognition

Eyes make brief, unnoticeable movements called saccades approximately three to four times per second.^[15] Saccades are separated by fixations, which are moments when the eyes are not moving. During saccades, visual sensitivity is diminished, which is termed saccadic suppression. This ensures that the majority of the intake of visual information occurs during fixations. Lexical processing does, however, continue during saccades. The timing and accuracy of word recognition relies on where in the word the eye is currently fixating. Recognition is fastest and most accurate when fixating in the middle of the word. This is due to a decrease in visual acuity that results as letters are situated farther from the fixated location, and become harder to see.^[16]

Frequency effects

The frequency effect suggests that words which appear the most in printed language are easier to recognize than words which appear less frequently.^[17] Recognition of these words is faster and more accurate than other words. The word frequency effect is one of the most robust and most commonly reported effects in contemporary literature on word recognition, and has played a role in the development of many theories such as the bouma shape.

The neighborhood frequency effect is that word recognition is poorer (ie, slower and less accurate) if the target has an orthographic neighbor that is higher in frequency than itself. Orthographic neighbors are words of all the same length that can be created by changing one letter of that word.^[17]

Real world applications

Interletter spacing

Serif fonts, ie: fonts with small appendages at the end of strokes, hinder lexical access. Word recognition is quicker on average by 8ms with Sans-Serif fonts.^[18] These fonts have significantly more interletter spacing, which is in line with studies in which responses to words with increased interletter spacing were faster, regardless of word frequency and length.^[19] This demonstrates an inverse relationship between fixation duration and small increases in interletter spacing.^[20] This is most likely due to a reduction in lateral inhibition in the neural network.^[18] When letters are farther apart, it is more likely that individuals will focus their fixations at the beginning of words, whereas default letter spacing on word processing software encourages fixation at the centre of words.^[20]

Tools and measurements

Both positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) are used to study activation of various parts of the brain while participants perform reading-based tasks.^[21] However, magnetoencephalography (MEG) and electroencephalography (EEG) provide more accurate temporal measurement, by recording event related potentials each millisecond. Though identifying where the electrical responses occur can be easier with MEG, EEG is a more pervasive form of research in word recognition. Event-related potentials help measure both the strength and the latency of brain activity in certain areas during readings. Furthermore, by combining the usefulness of event-related potentials with eye movement monitoring, researchers are able to correlate fixations during readings with word recognition in the brain during real-time. Since saccades and fixations are indicative of word recognition, electrooculography (EOG) is used to measure eye movements and the amount of time required for lexical access to target words. This has been demonstrated by studies in which longer, or less common, words induce longer fixations, and smaller, less important words, may not be fixated on at all while reading a sentence.

Learning and word recognition

According to the Literacy Information and Communication System (LINCS) website, the role of word recognition results in differences between the habits of adults and children learning how to read.^[5] For non-literate adults learning to read, many rely more on word recognition than on phonics and word analysis. Poor readers with pre-existing knowledge concerning the target words can recognize words and make fewer errors than poor readers with no prior knowledge.^[22] Instead of blending sounds of individual letters, adult learners are more likely to recognize words automatically.^[5] However, this can lead to errors when a similarly-spelled, yet different word, is mistaken for one the reader is familiar with. Errors such as these, are considered to be due to the learner’s experiences and exposure. Younger and newer learners tend to focus more on the implications from the text, and rely less on background knowledge or experience. Poor readers with prior knowledge utilize the semantic aspects of the word whereas proficient readers rely on only graphic information for word recognition.^[22] However, practice and improved proficiency tend to lead to a more efficient use of combining reading ability and background knowledge for effective word recognition.^[5]

The role of frequency effect has been greatly incorporated into the learning process.^[5] While the word analysis approach is extremely beneficial, many words defy regular grammatical structures, and are most easily incorporated into the lexical memory by automatic word recognition. To facilitate this, many educational sources highlight the importance of repetition in word exposure. This utilizes the frequency effect by increasing the reader’s familiarity with the target word and thereby improving both future speed and accuracy in reading. This repetition can be in the form of flashcards, word-tracing, reading aloud, picturing the word, and other forms of practice that improve the association of the visual text with word recall.^[23]

Role of technology in word recognition

Improvements in technology have greatly contributed to advances in understanding and research in word recognition. New word recognition capabilities have made computer-based learning programs more effective and reliable.^[5] Improved technology has enabled eye-tracking, to monitor individuals’ saccadic eye movements while they read. This has furthered understanding of how certain patterns of eye movement increase word recognition and processing. Furthermore, changes can simultaneously be made to text just outside the reader’s area of focus, without the reader being made aware. This has provided more information on where the eye focusses when an individual is reading, and where the boundaries of attention lie.

With this additional information, researchers have proposed new models of word recognition, which can be programmed into computers. As a result, computers can now mimic how a human would perceive and react to language and novel words.^[5] This technology has advanced to the point where models of literacy learning can be digitally demonstrated. For example, a computer can now mimic a child’s learning progress and induce general language rules when exposed to a list of words and only a limited number of explanations. Nevertheless, as no universal model has yet been agreed upon, the generalizability of word recognition models and its simulations may be limited.^[24]

Despite this lack of consensus regarding parameters in simulation designs, any progress in the area of word recognition is helpful to future research regarding which learning styles may be most efficacious in classrooms. Correlations also exist between reading ability, spoken language development, and learning disabilities, therefore advances in any one of these areas may assist understanding in inter-related subjects.^[25] And ultimately, the development of word recognition may facilitate the breakthrough between “learning to read” and “reading to learn.”^[26]

See also

• Associative processes
• Human information storage
• Phonological awareness
• Reading skills
• Recognition (learning)
• Semantic memory
• Sight vocabulary
• Speech perception
• Word recognition rate

References

Further reading

References

• Bouma, H., & Bouwhuis, D. (1979). Visual word recognition of three-letter words as derived from the recognition of the constituent letters. Perception & Psychophysics, 25(1), 12-22. Retrieved from http://alexandria.tue.nl/repository/freearticles/734512.pdf

• Campbell, J. R., Kelly, D. L., Mullis, I. V. S., Martin, M. O., & Sainsbury, M. (2001). Framework and specifications for pirls assessment 2001 . (2nd ed., p. 6). Chestnut Hill, MA, USA: International Study Center, Lynch School of Education, Boston College. Retrieved from http://timssandpirls.bc.edu/pirls2001i/pdf/PIRLS_frame2.pdf

• Davis, S. B., & Mermelstein, P. (1980). Comparison of parametric representations for monosyllabic word recognition in continuously spoken sentences. IEEE Transactions on Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, 28(4), 357-366. Retrieved from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=1163420&tag=1

• Everson, M. E. (2011). Word recognition among learners of chinese as a foreign lanugage: Investigating the relationship between naming and knowing. The Modern Language Journal, 82(2), 194-204. Retrieved from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1540-4781.1998.tb01192.x/pdf

• Grainger, J. (1990). Word frequency and neighborhood frequency effects in lexical decision and naming. Journal of Memory and Language, 29, 228-244. Retrieved from http://sites.univ-provence.fr/wlpc/pagesperso/grainger/pubpdf/Grainger-90.pdf

• Hauk, O., Davis, M. H., Ford, M., Pulvermuller, F., & Marslen-Wilson, W. D. (2006). The time course of visual word recognition as revealed by linear regression analysis of erp data. NeuroImage, 30, 1383-1400. Retrieved from http://www.mrc-cbu.cam.ac.uk/people/matt.davis/personal/pubs/hauk_neuroimage2006.pdf

• Irwin, D. (1998). Lexical processing during saccadic eye movements. Cognitive Psychology, 36(1), 1-27.

• Kruidenier, K. (2002). Research-based principles for adult basic education reading instruction (Contract no. ED-01-PO-1037). Retrieved from National Institute for Literacy website: http://lincs.ed.gov/publications/pdf/adult_ed_02.pdf

Larsen, K. (2004, July). The science of word recognition. Advanced Reading Technology, Microsoft Corporation, Retrieved from http://www.microsoft.com/typography/ctfonts/wordrecognition.aspx

• Literacy Information and Communication System. (n.d.). Print skills (alphabetics). Retrieved from http://lincs.ed.gov/readingprofiles/MC_Word_Recognition.htm

• Luckner, J. L., & Urbach, J. (2012). Reading fluency and students who are deaf or hard of hearing: Synthesis of the research. Communication Disorders Quarterly, 33(4), 230-241. doi: 10.1177/1525740111412582

• McClelland, J. L., & Johnston, J. C. (1977). The role of familiar units in perception of words and nonwords. Perception & Psychophysics, 22(3), 249-261. Retrieved from http://psych.stanford.edu/~jlm/papers/PublicationFiles/73-79_Add_To_ONLINE_Pubs/McClellandJohnston77TheRoleofFamilUnitsInPercept.pdf

• Mishkin, Mortimer, Forgays, & Donald, (1952). Word recognition as a function or retinal locus. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 43(1), 43-48.

• Moret-Tatay, C., & Perea, M. (2011). Do serifs provide an advantage in the recognition of written words?. Journal of Cognitive Psychology, 23(5), 619-624. Retrieved from http://www.uv.es.login.ezproxy.library.ualberta.ca/~mperea/serif_JCP.pdf

• Nazir, T. A., Heller, D., & Sussman, C. (1992). Letter visibility and word recognition: The optimal viewing position in printed words. Perception and Psychophysics, 52(3), 315-328.

• Nobre, A., Truett, A., & McCarthy, G. (1994). Word recognition in the human inferior temporal lobe. Nature, 372(17), Retrieved from http://www-cogsci.ucsd.edu/~coulson/cogs179/nobre-nature.pdf

• Perea M, Gomez P.(2012) Subtle Increases in Interletter Spacing Facilitate the Encoding of Words during Normal Reading. PLoS ONE 7(10): e47568. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0047568

• Pereaa, M., Moret-Tataya, C., & Gomezc, P. (2011). The effects of interletter spacing in visual-word recognition. 137(3), 345-351. Retrieved from http://www.sciencedirect.com.login.ezproxy.library.ualberta.ca/science/article/pii/S0001691811000758

• Priebe, S. J., Keenan, J. M., & Miller, A. C. (2010). How prior knowledge affects word identification and comprehension. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, Retrieved from http://link.springer.com.login.ezproxy.library.ualberta.ca/article/10.1007/s11145-010-9260-0/fulltext.html

• Ranum, O. (1998). Paul saenger’s «space between words». Retrieved from http://www.ranumspanat.com/html pages/saenger.html

• Scarborough, H. S. (2009). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities: Evidence, theory, and practice. In F. Fletcher-Campbell, J. Soler & G. Reid (Eds.), Approaching difficulties in literacy development: Assessment, pedagogy and programmes (1 ed., pp. 23-38). Retrieved from http://books.google.ca/books?hl=en&lr=&id=sfKpsYBGX2MC&oi=fnd&pg=PA23&dq=reading delays and language&ots=rwlKKbBdkp&sig=CfBJDpub7IyfHyf9Et6B9TlpZNk

• Sereno, S. C., & Rayner, K. (2003). Measuring word recognition in reading: Eye movements and event-related potentials. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 7(11), 489-493. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2003.09.010

Last Updated:
13 Apr 2023
— Updated example sentences

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1. Word recognition

   Word recognition, according to Literacy Information and Communication System (LINCS) is «the ability of a reader to recognize written words correctly and virtually effortlessly». It is sometimes referred to as «isolated word recognition» because it involves a reader’s ability to recognize words individually from a list without needing similar words for contextual help. LINCS continues to say that «rapid and effortless word recognition is the main component of fluent reading» and explains that these skills can be improved by «practic[ing] with flashcards, lists, and word grids».
   In her 1990 review of the science of learning to read, psychologist Marilyn Jager Adams wrote that «the single immutable and nonoptional fact about skilful reading is that it involves relatively complete processing of the individual letters of print.» The article «The Science of Word Recognition» says that «evidence from the last 20 years of work in cognitive psychology indicates that we use the letters within a word to recognize a word». Over time, other theories have been put forth proposing the mechanisms by which words are recognized in isolation, yet with both speed and accuracy. These theories focus more on the significance of individual letters and letter-shape recognition (ex. serial letter recognition and parallel letter recognition). Other factors such as saccadic eye movements and the linear relationship between letters also affect the way we recognize words.An article in ScienceDaily suggests that «early word recognition is key to lifelong reading skills». There are different ways to develop these skills. For example, creating flash cards for words that appear at a high frequency is considered a tool for overcoming dyslexia. It has been argued that prosody, the patterns of rhythm and sound used in poetry, can improve word recognition.Word recognition is a manner of reading based upon the immediate perception of what word a familiar grouping of letters represents. This process exists in opposition to phonetics and word analysis, as a different method of recognizing and verbalizing visual language (i.e. reading). Word recognition functions primarily on automaticity. On the other hand, phonetics and word analysis rely on the basis of cognitively applying learned grammatical rules for the blending of letters, sounds, graphemes, and morphemes.
   Word recognition is measured as a matter of speed, such that a word with a high level of recognition is read faster than a novel one. This manner of testing suggests that comprehension of the meaning of the words being read is not required, but rather the ability to recognize them in a way that allows proper pronunciation. Therefore, context is unimportant, and word recognition is often assessed with words presented in isolation in formats such as flash cards Nevertheless, ease in word recognition, as in fluency, enables proficiency that fosters comprehension of the text being read.The intrinsic value of word recognition may be obvious due to the prevalence of literacy in modern society. However, its role may be less conspicuous in the areas of literacy learning, second-language learning, and developmental delays in reading. As word recognition is better understood, more reliable and efficient forms of teaching may be discovered for both children and adult learners of first-language literacy. Such information may also benefit second-language learners with acquisition of novel words and letter characters. Furthermore, a better understanding of the processes involved in word recognition may enable more specific treatments for individuals with reading disabilities.

How to pronounce word recognition?

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Numerology

1. Chaldean Numerology

   The numerical value of word recognition in Chaldean Numerology is: 8

2. Pythagorean Numerology

   The numerical value of word recognition in Pythagorean Numerology is: 9

Examples of word recognition in a Sentence

1. Josh Dunlap:

   His teachers have done an amazing job, they are focusing on his speech and muscle performance; they focus on word recognition and speech and motor skills. His teachers last year (say he improved by) leaps and bounds, they even attributed the change (to) Groot.

2. Shawn DuBravac:

   We’ve had more progress in voice-activated digital assistants in the last 30 months than in the first 30 years, word recognition accuracy has improved from nearly zero percent in the 1990s to 75 percent in 2013 to about 95 percent today — enabling these devices to enjoy immense consumer adoption.

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